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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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n 


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10 


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Bound  with  other  material/ 
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D 
D 


Coloured  pages/ 
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10X  14X  18X  22X 


26X 


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16X 


20X 


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24X 


28X 


32X 


tails 

du 

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The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thanks 
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The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  —^(meaning  "CON- 
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whichever  applies. 

Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
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required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
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1  2  3 


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g4n6roslt6  de: 

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conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
fllmage. 

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papier  est  imprimte  sont  film6s  en  commenpant 
par  la  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
derniJkre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impresslon  ou  d'lllustratlon,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplalres 
orlginaux  sont  fllm6s  en  commenpant  par  la 
premiere  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impresslon  ou  d'lllustratlon  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
•mprelnte. 

Un  des  symboles  sulvants  apparaltra  sur  la 
dernlAre  imago  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbols  — ►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN  ". 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  dtre 
filmAs  A  des  taux  de  rMuction  diffdrents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  an  un  seul  clich6,  II  est  film6  d  partir 
do  Tangle  supArieur  gauche,  de  gauche  A  droite, 
ot  do  haut  on  bas,  on  pronant  lo  nombre 
d'imagos  nAcossairo.  Los  diagrammes  sulvants 
illustront  la  mAthode. 


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EARTH    AND    ITS    I N H k OTfliraiii s| 

NORTH  AMERICA. 


BY 


ElLISfiE  KECLUS. 


EDITED  BY 

A.  H.  KEANE,  B.  A., 

UEHDEB  OF  COnNClL,   ANTHBOP.   INSTITUTE;    COR.    MBMB.   ITALIAN   AND  WASBINOTOM   ANTHROP.   SOC. ; 


AUTBOB   OF   "ASIA,"    KTO. 


VOL.  III. 

THE  UJS^ITED  STATES. 


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ILLUSTRATED  BY  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS  AND  MAPS. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

1,   8,   AND    5    BOND    STREET. 
1893. 


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Copyright,  1803, 
By  D.  APFLETON  AND  COMPANY. 


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CONTENTS. 


CBAP. 

I.  General  SimTEy. 


1-20 


Extent — Physical  Conformation — Natural  Divisions,  p.  1.  Geographical  Exploration 
—Surveys— Cartography,  p.  o.  Broad  Physical  Features —Natural  and  Political 
Frontiers,  p.  13.  Lacustrine  and  Marine  Waters,  p.  16.  Climatic  and  Botanical 
Zones,  p.  18. 

II.  Inhabitants— Indioenocb  and  Fobeion  Elements 21—68 

Prehistoric  Eaoes— The  Mound-builders,  p.  21.  The  Redskins,  p.  22.  Tribes  and 
Nations — The  Algonquian  Family,  p.  36.  The  Iroquoian  or  Wyandottian  Family, 
p.  37.  The  Muskhogean  and  Natchesan  Families,  p.  39.  The  Dakotan  or  Siquan 
Family,  p.  41.  Athapascan  and  Columbian  Groups,  p.  42.  The  Shoslionean  and 
Caddoau  Families,  p.  43.  The  Moqui,  Yuman,  and  Piman  Families,  p.  44.  The 
Pueblos  Indians  and  Cliff-dwellers,  p.  46.  The  Southern  Athapascan  Families, 
p.  48.  Foreign  Settlers,  Whites  and  Blacks,  p.  48.  The  Makers  of  Virginia,  p.  61. 
The  Makers  of  New  England— The  Pilgrim  Fathers,  p.  53.  The  Peopling  of  New 
York  and  Neighbourinjf  Colonies,  p.  fi3.  The  Peopling  of  the  Carolinas  and  Central 
States,  p.  65.  The  Settlement  of  the  Mississippi  Basin  and  the  Far  West,  p.  66. — 
The  Irish,  p.  60.  The  Germans,  p.  60.  The  French,  Franco-Canadians,  Scandina- 
vians, and  Italians,  p.  63.  The  Negi-o,  p.  64.  The  Chinese,  p.  67.  The  Anglo- 
American  Race— Problems— Prospects,  p.  68. 


III.  The  Affaijiohiaks  Ain>  the  Atlantic  Slope 


69—106 


Tlie  Catskills,  p.  74.    The 


1.  The  Appalachians,  p.  69.    The  Adirondacks,  p.  73. 
AUeghanies,  p.  75. 

2.  Rivers  of  the  Atlantic  Slope,  p.  81.  The  Hudson  Basin— Lakes  George  and 
Champlain,  p.  83.  The  Delaware,  p.  86.  The  Susquehanna,  p.  87.  The  Potomac, 
p.  88.  The  James  and  other  Southern  Rivers  flowing  to  the  Atlantic,  p.  89.  The 
Atlantic  Seaboard— Glaoiation — Cape  Cod,  p.  89.  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Delaware  Coastlands,  p.  92.  Chesapeake  Bay— Southern  Coastlands— Dismal  Swamp, 
p.  94.  The  Peninsula  of  Florida— Coraline  Formations,  p.  96. — The  Gulf  Stream, 
p.  100. 

3.  Climate — Flora  and  Faima,  p. 
Fauna,  p.  100. 


101.      Appalachian  Flora,  p.  103.     Appalachian 


IV.  States  and  Towi«  of  the  Atlaniio  Slope 

1.  Maine,  p.  107.    2.  NewHampehire,p.  112.    3.  Vermont,  p.  113.    4.  Massachusetts, 
p.  114.     6.  Rhode  Island,  p.  128.     6.  Connecticut,  p.  131.      7.  New  York,  p.  136. 


107-198 


S^^^ 


IV 


anir. 


CONl'ENTS. 

8.  Now  Jprsoy,  p.  l.W.  0.  Poiinsylvnnia,  p.  150.  10.  Mnrylnnd,  p.  108. 
U.  Diiluwaro,  p.  171.  1-'.  Tlio  Fcdmil  DiNtriit  of  Coliimlnii,  p.  171.  13.  Viixinia, 
p.  175.  14.  North  Carolina,  p.  181.  15.  South  Carolina,  p.  185,  10.  Ooor(fia, 
p.  188.     17.  Florida,  p.  lU'J. 


MM 


199—207 


V.  The  OitRAT  Lakkh  and  MissiKSirin  Basin 

Kdicf  of  the  Land,  p.  19!).  Ancuont  Ghiciern.  liaken,  and  Uivors,  p.  203.  Present 
IIydro)j:riiphio  SyHtomH,  p.  207.  The  MiHsistNippi-MiHsouri  HyMtora,  p.  210.  The 
South  Texan  IUver»— The  Rio  Orando,  p.  2)0.     Climate,  Ilora,  and  Fauna,  p.  253. 

VI.  States  and  Towns  of  the  Mibsissippi  Babin 268—351 

1.  \VoHt  Virginia,  p.  268.  2.  Ohio,  p.  269.  3.  Indiana,  p.  270.  4.  Illinois,  p.  278. 
5.  Michigan,  p.  288.  6.  Wisoandn,  p.  292.  7.  Kontueky,  p.  298.  8.  Tennessee, 
p.  300.  9.  Alabama,  303.  10.  Mississippi,  p.  307.  11.  Minnesota,  p.  311.  12, 
13.  The  Two  Dakotiis,  p.  316.  14.  Iowa,  p.  318.  15.  Nebraska,  p.  321.  16. 
Missouri,  p.  324.  17.  Kansas,  p.  329.  18.  Arkansas,  p.  332.  19,  20.  Indian 
Territory  and  Oklahoma,  p.  335.     21.  Louisiano,  p.  338.     22.  Texas,  344. 


VII.  The  Rocky  Mottntains  and  Pacific  Slope 352—421 

Relief  of  the  Land,  p.  352.  The  North-Eastem  Border  Ranges— The  Yellowstone 
Park,  p.  353.  The  Had  Lands— the  Black  Hills,  p.  369.  The  Black  Mountains  and 
Front  Range,  p.  361.  The  Continental  Divide— Uintah  and  Wasatch  Ranges, 
p.  369.  Volcanic!  Agencies— the  Great  Basin,  p.  372.  The  Western  Border  Ranges— 
The  Cascades— Mount  Shasta,  p.  376.  The  Sierra  Nevada,  Yosemite  Valley,  p.  380. 
The  Goldtields— the  Coast  Range,  p.  383.  Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Closed  Basins,  p.  3S6. 
Tlie  Columbia  Basin,  p.  387.  The  Saoraraeiito  and  Colorado  Basins,  p.  393.  Closed 
Basins— Great  Salt  Lake,  p.  401.     Climate,  p.  412.     Flora  and  Fauna,  p.  416. 

VIII.  States  and  Cities  of  the  Rocky  Moitniains  and  Pacific  Slope      ....    422 — 443 

1.  Montana,  p.  422.  2.  Idaho,  p.  424.  3.  Wyoming,  p.  425.  4.  Colorado,  p.  426. 
5.  Utah,  p.  429.  6.  New  Mexico,  p.  430.  7.  Arizona,  p.  435.  8.  Nevada,  p.  436. 
9.  Washington,  p.  437.     10.  Oregon,  p.  438.     11.  California,  p.  440. 

IX.  Social  aot)  Matepial  Condition  of  the  United  States 444—484 

Population,  p.  444.  Immigration,  p.  449.  The  Indians  and  Negroes,  p.  451.  Land 
Tenure  and  Agriculture,  p.  456.  Forestry- Stock-breeding— The  Fisheries,  p.  46'.. 
The  Mining  Industry,  p.  462.  Manufactures,  p.  467.  Trade  —  Highways  of 
Communication- Navigation,  p.  469.  Public  Instruction- Religion,  p.  473. 
Government  and  Administration,  p.  477. 

Appendix— Statistical  Tables 485- -496 


Iin>EX 


497 


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LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MAPS    PRINTED    IN    COLOURS. 


United  States  (East) 

Lingmstic  Stocks  of  American  Indiana 

MiHttidsippi  Delta     .... 


PAOB 

1 

40 
248 


United  States  (West) 
San  FranuiHoo  Bay  . 


VAaa 

3fi8 
440 


PLATES. 


-View  taken  from  the 


The  Capitol,  Washington  .         .        Frontispiece 

The  High  Plateau  Region  of  Utah— the  Pink 
Cliffs  and  the  Upper  Valley  of  the  Virgin 

To  face  page 

San  Francisco  Bay — View  taken  from  the  City 

Indian  Encampmoiit  in  a  Reserve    . 

Kiii-vav-it  or  Kaibab  Women,  Pah-Ute  Nation 

A  Street  in  the  Chinese  Quarter,  San  Fran 
cisco ....... 

The  Catskill  Mountains- 
Hudson    .... 

West  Point  and  the  Hudson  Ilis-er 

Harpers  Ferry 

General   View    of    Boston,    taken    from 
Common 

General  View  of  New  York 

lirooklyn  Bridge,  seen  from  New  York 

Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia 

Richmond — View  taken   at  the  James 
Rapids      ..... 

General  View  of  Savannah 

Banks  of  the  Sabine 

Cincinnati  Bridge    .... 

Illinois 


the 


River 


74 

84 
88 

118 
142 
144 
160 


176 
190 
250 
274 
278 


General  View  of  Cliicago         .         To  face  page  284 

Views  in  Alabama 304 

Scenery  in  Minnesota 312 

General  View  of  Saint  Paul     .         .        .         .314 

General  View  of  Omaha 322 

Saint  Louis  Bridge 328 

New  Orleans — View  taken  on  the  Levee  .  .  340 
The  Mammoth  Terraces,  Yellowstone  National 

Park 356 

Excelsior  Geyser,  Yellowstone  Park         .         .  358 

Mount  Shasta 378 

The  Green  River  Cafion 396 

Source  of  the  Kanab  Wash      .         .        .         .398 

Views  in  Montana 422 

General  View  of  Salt  Lake  City  .  .  .  430 
Gteneral  View  of  Santa  F6,   Capital  of  New 

Mexico 432 

Silver,  in  the  Nevada  Silver-mining  District  .  436 

Street  View  in  San  Francidco  ....  438 
View  of  the  Seal-Rocks  from  the  ' '  Cliff  House, ' ' 

San  Francisco 442 

Cowboys 460 

Mining  by  the  Hydraulic  Process  in  North 

Bloomfield,  Nevada  .        .        ,        ,        ,  40^ 


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i 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


no. 
1. 

2. 

3. 
4. 
6. 
(1. 
7. 
8. 

0. 
10. 
II. 
12. 
13. 
14. 

ir.. 

16. 

17. 

18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

2S. 
26. 

27. 


28. 
29. 

30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 

35. 

3fl. 
37. 
38. 
39. 

40. 
41. 


to 


SucocRHivo  Growth  of  the  United  Statcn 
New    KiikIiiiicI     St'iibourd,    act^urding 

Luoiiii  (1(131  f)  .... 
Liiko  ( 'hainiiliiin,  acoordinnf  to  Anger 
Liiko  Chiim])luin,  H<^i!ordiiig  to  Colvin 
IVowmt  Statflof  United  StatcMToiMigraphy 
ZonoH  of  Altitude  of  the  United  HtateN 
Geological  FonnationH  of  the  UnitiHl  states 
Nortli  Atlautio  and  Mcxiuan  Gulf  CoaHt 

landrt 

iHothcmialH  of  the  United  States 

Great  Botahic^l  ZoneHof  the  United  StatoH 

Indian  FortifluatiouH  at  Muriotta 

Group  ok  Pimo  Indians  (Auizona) 

An  Goal  ALLAH  Chihf 

The  Gamk  ok  Wolk  and  BiiAR 

Manitou  iHlauda 

Frontier  of  the  Iroquois  Nation  after  tlio 

Cession  of  Canada  to  Knglaiid 
Aborigines  Kast  of  the  Mississippi  iu  tlie 

10th  Century 
Yuma  Indian    .... 
Indian  Populations  West  of  the  Mississippi 
PuKHLO  OF  Taos 
First    French    and    Spanish    Colonies  in 

Florida 

Tire    Old    Cathedral,    St.    Avoustine 

Florida 

French    Inland    Colonies    in    the     18th 

Century         .... 
Axis  of  the  Appalachian  System  south  of 

the  Sus<iuohunna    .... 
Adirondack  Mountains 
The  Great  Shenandoah  Valley  . 
Generalised    Transverse    Section    of    the 

Appalachian      Mountains     in      Ponn 

sylvania         ..... 
Harper's  Ferry  Gorge 
South  Front  of    the  Old  New   England 

Glaciers  .... 

"  Prow  "  of  Cape  Cyd 
Sandy  Hook       .... 
North  Carolina  Sandbanks 
Peninsula  of  Florida 
Successive  Displacements  of  the  Agonic 

Lino 

A  View  of  the  White  Moxintains, 

New  Hahfshiue  .... 
Kames  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire 
Maiiie        ...... 

Portland 

Parallel  Islands  and  Peninsulas  north-cast 

of  Portland    .... 
White  Mountains 
Salem  and  Lynn 


PtOI 

4 

0 

8 

8 

II 

13 

18 

17 
1 9 
20 
23 
27 
29 
33 
'So 

38 

40 
45 

47 
49 

50 

51 

65 

70 
74 
70 


78 
88 

90 
91 
93 
96 
98 

103 

105 
108 
109 
110 

111 
112 
117 


no. 

42.  Boston 

43.  Boston  Harbour         .... 

44.  Plymouth  and  Duxbury    . 

45.  Cape  Cod 

40.  Martha's  Vineyard    .... 

47.  Fall  River 

48.  Holyoke  Gorge  .... 

49.  Providence 

50.  Newport 

51.  Now  London 

62.  New  Haven       ..... 
53.  Hudson-Mohawk  Confluence 

64.  Lakk  Gkorof. 

65.  Tub  New  Cai'itol  at  Albany 

60,  The  Catskills 

67.  Successive  Growth  of  New  York 

58.  Huffalo 

59.  Lakes  of  the  In>quois  before  the  Settle 

inent  of  the  Land 

60.  Cape  May 

61.  Barnegat  Bay 

62.  General  View  of  Mauoii  Chunk   . 

03.  Penn  Wami'um  Belt        ... 

04.  Philadelphia 

65.  GETTYsiiimo  Cemetery;  Graves  of  Name 

LESS  Soldi  KRa        .... 

66.  Oil  and  Natural  Gas  Region 

07.  Pittsburg 

08.  Baltimore  .... 

09.  Washington      .... 

70.  Scene  of  the  Civil  War  in  Virginia 

71.  ToiiAcco:   Drying  the  Plamts 

72.  Entrenched  Camp  at  Richmond  during  the 

CivU  War      . 

73.  Chesapeake  Bay 

74.  Hampton  Roads 

75.  Jamestown  Island 

76.  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth 

77.  Charleston 

78.  Beaufort    . 

79.  Sherman's  March 

80.  Atlanta      . 

81.  Saviinnah  . 

82.  The  Florida  Reefs      . 

83.  Key  West. 

84.  The  Lacustrine  Region,  Florida 

85.  Banks  of  the  Silver  Sprinq,  Florida 

86.  Pensacola 

87.  Great  Silurian  Basin,  Tennessee 

88.  Regions  formerly  covered  by  the  Northern 

Ice-cap  ..... 

89.  Old  Lake  Erie  Ontario      . 

90.  Drumlins  of  Wisconsin 

91.  Mouths  of  the  Appalachicola     . 

92.  Eroded  Plateaux  of  the  Upper  Cooaa 


PAUI 

118 
121 
123 
124 
125 
120 
127 
129 
131 
133 
134 
130 
137 
139 
140 
142 
140 

161 
164 
155 
157 
159 
101 

165 
106 
167 
169 
173 
176 
177 

178 
180 
181 
182 
183 
186 
187 
189 
190 
191 
193 
194 
195 
197 
198 
201 

204 
206 
206 
208 
209 


'*u>«w^W'^'.'ia?»'Mi>j,ti!isiijSgjMffta4^'fe^;*,,,.;„^^^^^^^^ 


PAUI 

118 
121 
123 
124 
12S 
120 
127 
120 
131 
133 
134 
136 
137 
liiO 
140 
142 
140 

161 
154 
155 
167 
150 
101 

165 
166 
167 
160 
173 
176 
177 

178 
180 
181 
182 
183 
180 
187 
189 
190 
191 
193 
194 
195 
197 
198 
201 

204 
205 
206 
208 
209 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIOXfl. 


VII 


wa.  PAoa 

03.  8<mrooH  of  thn  MIhhUhIppI         .         .         .  212 

04.  Lnkfi  ItiiMiik 213 

06.  H*i.vr   Antiidnt  Fai.u,   Missmaii-pi         .  216 
IMl.  Kill   (..    tliii    IlliiioiH    KivtT    before    the 

Fouiulittidii  of  (Jliicii^;!)           .         .         .  216 

97.  Till,  riir.'.!  Korku  of  the  Mi«»<.uri      .         .  217 

98.  Oiitxof  tho  Itookii'rt  itiiil  MiiNoiiri  FhUh    .  2tH 
tio.  Tim  (iuKAT  Fall,  Ykllowhtonk  Vam.ky  219 

100.  Two  OcMMiii  I'uMM 221 

101.  Mi'iiiiili'i-in^i   1111(1    Falw)    Uivura  u^    the 

MiNHouri  lit  Att^hiHun     .         .         .         ,  223 

102.  Uoiiii  MoiiiitiiiiiN 227 

103.  Mi'otiiix  of  tlu)  WiittifH  in  tho  Contro  of 

thu  MisNiMNippi  Vulloy    .         ,         .         ,  229 

104.  Sunkmi  LuikIh 230 

106.  Guidon  of  tho  Arkansan    ....  232 

106.  Upi)«r  Viilloy  of  tho  Ouniidiim  Rivor        .  233 

107.  lliNHiHHippi-ArkiiiiMjiH  CoiitluoiKie     .         .  235 

1 08.  WiiiiliugH  of  thu  MiitMiiMtippi  ubuvo  Groeu- 

villo 236 

109.  «  Cut8-off  "  of  tho  MiHsiiMippi  at  the  Red- 

River  Conttuonoo           ....  237 

110.  F1o(k1<'(1   Ui'g'ion   between    tho  Arkaniuvs 

and  Ytuoo 241 

111.  MiHHiHMippi  Alluvia 242 

112.  Steam  Furhy  on  tub  Mississippi  .        .  243 

113.  Tho  South  Piiwj 245 

114.  MiHHidHippi- MiHHOuri  llitsiu       .         .         .  240 

116.  DlHohargo   of    tho    MiaHistiippi    aud    its 

Affluents 248 

lie.  MissisMippi  Delta  at  Different  Epochs      .  249 

117.  SourooH  of  tho  Rio  Grande        .         .         .251 

118.  Hi ouths  of  tho  Rio  Grande       .         .         .  2J2 

1 19.  Range  of  Forosta  in  the  Central  Region  .  269 

120.  Mississippi    Boeneey  ;   View  taken  at 

Fort  Snellino 261 

121.  Pine  Barrens  of  the  Mississippi  Basin      .  203 

122.  Gradual  Disappearance  of  the  Bison        .  266 

123.  Sandusky 271 

124.  Toledo 272 

126.  Thk  Oil  Industby — Petboleum  Wells  .  273 

126.  Cincinnati 275 

127.  Chleago 280 

128.  Stbeet  View,  Chicago  .        .        .        .281 

129.  Chicago  Wateb-wobks,  Lake  Michigan  283 

130.  Detroit 290 

131.  Madison 294 

132.  Fond  du  Lac  and  Green  Bay    .        .         .'  295 

133.  Thb  Devil's  Lake,  Wisconsi.v       .        .  297 

134.  Louisville 299 

135.  Chattanooga 302 

130.  Memphis 303 

137.  Birmingham  and  its  Mineral  Region        .  304 

138.  Mobile 306 

139.  Cotton:   the  Plant,   the  Bloom,   the 

Boll— Picki.no,  Ginning,  Pbessino       .  307 

140.  Vioksburg  and  Shiftings  of  the  Missis- 

sippi        309 

141.  Natchez 310 

142.  Dniuth  and  Superior  City        .         .         .  313 

143.  Minneapolis  and  Saint  Paul     .         .         .  314 

144.  Council  Bluffs  and  Omaha       .         .         .  320 

145.  View  taken  in  the  Bad   Lands,  Ne- 

BBA8KA 323 


Fin.  rtai 

14(1.  MlHitoiiri-Ni'liraiika  Contlucnno          ,         .  324 
147.  The  Two  Kiiiimin  (.'itios    ,                   .         .331 

14H.   Hot  Spring 333 

149.  Van  Hiirin  and  Fort  Smith               .         .  334 

150.  Oklahoma  and  Imliaii  Territory  in  1802  .  33>) 

151.  Ciikuoki:k  I.siiiA.v 337 

162.  iNthmuN  of  New  Orleans  ....  340 

163.  Now  Orleunn 342 

154.  Valuiy  ok  tur  Rio  Gbandb  del  Nobtb  347 

166.  Galveston SJH 

I61I.  AuHtin 350 

167.  YellowHtono  Lako  and  the  Ooysers  .         .  364 

168.  YELLowsroNB      Lake  —  Fishing      ano 

Cookino 357 

169.  Firehoto  River  Valley      ....  368 
160.  Laramie  Plain 362 

101.  I'ike's  Peak 363 

102.  North  Park 304 

103.  South  Park 30« 

104.  Ocato  and  its  Lava-fleldM          .         .         .  3ij; 

1 05.  Unoompahgro  I'lateau  and  Siudbad  Valley  308 

106.  Grand  Mesa 371 

107.  Sttu  Franoisco  Peak          ....  372 

108.  BujFK  o.v    THE    Gbeen    Rivbb  at  the 

Uppbb  End  of  the  Gband  CaRon       .  373 

109.  Groat  Lava-stroam  of  the  Malpais  .         ,  374 

170.  Parallel  Ranges  of  the  Utah  Plateau       .  375 

171.  Rocky  Mountains  Sobnery— Tub  Tubeb 

Tetons  of  Utah 377 

172.  Mount  Shasta 379 

173.  Yosemite  Valley 382 

174.  Pugot  Sound 386 

175.  Missouri-Columbia  Divide       .         .         .  388 
170.  The  Columbia— Viaw  takln  at  the  Foot 

OP  Mount  Hood 389 

177.  Mouth  of  the  Columbia    ....  392 

178.  Sources  of  the  Colorado  ....  394 

179.  The  Mabble  CaNon,  C''i-v.:ado  Rivbb    .  395 

180.  Grand  Caiion 398 

181.  Section  of  tho  Rio  Virgen        .         .         .  399 

182.  New  Lake  in  the  1  /oahuila  Valley    .         .  400 

183.  River  Basins  of  thi  West         .         .         .401 

184.  Old  Bonneville  Lake        .         .         .         .403 

185.  Old  River  between  the  Two   Basins  of 

Lake  Bonneville 404 

186.  Bear  Lake 405 

187.  Oscillations  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake          .  406 

188.  Pybamid  Lake,  Nevada         .        .        .  407 

189.  Mud-flats  aud  Quagmires  of  the  Old  Lake 

Lahontan 408 

190.  Lake  Tahoe  and  Lacustrine  Plains  of  the 

Old  Lake  Lahontan       .         .        .         .410 

191.  Lake    Mono    and    its    Glaciers    in    the 

Quaternary  Epoch         .         .         .         .411 
192   Abizona  Landscape — Wax  Cactus  and 

Yuccas 417 

193.  Forests  of  the  West         .         .         .         .419 

194.  Denver 428 

196.  Leadville  and  the  Sources  of  the  Arkansas  429 

196.  Sdnhise  in  the  American  Fobk  CAf)oN, 

Utah 431 

197.  Rio  Grande  Valley  in  the  Centre  of  New 

Mexico 432 

198.  Laud  of  the  Zu&i  Indians        .                 .  433 


J 


Vlll 


M8T  OP  iFxrflrriATioNa 


rill. 

MM). 

'JUU. 

•m. 

'211 1. 

•i06. 


206. 


207. 


208. 

209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 

214. 

2lfi. 
210. 
217. 
218. 

ai9. 


'Hio  ChiOly  Oiifton  .... 
Thh  "Caitaimh,"  Oheu.t  Ca^o-t,  Aui 

eoNA 

Vlriflnlft  City 

I'urtlaiul,  On'gr)a  .... 
Ijom  AiiM'i'li'M  ..... 
Hiiii  l)ii'^i)  ..... 
Compiinitivn   riu-nviop  nl    I'opiiliition  in 

thii  UnlU'il  Mut<>H,   ISriuit    liritaiii,   hikI 

Fniiioo  ...... 

DiNtrihution   of    tliu   ropulution   of    thu 

HtotoH    nci'onlin^    tu    tho    Dcffriina  of 

liDIIM'itUlll) 

DiHlribtitioti  of  thn  I'o]iiiliition  of  thu 
NtiituK  ucoiiriliiix  to  tho  Dogruoa  of 
Latituilo 

DoiiNity  of  thi)  I'oixiliition  at  the  Begin- 
nliig  of  tho  Ci'iitury       .         .         .         . 

Ddiinity  of  tho  ropiilutiou  iu  18»0   . 

MiddloHboroiigh       .         .         .         .         . 

Hri'iui  of  tho  Civil  War    .... 

HtrciiniH  of  Immigration  .         .         .         . 

]!)noah)-uknt  in  tub  Alkalinb  Vallbt, 
Black  lliujt        .        .        .        .        . 

Gunnun  Inuuigratiou  tu  tho  States  in 
1880 

Sioux  Reservea 

Blaulc  Zone  in  tho  Unitwl  iStatoij 

lIouitB  OF  Nbouo  Fauily  in  Flobida 

TowTiHhipH  in  I  own  ..... 

iLAarjcariNo  Wueat  in  tub  Wain  . 


m 

437 
430 
442 
443 


44S 


440 


no. 


231. 

222. 

223. 
224. 
225. 
220. 
227. 

228. 


220. 

447 

230. 

448 

231. 

4IU 

4.50 

232. 

4:>i 

462 

233. 

234. 

4d3 

235. 

4.34 

230. 

4.-56 

237. 

4o0 

4.57 

238. 

468 

450 

Cotton    Crop  ol    th«  Unititd  Htntftx    Iu 

IHHO 

Milling  Oporutiona  at  Forcat  Hill,  Hinm 

Nf>vii(lfi  ...... 

Oolil,    MIviT,    (jiiirkMilvcr,    mill   Cii))pi<r 

Bliiii'N  of  till!  Tniti'il  Htuti'a     . 
Kowci'iiiiw  I'riiiiiHiilii 
Aiilhriu'itii  Hogiou  in  Ponnnylvauia 

CoAi,  Minimi 

Output  of  ()o:il  m  thn  I'nitiwl  Mtattia 
Nt'twork  of   lljiilwaya  in  tho  VVcat  of  thn 

United  HUitc«,  1880        .... 
Network  of  Ilailwaya  in  tho  Euat  of  tho 

Uiiitod  HtatoH,  I  HHO        .... 
Tiiiio  Zonim  in  tho  llniteil  Httttca 
Hi'giilar  [jinoa  of  StcamurN  ronvergiiig  ou 

Now  York,  181)1 

Cnicf   UnivuraitioH  unil   (^uUugoa  in    the 

Unitod  Htiitoa 

Mormon    iStittlonionta,    Utah    Lako    and 

Jordan  Valloy        ..... 
DiviHiim  of  lowu  into  Countioa 

8UAKHL.K8    IN    TkxAS  .  .  .  . 

Diviaion  of  tho  Unitod  Ktatoa  into  8tatoa 
and  TiTfitorina 

Mount  Dom^rt  Inland        .... 

Lifeboat  Ututiona  on  tlie  Maaaaohuaetta 
Cooat 

Coiiiparativo  Table  of  tho  Material  C<jn- 
dition  of  tho  Unitod  IStutoa  and  other 
Toweri 


nan 

400 

403 

404 
40.) 
400 
407 
408 

470 

471 

472 

473 

474 

470 
477 
470 

480 
482 

483 
484 


*'l'>'Miin.m. 


MM 

4(10 

403 

464 
464 
406 
407 

4  OH 

470 

471 
472 

473 

474 

470 
477 
479 

480 
483 

483 


484 


7hrin""'i?iwTMiiiii";  l<iWi  mi  I 


ijiiili"   ''j;^™---n-«»p-i»il«rTiiirni-«ll»Wl»— — w 


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.ilL;l|li,,J     J.iiiiumiilinH  IHIjffWinHyi      1^1111    l)iui     in    ;  ,|i  .rpii     ,  ibupkh. 


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'»"l'H»1j«l|ilil 


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I  'ipwn  ft^g!i'jf^<^gi£'m 


Ct»i>,ifiHV^ 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS. 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

general  survey. 
Extent,  Physical  Conformatiox,  Natural  Divisions. 

HE  section  of  North  America  comprised  between  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  on  the  north  and  Mexico  on  the  south-west  neither  has, 
nor  could  have,  any  special  geographical  name,  for  with  the 
conterminous  regions  it  constitutes  an  indivisible  physical  whole. 
Even  the  purely  political  expression,  "  United  States  of  America," 
by  which  it  is  indicated,  might  also  be  claimed  by  Mexico,  or  any  of  the  other 
groups  of  federal  states,  though  they  are  all  so  immeasurably  surpassed  by  the 
Anglo-Saxon  republic  in  all  the  elements  of  national  greatness  that  such  a  claim 
on  their  part  could  scarcely  be  taken  seriously. 

In  common  parlance  the  whole  territory  is  simply  designated  as  the  "  United 
States,"  as  if  there  were  no  other  powers  to  which  such  a  title  might  also  be 
applied.  Nor  is  there  any  danger  of  possible  confusion  between  the  United  States, 
so  called  in  a  pre  eminent  sense,  and  whatever  analogous  confederations  may  exist 
in  the  rest  of  the  world.  Their  extent,  population,  enterprising  spirit  and  material 
progress  place  the  Untied  States  on  such  a  lofty  pedestal  that  the  use  of  this  terra 
can  give  rise  to  no  misunderstandings.  The  word  "  America  "  itself,  employed 
alone  without  any  special  qualification,  is  also  perfectly  understood  from  New 
York  to  San  Francisco,  and  even  throughout  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  as  applied 
in  this  exclusive  sense  to  the  great  English-speaking  commonwealth.  That  the 
other  inhabitants  of  the  twin  continent  have  an  equal  right  to  be  regarded  as  citizens 
of  the  New  World  is  not  even  present  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker.  The  citizen  of 
the  United  States  calls  himself  "American,"  as  if  his  "manifest  destiny"  were  to 

9r 


i\- 


THE  UNITEI/  STATES. 


absorb  tho  whole  continent,  and  ho  would  ho  greatly  surprised  were  the  Canadian, 
the  Mexican,  or  the  Guatemalan  to  assume  the  same  title  in  conversing  together. 

During  the  short  period  of  little  more  than  a  century  since  they  have  taken 
tbieir  place  amongst  independent  nations,  the  Americans  have  enlarged  their  bounds 
so  greatly  that  the  name  of  the  land  has  been  successively  applied  to  geographical 
spaces  varying  enormously  in  extent.  In  1776,  when  the  revolted  provinces  pro- 
claimed their  independence  of  the  mother  country,  the  "  United  States,"  then 
numbering  tliirteen,  from  New  Hampshire  to  Qeorgiu,  were  mainly  confined  to  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  stretching  westwards  beyond  the  Appalachian  range  only  to  the 
shores  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  and  to  the  wooded  banks  of  the  Ohio.  The 
struggle  was  almost  exclusively  restricted  to  the  part  of  the  maritime  lands  com- 
prised betwaon  Massachusetts  Ray  and  the  entrance  to  Chesapeake  Bay.  The 
territory  of  the  new  power  might  at  that  time  have  been  estimated  at  370,000 
square  miles,  less  than  one-eighth  of  its  present  extent  exclusive  of  Alaska. 

In  1783,  the  treaty  of  peace  which  recognised  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  also  considerably  increased  the  area  of  the  region  detached  from  the 
British  Colonial  empire,  for  the  cession  comprised  not  only  the  domain  already 
occupied  by  the  whites,  but  also  several  western  tracts  still  held  by  the  prairie 
Indians.  On  the  north  the  official  limit  was  made  to  coincide  with  the  river 
Saint-Croix,  which  still  marks  the  frontier  between  New  Brunswick  and  the  North 
American  republic.  Southwards  the  maritime  zone  surrendered  by  Great  Britain 
was  bounded  by  the  two  Florldas,  at  that  time  still  belonging  to  Spain. 

But  beyond  the  points  specially  determined  by  the  treaty,  the  frontiers  of  the 
circumscribed  territory  remained  in  places  very  uncertain.  Thus  the  line  of  demar- 
cation towards  the  Canadian  provinces  that  had  remained  loyal  to  the  British  Crown 
could  not  yet  be  traced  along  its  entire  length,  because  it  traversed  regions  that 
liad  not  been  thoroughly  explored.  Nevertheless,  it  was  understood  that  this  line 
beyond  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  of  the  Woods  reached  the  Mississippi  at  some 
point  below  its  source.  In  accordance  with  this  hypothesis  it  had  been  agreed  that 
the  course  of  thio  river  should  form  the  western  boundary  of  the  United  States  as 
far  as  31°  north  latitude,  that  is,  as  far  as  Louisiana.  The  space  thus  ceded  by 
England  comprised  about  447,000  square  miles ;  in  other  words  it  more  than 
doubled  the  extent  of  territory  actually  occupied  by  the  colonists. 

In  1803  tho  territorial  domain  of  the  United  States  was  a  second  time  doubled 
by  the  cession  of  liouisiana,  which  the  French  Government  agreed  to  surrender  for 
the  sum  of  16,000,000  dollars.  Under  this  name  of  "  Louisiana,"  however,  the 
two  contracting  parties  nnderstood  an  indefinite  space  without  precise  limits.  In 
fact,  the  expression  was  applied  in  a  general  way  to  the  whole  of  the  Mississippi 
slope  west  of  the  main  stream. 

Despite  the  antiquity  of  her  rights  of  occupation,  and  the  base  of  operations 
afforded  by  the  possession  of  the  neighbouring  island  of  Cuba,  Spain  also  had  to 
yield  to  the  same  political  necessity,  and  in  1819  surrendered  the  peninsula  of 
Florida  for  5,000,000  dollars.  Henceforth  the  North  American  republic  embraced 
all  the  northern  seaboard  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  east  of  the  Sabine. 


:ec 


GROWTH  OP  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


3 


The  interpretation  of  the  treaties  concluded  with  Great  Britain  contributed  in 
their  turn  to  tlie  expansion  of  United  States  territory.  Of  the  two  rival  powers 
the  fates  could  not  fail  to  favour  the  one  whose  domain  increases,  so  to  say,  spon- 
taneously by  colonisation  and  which  needs  only  to  wait  for  the  "  accomplished 
facts"  which  are  sure  to  tell  on  her  side.  Thus  in  1842  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  American  state  of  Maine  was  made  to  include  the  upper  St.  John  basin, 
which  according  to  the  English  view  was  certainly  left  to  Canada  by  the  terms 
of  the  original  treaties. 

Again  in  1846  the  frontier  which  by  the  treaty  of  1783  had  been  laid  down 
as  far  as  the  central  depression  of  the  continent,  and  which  in  1818  had  been 
defined  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  in  a  straight  line  along  49°  north  latitude  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  was  continued  along  this  parallel  all  the  way  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  United  States  thus  acquired  the  lower  course  of  the  Columbia  River 
and  the  whole  of  the  Snake  River  basin,  although  these  lands  had  been  discovered 
by  Canadian  trappers  in  the  service  of  the  fur  companies,  which  were  after- 
wards merged  with  the  great  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  although  Vancouver 
had  taken  formal  possession  of  all  the  seaboard  in  the  name  of  England  after 
having  surveyed  Juan  de  Fuca  Strait  and  Puget  Sound.  On  the  other  hand  the 
dangerous  bar  that  obstructs  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  which  had  already 
been  surveyed  by  the  Spanish  navigator,  Heceta,  in  1775,  had  been  first  crossed 
in  1792  by  Gray,  a  Boston  skipper  flying  the  American  flag.  He  also  gave  the 
name  of  Columbia  to  this  river,  which  had  previously  figured  on  the  maps  as  the 
San  Roque.  The  negotiations  ended  by  the  surrender  of  this  disputed  territory 
by  the  British  diplomatists. 

There  remained  only  the  doubtful  point  regarding  the  little  San  Juan 
Archipelago,  which  lies  between  the  British  island  of  Vancouver  and  the  mainland. 
This  also  was  settled  in  favour  of  the  United  States  in  1872  by  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  to  whose  decision  the  question  had  been  referred. 

Far  more  important,  both  in  the  extent  and  value  of  the  annexed  regions,  have 
been  the  encroachments  of  the  North  American  republic  on  the  domain  of  her 
southern  neighbour,  the  Mexican  Confederacy.  A  first  slice  had  been  appro- 
priated iu  1835,  when  the  vast  territory  of  Texas  was  detached  and  constituted 
an  independent  commonwealth  by  the  American  planters  who  had  settled  in  the 
country  with  their  slaves.  Ten  years  later  they  contrived  to  get  their  state 
annexed  to  the  American  Union,  and  the  two  conterminous  republics  became 
involved  in  war  by  this  substitution  of  the  American  for  the  Mexican  suzerainty. 

The  disparity  of  forces  was  too  great  for  Mexico  to  hold  out  any  length  of 
time,  and  in  1848  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  secured  to  the  United  States 
the  possession  of  New  Mexico,  of  the  Colorado  basin,  the  Utah  plateau,  and 
California.    _ 

Even  this  vast  acquisition,  the  value  of  which  was  unknown  to  the  conquerors 
themselves,  but  which  gave  them  over  800  miles  of  frontage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
did  not  seem  enough,  and  five  years  later  they  purchased  another  strip  of 
Mexican   territory  south  of  the  river   Gila,  on   the   ground  that  it  was  indis- 


;^v 


4 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


])cii.«aI»lo  for  tlie  t'onstruction  of  a  future  railway.  In  point  of  fact,  one  of  tlio 
United  States  transcontinental  lines  actually  traverses  this  tract,  which  was  at 
first  known  as  "  (Jadsden  "  from  the  name  of  its  purchaser,  or  of  Masilla  from  one 
of  its  western  districts;  later  it  was  divided  between  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

Since  these  vast  acquisitions  on  the  Mexican  frontier  the  United  States  have 
made  no  further  encroachments  on  the  conterminous  northern  and  Bouthern  lands ; 
nor  have  they  annexed  any  of  the  West  Indies,  which  had  been  assigned  to  them 
by  80  many  false  prophets.     Eut  at  the  north-west  extremity  of  the  continent 

Fig.  1.— SuooKssivK  Growth  of  the  United  States. 
Scale  1  :  7fi,000,000. 


m    Enulish  Colonies,  1760,         Q3J  Territory  ceded  by  Oreat  Britain  to  the  independent  States,  1783. 
Q  Louisiana,  imi.    ^  Florida,  1810.     {S3  Texas,  184S.     £9  ^<"^  °'  Toxks  ceded  by  the  State  to  the  Union  in  1880. 
■H  North  Maine,  1842.     W>  Oregon,  IMS.    @   N.  Mexico,  Catifomja,  1848.    jr^  Bio  Gila,  1853.     (^   Alaska,  1867. 

Q3    8.  JTkan  Archipelago,  1873. 


1,250  Miles. 


their  territorial  empire  was  increased  by  the  purchase  of  the  immense  but  at  the 
time  almost  unknown  region  of  Alaska,  in  1867.  This  outlying  Russian  posses- 
sion, formerly  known  as  Russian  America,  was  sold  to  the  States  by  its  master, 
the  Czar  of  all  the  Russias,  for  the  sum  of  7,200,000  dollars. 

Hitherto  the  occupation  of  this  boundlesss  region  of  forests,  mountains, 
tundras,  ice  and  snows,  has  been  of  no  economic  importance.  But  in  the  eyes  of 
many  politicians  the  sale  of  Alaska  has  been  regarded  as  a  recognition  on  Russia's 
part  of  the  principle  of  United  States  suzerainty  over  the  American  continent, 
and  especially  as  a  hint  to  Great  Britain,  still  suzerain  of  Canada. 


.  I'l J  TOwiC  <■  ii 


Bflil; 


GEOGRAPHICAL  EXPLORATION,  5 

Alaska  adds  about  an  additional  577,000  square  miles  to  the  domain  of  tlio 
United  States,  the  central  maws  of  which  forms  a  vast  quadrilateral,  comprised 
between  the  two  oceans  east  and  west,  Canada  on  the  north,  the  Mexican  (Julf 
and  plateau  on  the  south.  Within  these  limits  the  republic  comprises  a  super- 
ficial area  of  3,020,000,  and,  including  Alaska  and  the  American  portion  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  of  3,668,000  square  miles,  or  more  than  thirty  times  that  of  the 
British  Isles,  more  than  five-sixths  of  Europe,  and  the  sixteenth  part  of  all  the 
dry  land  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

Subjoined  is  a  table  of  the  growth  of  United  States  territory,  with  approxi- 
mate estimates  of  its  extent  at  various  dates : —  ^^^^ 

in  K).  mileii. 

The  ori^rinal  colonies  (exolufiive  of  the  trans- AUogh.-tny  lands)     ,        .        .  370,000 

Territory  ceded  by  Great  Britain  in  1783  (exclusive  of  Great  Lakes)  .         .  447,000 

Louisiana,  bought  from  France  in  1803 922.000 

norida,  bought  from  Spain  in  1819 69,000 

North  Maine,  ceded  by  England  in  1842 10,000 

Oregon  Territory,  ceded  by  England  in  1846 260,000 

Texas,  annexed  in  1846       .         .       ' 376,000 

New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  and  California,  ceded  by  Mexico  in  1848       .  546,000 

The  Gadsden  purchase  from  Mexico  in  1853 46,000 

Alaska,  bought  from  Russia  in  1867            577,000 

San  Juan  Archipelago,  coded  by  England  in  1872 600 

Tutal  (exclusive  American  portion  of  Groat  Lakes)  .        .         .  3,602,600 


inisao. 
ika,  1867. 


fc  the 
losses- 
aster, 

tains, 
res  of 
issia's 
iueut, 


Geographical  Exploration — Surveys — Cartography. 

What  is  now  true  of  Alaska  is  equally  true  of  the  United  States  as  a  whole, 
that  the  peaceful  or  enforced  annexation  of  the  various  regions  constituting  the 
republic  was  made  long  before  those  regions  were  explored,  or  even  known  in 
their  more  salient  geographical  features.  Hence  great  efforts  were  needed  to  place 
this  section  of  North  America  on  a  level  with  Plurope  as  regards  the  scientific 
study  of  its  soil  and  climate.  To  fully  appreciate  the  results  already  achieved,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  ten  generations  have  not  yet  passed  since  the  first 
civilised  whites  established  themselves  on  the  lands  that  now  form  the  inheritaijice 
of  the  American  republic. 

Doubtless  the  Norse  navigators  in  the  year  1000  coasted  the  shores  of  Vinland 
("  "Wineland  "),  a  region  which,  by  Rafn,  Zohl,  D'Avezac  and  other  early  commen- 
tators, has  been  identified  with  the  present  Massachusetts,  and  which,  in  any  case, 
must  have  been  situated  somewhere  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Other  visits 
probably  followed  this  discovery  ;  but  the  records  of  those  times  are  too  inter- 
woven with  legendary  matter  to  yield  any  clear  or  certain  evidence  to  the 
historical  student.  The  existence  of  Yinland's  wooded  and  inhabited  seaboard 
is  the  only  geographical  fact  placed  beyond  all  doubt  by  the  Norse  mariners. 

The  first  exploratim\s  along  the  shores  and  in  the  territory  of  the  present 
United  States,  after  the  decisive  discoveries  of  Columbus,  Cabot  and  the  other 
pioneers,  had  at  least  the  immense  advantage  of  giving  substance  to  the  vague 
visions  of  contemporary  geographers.  But  our  knowledge  of  those  expeditions  is 
too  summary,  and  the  names  of  places  are  too  difficult  of  identification,  to  enable 
us  now  to  trace  the  itineraries  with  accuracy. 


0 


THE   UNITED   HTATE8. 


Tlio  ex|)l()mti(tnR  rniidiicti'd  l)y  Police  do  Leon,  Vasquez  de  Aylloii,  I'jimphilo 
do  Niirviu'z  in  Florida,  and  afterwardH  by  De  Soto  and  M()S(v).so  us  fur  us  tl;e 
Mississippi,  followed  putldess  uiid  now  nnknown  trueks  across  forests,  swamps  and 
prairies.  From  tlio  {general  description  of  the  country  it  can  be  alone  inferred 
that  the  l\Iissis8ippi  was  crosbed  near  tlio  spot  where  at  present  stands  the  little 
town  of  Helena,  north  of  the  point  where  the  White  and  the  Arkansas  rivers 
join  its  mijijhty  current. 

At  least  as  early  as  the  year  1542  the  western  shores  of  the  region  now 
known  by  the  name  of  California  had  been  surveyed  by  C-'abrillo  as  far  as  Cai>o 

Viit  2.— Nkw  E.sdLAND  Sf.aboaud  accorpino  to  Lucini  (1631  P). 


JQo 


jstf 


Mendocino,  and  the  temperate  lands  of  North  America  henceforth  figured  on 
charts  and  maps  with  contour  lines  differing  little  from  the  reality.  The  essential 
geographical  feature  of  the  interior  of  the  continent  was  traced  by  the  early  French 
explorers,  who  ascended  the  chain  of  the  Great  Lakes  from  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  then  followed  the  course  of  the  Mississippi  down  to  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  were  drawn  the  first  maps, 
on  which  is  roughly  sketched  the  central  hydrographic  system  of  North  America. 
The  districts  near  the  French  settlements  along  the  St.  Lawrence  are  figured  in 
far  greater  detail  and  accuracy  on  the  charts  prepared  by  contemporary  land 
surveyors.     Thus  the  map  of  Lake  Champlain  drawn  by  Anger  in  1748  is  scarcely 


iMiiMiiliiiii^^ 


.iiU'il-iuitfl/wn    , 


OEOOIIAPIIK'AL   KXI'LOKATION.  "7 

inferior  to  ♦hoso  of  tho  sumo  region  und  on  tlio  Baino  noalo  which  are  at  prenent 
ixHuod.  The  settlement  of  the  Athiiitio  maritime  diNtricta  by  KngliNh  und  Dntch 
cohmists  also  contributed  to  u  continually  iiicroii.sing  u,n<l  more  uc<Mirato  know- 
ledge of  the  oiiflintw  of  the  Hcabourd,  aH  well  aw  of  the  googrujihical  feutures  of  tho 
couHtlundH  UH  fur  inland  an  tho  rungen  belonging  to  the  Appaluchiun  Hystom.  In 
tho  year  1(J4'^  tho  MuHHuchuButts  government  commiHHionod  two  "  mathematiciunH" 
to  lay  down  tho  frontierH  of  tho  territory  that  had  been  UNsigned  'o  thai  colony. 

Then  tho  warlike  oxpoditions  agaiiiHt  tho  Kronoh  und  thei-  Indian  allies 
opened  up  tho  regions  beyond  tho  mountains  an  fur  uh  tho  Oreu.  Lukes.  Hut 
geogruphicul  knowledge  udvunced  by  leups  und  bounds  uftor  the  c'(»ho  of  tho  War 
of  Independence,  when  tho  rupid  progress  of  coioniMition  in  the  Ohio  vuUey,  und 
generully  westwards  to  the  Mississippi,  necos.situted  u  vast  system  of  surveying 
operations,  tho  results  of  which  wore  soon  embodied  in  outlino  mups. 

At  the  beginning  of  tho  present  century  the  Americans,  already  musters  of  the 
boundless  territories  comprised  under  the  designation  of  Louisiana,  extended 
their  settlements  and  their  explorations  fur  beyond  the  Great  River.  In  1804, 
Lewis  and  Clarke,  carrying  out  an  enterprise  projected  thirty  years  previously 
by  Carver  and  VVhitworth,  nscendod  to  the  region  about  the  headwaters  of  the 
Missouri,  crossed  tho  pusses  over  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and,  dobcending  into  the 
busin  of  tho  Columbiu,  followed  that  river  to  its  mouth,  which  had  already  been 
discovered  by  Gray  twelve  years  previously. 

In  tho  exploration  of  the  Fur  West,  Lewis  und  Clarke  found  numerous  suc- 
cessors, and  towards  tho  middle  of  tho  present  century  the  orographic  syatem  of 
those  rugged,  storm-swept  regions  was  revealed  in  its  fundumental  outlines. 
Between  the  years  1842  and  1846,  Fremont,  from  whom  one  of  tho  loftiest  peaks 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  has  been  named,  explored  numerous  pusses  in  the  Rocky 
Mountuins  between  the  Colorado  and  Columbia  rivers,  while  Stanley  devoted  him- 
self specially  to  the  Utuh  pluteau  with  its  saline  lakes  and  deserts. 

But  the  systematic  study  of  tho  country  was  first  undertaken  after  the  Mexican 
war  and  the  cession  of  California  to  the  United  States.  Eager  to  survey  the  vast 
expanses  of  which  they  had  become  the  fortunate  possessors,  the  Americans 
organised  scientific  expeditions  as  early  as  the  year  1853,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
covering the  best  routes  for  a  transcontinental  railway ;  with  these  explorations, 
whose  object  was  mainly  economical,  were  naturally  associated  scientific  studies 
on  the  geology,  hydrography,  natural  history,  fossils,  antiquities  of  the  surround- 
ing regions,  as  well  as  of  the  local  tribes  and  their  migrations. 

This  immense  work  of  exploration  throughout  all  the  lands  beyond  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  especially  west  of  the  meridian  of  100°  west  longitude,  has  been  carried 
on  at  great  expense  by  the  various  scientific  departments  attached  to  the  depart- 
ments of  war  and  of  the  interior,  and  by  the  agents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
Moreover,  a  general  Geological  Survey  of  the  United  States  has  grown  out  of  a 
geological  and  geographical  survey  of  the  west,  which  began  its  operations  in  1867 
with  the  study  of  the  recently  organised  state  of  Nebraska.  Despite  differences 
between  the  material  organisation  and  the  staff  of  officials,  despite  a  certain  friction 


8 


TOE  UNITED  STATES. 


botwoon  tlio  (i(>partinontul  officiTu  iiiul  tho  in<>n  on^iigtxl  in  conducting  the  pritctioal 
work,  tho  ()i)oriit  ions  have  huon  none  tliu  1cm  continued  iix  a  whole,  and  liuvo  f^ivon 
birth  to  a  prodif^ious  collection  of  documcntH  methodically  cluNHiiied  and  undoubtedly 
furuiing  tbu  richcHt  Hpeciul  libriiry  in  tho  world.     AHHociutcd  with  this  vuHt  under- 

Fign.  3  ttnd  4.— Lake  Uiumi'laix,  aocorix.no  ru  Anoke  and  Coltim. 

■wU  I :  !i,(iOii,ou). 
Axnaii.  rni.vii. 


r*Ct<ambly 
r.S>.  Jimo 


S"ThtrM« 


'g>n»«w>/ytf 


to  <ft5>/i 


'ortm^ 


73*i5- 


.^IJ,! 


/3'i5 


80MU6a. 


taking  are  the  names  of  Whipple,  Marcou,  Emory,  Hayden,  Meek,  Leidy,  Wheeler, 
Gilbert,  King,  Emmons,  Hague,  Powell,  who  have  here  found  the  widest  field  for 
their  activity.  The  general  map  of  the  trans- Mississippi  regions  on  a  scale  of 
1  :  253,440,  in  143  sheets,  each  subdivided  into  four  parts,  is  more  than  half 
finished,  and  contains  a  summary  of  thousands  of  explorations  in  the  Far  West. 


mtMk. 


s. 


TUI'WBAI'IIK'AI.  BUBVEYS.  Q 

Moroovor,  iiitniinrriiMc  mapB  in  j^n'tttor  di'tail  imd  on  viiriouH  walrH  luivo  bron  luul 
iiro  Ihmii^  mldcil  from  yvnr  \o  y«iir  to  tlit>  cxiMtiii^  collcctionH. 

Altliouf>;h  tli<>  Ntati'>4  ciiNt  of  tho  MiNsiKHippi  huvc  In^cn  (xciipitxl  l>y  tlx*  wlulo 
nitin  from  a  dato  far  unlorior  to  that  of  tlit<  coldiiiHation  (,<f  tliu  wuHtt-rn  tcrritorioa, 
thvir  topographic  Hurvcy  in  a  manner  coinparablo  to  that  of  tho  rcgionM  hoyond  tho 
MiMHiKHipt^)!  huH  boon  ])oNtponod  to  a  much  hitor  period.  Tho  tirnt  iittoinpt  niado 
to  obtain  tho  («-iact  moaHiiremont  of  u  dogroo  of  hititii(b<  took  phico  towanU  tho 
middle  of  thu  eigbtoc;  th  contiiry  iti  cotiiioction  with  a  diNpnle  about  fnmtiorH. 
An  agroomeiit  concbidod  bctwoon  I'oniiHylvania  and  M<irylaiid  bud  Htipubilcd  that 
the  di\  ''ling  lino,  iMj^inning  twidve  milus  nurtli-west  of  MuwcuHtlo,  Mhould  run  duo 
west  acro««  (ive  dogruca  of  longitude. 

Tlio  goomotricianH  churgnd  with  this  oporation  were  not  RufTiciontly  instructed 
for  8uch  work,  and  after  long  OHHays,  all  followed  by  failure,  they  had  to  give  »ip 
tho  tawk.  ApptHil  was  then  niiclo  to  Mawon  and  Dixon,  two  Knglisbmcn,  who 
ucconipliNhcd  tho  undertaking.  Hut  tho  wrong  meaHurementH  ])reviously  taken 
had  already  vitiutod  tho  operations  in  principle,  and  numerous  orrorM  were  de- 
tected in  its  execution.  Tho  boundary  laid  down  by  the  two  surveyors  beeume 
fuinouft  under  tho  name  of  "  Muson  und  Dixon's  lino,"  becau8«i  later  it  indicated 
tho  frontier  between  tho  Northern  and  Southern  Stutcs,  that  is  to  Hay,  between  tho 
free  and  slave  states.  It  is  from  tins  circumstance  that  in  popular  language  tho 
iSouthorn  States  aro  often  referred  to  as  "  Dixie's  Land." 

Crude  surveys  made  during  tho  course  of  the  eighteenth  and  tho  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  for  tho  purpose  of  dotcrmlning  tho  boundaries  of  various 
states,  or  of  counties  within  the  states,  also  frequently  gave  rise  to  some  very  (pies- 
tionable  results,  tho  members  of  tho  surveys  taking  no  account  of  the  convcrgcuico 
of  tho  meridional  lines,  and  for  tho  most  part  confusing  the  true  with  tho  mugnotio 
north  pole.  Thus  the  dividing  lino  between  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and 
between  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  which  extends  westwards  for  a  distance  of  t'velve 
degrees  of  longitude,  was  assumed  to  coineido  with  8(»°  JJO'  nortli  latitiulo, .wheruaa 
subsequent  surveys  have  shown  that  it  oscillates  botwoen  3(>°  JU'  and  3G°  36'. 

But  such  errors  led  to  no  serious  consequences,  maps  being  ut  that  time  used 
almost  exclusively  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  political  and  admini- 
strative divisions  between  states  and  counties,  and  to  determine  the  limits  of 
domains  held  by  private  landowners.  Most  of  tho  so-called  "maps"  merely 
contained  the  sumraory  results  of  the  surveying  sheets,  representing  the  con- 
ventional divisions  of  the  land  in  broad  highly-coloured  lines,  regardless  of 
broken  or  level  surfaces,  vertical  relief,  wator-partings  or  fluvial  basins.  Never- 
theless, it  must  be  admitted  that  the  magnetic  chart  of  the  United  States  has  been 
the  object  of  more  serious  studies  and  of  more  thorough  operations  than  that  of 
Europe. 

Such  was  the  dearth  of  serious  topographic  surveys  before  the  Civil  War 
that  Massachusetts,  representing  not  more  than  the  441st  part  of  the  wliole 
republic,  was  the  only  state  which  at  that  time  possessed  a  map  comparable  to 
the   topographic   works  of   West   Europe.      But    "  the   interests    of    trade   and 


§1 


10 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


defence  "  urn;ent1y  demanded  that  at  least  the  coasts  should  be  determined  by 
accurate  geodetic  surveys,  and  this  work,  which  at  first  was  confined  to  the 
detailed  representation  of  the  more  frequented  ports  and  roadsteads,  gradually 
acquired  sufficient  importance  to  serve  as  a  base  for  the  cartography  of  the  whole 
country.  In  fact,  the  staff  of  the  "  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  "  has  already 
nearly  completed  a  minutely  accurate  survey  of  the  seaboard  along  both  oceans 
and  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  has,  moreover,  studied  the  regime  of  many 
of  the  watercourses  as  far  as  the  head  of  navigation,  and  connected  the  triangu- 
lation  of  the  seaboard  with  that  of  the  mountain  ranges.  It  is  even  carrying  the 
chain  of  triangles  inland  towards  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  order  to  form  a  junction 
of  the  surveys  in  the  western  slope  with  those  of  the  Atlantic  coast  at  39°  north 
latitude. 

After  the  successful  development  of  this  great  work,  there  could  be  no  thoughc 
of  shrinking  from  another  vast  undertaking,  that  of  preparing  a  systematic  chart 
of  the  United  States  on  scales  large  enougli  to  represent  topographic  details.  This 
comprehensive  scheme  was  taken  in  hand  by  the  Geological  Survey  in  1 884,  without 
neglecting  its  primary  object,  which  is  to  prepare  the  geological  map  of  the  country. 

About  three  hundred  sheets  issued  before  the  end  of  1891  give  some  idea  of 
the  colossal  character  of  this  undertaking,  which  is  already  completed  in  thirty-six 
sheets  for  New  Jersey,  in  sixty  for  Massachusetts,  and  in  four  for  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park;  a  beginning  has  also  been  made  in  nearly  every  state  of  the  Union. 

The  scale  of  the  general  map  of  the  United  States  varies  with  the  different 
regions,  rising  from  62,500  for  the  more  populous  eastern  provinces  to  125,000  for 
most  of  the  other  States,  and  250,000  for  mountainous  regions.  The  number  of 
sheets  would  exceed  a  hundred  thousand  were  the  whole  national  domain  treated 
with  the  same  detail  as  Massachusetts  and  the  other  Atlantic  states. 

The  plates  already  published  by  the  Geological  Survey  are  of  very  fine  appear- 
ance, and  represent  the  altitudes  very  neatly  by  means  of  levelling  lines  traced 
at  intervals  of  a  hundred  English  feet.  But  compared  with  similar  sheets  published 
in  Europe  they  reveal  a  surprising  poverty  in  local  names.  The  geographical  nomen- 
clature of  the  United  States  is,  in  fact,  extremely  defective,  or,  rather,  it  has  still  (o 
be  formulated.  Nor  could  it  bo  otherwise  in  a  country  which  since  prehistoric  times 
had  been  but  sparsely  peopled,  and  in  which  it  was  impossible  to  hand  on  the 
intellectual  culture  of  the  first  inhabitants  to  the  present  masters  of  the  land. 

In  Italy,  France,  and  Great  Britain  the  names  given  to  localities  thousands 
of  years  ago  still  survive  either  in  their  first  form,  of  which  the  sense  is  not 
always  lost,  or  under  some  new  or  modified  form,  in  harmony  with  the  new  or 
modified  languages.  Many  of  these  names  were  doubtless  forgotten  during 
the  long  succession  of  ages ;  but  they  have  been  successively  replaced  by  others 
drawn  either  from  the  aspect  of  the  land,  or  from  the  nature  of  the  soil,  or  else 
from  some  historic  event  or  local  incident,  all  arising  spontaneously  from  the 
current  speech  of  the  time. 

In  the  United  States  the  conditions  are  different.  A  few  Indian  names,  for 
the  most  part  greatly  mutilated,   have  been  preserved,  either  because  of  their 


"^tt^ 


*.^;<i«;.k 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOMENCLATUKE. 


11 


euphonious  sound,  or  whon  understood  thanks  to  the  poetry  and  uppnipriutencss 
of  the  expression,  or  in  certain  cases  in  virtue  of  the  imposing  aspect  of  the 
sites,  or  of  the  fame  acquired  far  and  wide  by  their  Indian  designation.  IJy  a 
remarkable  contrast,  most  of  the  terms  belonging  to  the  American  languages  have 
been  retained,  not  in  the  Far  West,  but  iu  the  Athmtic  coastlatids,  which  have 
been  longest  settled  by  the  whites,  and  consequently  the  longest  cleared  of  the 
aboriginal  populations.  Moreover,  hundreds  of  such  Indian  terras  in  New  England 
and  the  State  of  New  York  are  still  traditionally  known  or  recorded  by  the  early 
writers,  though  now  replaced  in  the  current  speech  by  English  names. 

The  reason  of  this  rich  inheritance  is  simple  enough.     During  the  early  days 

Fig.  6.— Pbesent  State  of  United  States  Topooraput. 

(<cale  t  :  16,(X)0,OOa 


Coast  SarTey.         Snrreyed  by  otber  oTganinatinnn.       Ooological  Survey,  1  :  62,fi00. 

Geologioal  Survey,  1  :  125,000.  Oenlogical  Surrey,  1  :  !60,000. 

_i___^_^  620  MilCB. 

of  the  colonisation,  the  Europeans,  still  relatively  weak,  were  in  constant  asso- 
ciation with  their  neighbours,  the  Eedskins.  They  had  to  traffic  with  them, 
take  them  as  guides  through  the  western  forests,  sign  treaties  and  conventions 
in  their  wigwams,  learn  to  smoke  the  calumet  of  peace,  while  awaiting  the  day 
when  they  should  be  strong  enough  to  exterminate  or  drive  them  into  the  interior, 
and  reduce  the  few  survivors  to  the  condition  of  abject  slaves.  During  over  two 
hundred  years  of  peaceful  or  hostile  contact  the  white  settlers  had  time  to  learn  a 
great  part  of  the  local  nomenclature,  and,  gradually  acquiring  some  facility  in 
pronouncing  those  strange  names,  they  had  no  occasion  to  replace  them  by  trite 
expressions  borrowed  from  their  own  language. 

In  the  western  regions,  on  the  contrary,  the  white  invasion  was  rapid,  or  oven 


■  a.:'.- 


12 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I 


m 


sudden  ;  after  a  few  sharp  conflicts,  the  Indians  had  cither  to  withdraw  or  allow 
themselves  to  be  penned  up  in  narrow  reserves.  The  two  races  had  but  little 
intercourse  with  one  another,  and  the  Indian  geographical  terminology  remained 
almost  entirely  unknown  to  the  intruders. 

It  was  not  through  the  aborigines,  but  at  least  partly  through  the  Canadian 
voyageurs,  French  or  half- caste,  that  the  immigrants  acquired  their  knowledge  of 
the  Far  "West.  Even  before  being  traversed  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  pioneers,  the 
regions  stretching  beyond  the  Mississippi  to  the  middle  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
were  represented  by  a  map  covered  with  French  terms,  names  of  tribes,  of 
mountains,  rivers,  rocks,  and  plains.  Since  the  settlement  of  the  land  by  Americans 
of  English  speech,  many  of  these  names  have  persisted,  though  at  times  under  a 
strangely  distorted  form.  Thus,  the  river  Cheyenne  and  Cheyenne  City  probably 
recall  the  presence  of  an  ancient  tribe  of  "Chiens"  or  Dogs,  as  they  were  called 
by  the  Canadian  trappers. 

But  the  vast  majority  of  the  names  had  to  be  coined  when  the  bulk  of  the 
settlers  invaded,  the  western  regions.  It  is  not,  however,  in  the  power  of  the 
human  intellect  to  create  a  new  language  spontaneously.  The  Americans,  like 
their  forefathers,  could  do  no  more  than  name  the  new  localities  from  some 
physical  characteristic,  from  reminiscences  of  the  mother  country,  the  memory 
or  glorification  of  persons  ro'^pected  for  their  wealth,  power  or  influence,  or 
else  the  prospect  of  some  future  moral  or  material  triumph. 

But  aptly  to  name  all  the  sites  of  a  region  nearly  as  large  as  Europe  would 
need  an  imagination  of  more  than  ordinary  vividness,  a  singularly  powerful 
memory,  a  rare  depth  of  poetic  feeling ;  and  even  were  the  new  arrivals 
endowed  with  those  exceptional  intellectual  resources,  frequent  repetition  would 
none  the  less  have  still  been  inevitable.  Certain  rounded  crests  naturally 
suggested  to  the  settlers  in  South  Carolina  and  Ohio  alike,  such  epithets  as 
Round  Top  or  Round  Hill ;  in  the  same  way  heights  destitute  of  vegetation  might 
be  called  Bald  Mountain  wherever  met,  while  according  to  the  prevailing  growths, 
eminences  would  take  some  designation  composed  of  such  words  as  Pine,  Laurel, 
Oak,  Chestnut,  Hickory  in  combination  with  various  forms  of  relief,  such  as 
Mount,  Ridge,  Hill,  Height,  Cliff,  Ledge,  Range  and  the  like. 

So  also  every  district  has  its  Deep  or  Flat,  Crazy  or  Lazy,  Muddy,  Rocky  or 
Sandy  River.  Every  city  of  the  Old  World,  whether  vanished  or  still  flourishing, 
had  its  homonym  in  the  New ;  hence  Babylon  and  Memphis,  Canton  and  Delhi, 
Athens  and  Rome,  Troy  and  Syracuse,  Paris  and  London,  some  recurring  more 
than  once.  Patriotic  sentiment  has  often  transferred  the  names  of  places  in  the 
home  country  to  the  new  foundations,  though  the  anticipations  of  the  first  settlers 
have  rarely  coincided  with  the  facts,  the  new  towns  seldom  suggesting  in  their 
careers  the  history  of  the  old  places.  The  Cairo  of  Illinois  resembles  the 
Egyptian  Cairo  only  in  its  ramifying  streams ;  Paris  is  represented  by  a  few 
insignificant  urban  groups,  and  London  has  no  very  formidable  rival  in  the  trans- 
Atlantic  New  London. 

On  the  other  band,  the  Boston,  Baltimore  and  Orleans  of  the  United  Stages  have 


,:yi*  ; 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOMENCLATURE. 


18 


outstripped  their  European  homonj'ms  beyond  uU  standard  of  comparison.  The 
series  of  names  where  the  commonplace  reigns  supreme  is  associated  with  such 
popular  leaders  as  Washington,  Jefferson,  Fayette  or  Lafayette,  Adams  and 
others,  whose  number  is  already  legion. 

The  orthography  of  all  this  perplexing  nomenclature  also  varies  considerably, 
as  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  English  and  American  texts.  In  fact,  the 
spelling  has  not  yet  been  officially  established ;  but  here  custom  decides  tho 
question,  for  it  is  important  to  adopt  some  uniform  system  in  geographical 
writings.     In  the  present  work  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  adhere  to  the  usual 


Fig.  6. — Zones  of  Altitude  op  the  United  States. 

Scale  1 :  48,000,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich, 


Centre  of  Popnlntion. 


Ce.itre  of  the  Territory  (witboat  Alaska) 


as 


or 


0  to  1,600 
Feet 


1,000  4«  8,200 
Feet. 


8,200  to  6,400 
Feet. 


6,400  to  1i>,000 
Feet. 


18,000  Feet 
and  upwards. 


cs 


Below  sea-level. 
I..— .^  6-20  Miles. 


orthography  of  American  documents;     Thus  Egg  Harbor  appears  instead  of  Egg- 
harbour,  Snow  Plow  for  Snow-plough,  Boisd  City  for  Boisie,  and  so  on. 

Broad  Physical  Features. 

The  United  States  occupy  such  a  large  section  of  the  New  World  that  the 
general  description  of  this  vast  region  coincides  almost  with  that  of  North 
America  itself.  Like  the  whole  continent,  the  territory  of  the  great  republic 
presents  a  remarkable  simplicity  of  structure.  Broadly  speaking,  it  consists  of  a 
vast  central  plain  with  a  serpentine  axis  indicated  by  the  course  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  two  outer  rims  represented  by  the  two  orographic  systems  of  the  Appalachians 
on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Eocky  Mountains  with  their  attendant  plateaux  on  the 
Pacific  side. 


_..i-M 


14 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


But  theso  two  sj'stems  arc  disposed  in  different  directions;  while  the 
Appalachian  chains  run  north-cast  and  south-west,  the  Rocky  Mountains  have  a 
general  trend  from  north-west  to  south-cast.  They  also  present  a  marked 
contrast  in  their  respective  dimensions.  The  vast  mountainous  plateau  com- 
prised between  the  llockies  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  both  far  more  extensive 
and  far  more  elevated  than  the  parallel  ridges  of  the  Appalachian  system.  But 
their  geological  study  shows  that  these  eastern  uplands  are  a  mere  vestige  of  what 
they  must  once  have  been.  The  peninsula  of  Florida  at  their  southern  extremity 
is  of  coralline  origin,  and  consequently  constitutes  a  little  world  apart,  or  rather 
belongs  physically  to  the  West  Indian  insular  region.  Excluding  Alaska,  tho 
mean  altitude  of  the  United  States  has  been  estimated  by  Gannett  at  2,500  feet. 

To  the  simplicity  of  structure  corresponds  that  of  the  general  relief  and 
contour  lines.  In  this  respect  tho  United  States  offer  a  striking  contrast  to 
Europe,  whoso  framework,  formed  of  numerous  continental  fragments,  presents 
the  whole  scries  of  geological  formations,  where  the  order  of  succession  is  far 
from  easily  recognised.  Compared  with  this  complexity  the  stratiBcation  of 
the  North  American  continent  is  characterised  by  a  surprisingly  regular  arrange- 
ment. 

The  eastern  section,  which  comprises  the  whole  of  the  Appalachian  region  with 
the  slope  draining  to  the  Great  Ijakes  and  the  St.  L  iwrenco,  consists  of  primitive 
.rocks  and  the  ascending  transitions  up  to  the  carboniferous  formations.  This 
section  may  be  regarded  as  the  foundation  stone  of  the  continent  on  which  were 
developed  the  first  living  organisms. 

West  of  the  archaic  Appalachian  system,  and  as  far  as  the  foot-hills  of  tho 
Rocky  Mountains,  secondary  formations  greatly  prevail  over  all  others.  Lastly, 
the  westerly  section  of  the  States  is  formed  by  a  vast  pedestal  of  crystalline 
rocks,  cropping  out  here  and  there,  and  generally  overlaid  by  secondary  and 
tertiary  strata,  the  former  disposed  in  parallel  chains,  the  latter  consisting  of  plains 
and  closed  basins.  Moreover,  lava  streams  of  enormous  extent  occupy  the  greater 
part  of  the  north-western  territory  in  the  basin  of  the  Columbia,  and  throughout 
the  Oregon  and  Californian  coast  ranges. 

Natural  and  Political  Frontiers. 

Despite  the  symmetrical  delimitation  of  the  United  States  frontiers,  from 
Puget  Sound  to  Lake  Superior,  and  from  the  Californian  seaboard  to  the  course 
of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  the  conventional  limits  coincide  more  closely  than 
might  be  expected  with  the  boundaries  traced  by  nature.  Thus  on  the  north, 
west  coast  the  San  Juan  de  Fuca  channel  and  the  archipelagoes  of  Puget 
Sound,  all  belong  to  the  last  or  southernmost  of  the  long  series  of  north- 
western coast  fjords.  North  of  the  political  frontier  the  marine  shore-line  is 
carved  into  numerous  sounds  and  ramifying  inlets,  and  masked  by  an  outer 
fringe  of  islands  and  islets  extending  all  the  way  to  the  Alaskan  peninsula  and 
the  long  chain  of  the  Aleutian  Archipelago.    \ 

But  south  of  that  frontier  the  coast  assumes  the  aspect  almost  of  a  straight 


Vi 


m 


re 


jm!m^'':''i 


s~ 


THE   SEABOARD. 


15 


lino,  or  ttt  least  is  but  slightly  diversified,  presenting  scarcely  uny  breaks  or 
iadentutions.  The  only  inlet  piercing  the  long  line  of  rocky  cliffs  is  Sun  Francisco 
Buy,  forming  with  its  ramifications  one  of  the  finest  groups  of  harbours  in  the 
world.  This  bay,  however,  cannot  bo  regarded  as  a  true  fjord  like  those  of  the 
Columbian  and  Alaskan  seaboards,  but  rather  as  a  simple  valley  enclosed  by 
parallel  ranges  and  communicating  through  a  narrow  breach  with  the  sea. 

On  the  coast  of  Maine,  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  Unite|d  States,  the 
political  frontier  coincides  less  closely  with  a  zone  of  natural  transition.  In  fact, 
the  whole  shore-line  is  here  indented  with  fjords  as  distinctly  as  is  the  Labrador 
coast,  while  the  innumerable  lakes  of  the  north-eastern  United  States  also  belong 
physically  to  the  Canadian  region.      Even  south  of  Massachusetts  and  of  the 


Fig.  7. — Geolooical  Formations  op  the  United  States, 
Boale  1  :  66,000,000. 


Quaternary.  Tertiair.  Cretncean  CnrbonifBrons  Faleozoio.  Eruptive. 

Jiu-tiuio.  Ked  bandstoue. 


,  1.2M)  MUes. 


headland  of  Cape  Cod,  fashioned  like  .a  gondola's  prow,  the  inlets  penetrating  into 
the  interior  of  the  country  are  also  true  fjords  now  in  process  of  being  filled  up. 

Lastly,  Lake  George  and  Lake  Champlain,  with  the  tarns  of  the  Adirondack 
Mountains,  and  even  the  Hudson  Valley  itself,  belong  originally  to  the  same  system 
of  marine  fjords.  Thus  it  is  only  south  of  New  York  that  the  seaboard,  here 
skirted  by  long  cordons  of  sand  or  mud,  begins  to  form  part  of  another  geological 
domain.  Beyond  the  valley  and  estuary  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  so  sharply 
intersect  the  continental  seaboard,  the  most  conspicuous  natural  division  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  is  New  York  Bay.  This  southern  limit  of  the 
marine  fjord  system  coincides  with  that  of  the  lines  of  moraines  borne  southwards 
by  the  northern  glaciers. 

Between  the  north-western  and  north-eastern  angles  of  the  United  States, 


10 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


tlio  groat  inland  weas  wlii''h  send  their  overflow  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  form 
collectively  u  political  aad  lineal  frontier,  whereas,  from  the  standpoint  of  inter- 
niitioniil  relations  and  general  iutercourse,  these  waters  form,  on  the  contrary,  the 
chief  element  of  union  between  the  peoples  inhabiting  their  shores.  It  is  in 
virtue  of  the  chain  of  lakes  which  girdle  it  round  tbut  in  its  economic  and  social 
life  the  Canadian  province  of  Ontario  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  same  physical 
region  as  the  States  of  ihe  Ohio  basin. 

Hence  this  lacustrine  frontier,  which  with  its  contour  lines  figures  so  pro- 
minently on  the  majjs,  is  really  more  artificial  than  the  long  conventional  line 
of  the  forty-ninth  parallel  between  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  Puget  Sound. 
The  geometrical  boundary  is  at  least  so  far  justified  by  the  natural  conditions  that 
it  leaves  to  the  United  States  all  the  upper  Mississippi  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Missouri  basin.  Moreover,  it  crosses  the  Ilocky  Mountains  at  a  relatively  narrow 
part  of  the  orographic  system,  where  a  depression  occurs  between  distinct  sections 
of  the  range. 

On  the  southern  frontier  towards  Mexico,  more  than  half  of  the  dividing  line 
coincides  with  the  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte.  The  remaining  part  of 
the  line  is  drawn  so  as  to  award  to  the  United  States  the  whole  course  of  the 
llio  Gila  ;  it  has  also  the  advantage  of  crossing  the  peninsula  of  California  near 
its  neck.* 

Lacustrine  and  Marine  Waters. — The  Sea  hoard. 

To  each  of  the  three  great  geological  divisions  of  the  North  American  domain 
— Appalachians,  Mississippi  basin,  and  Ilocky  Mountains  with  their  plateaux — 
correspond  different  seas.  The  Atlantic  has  deposited  lands  which  stretch  along 
the  foot  of  the  Alleghanics  and  their  offshoots  ;  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  limits 
the  Mississippi  slope  on  the  south,  while  the  same  slope  is  bounded  on  the  north 
and  separated  from  the  regions  facing  the  Frozen  Ocean  by  the  Canadian  Great 
fjakes,  which  virtually  form  another  marine  gulf,  although  connected  with  the 
ocean  by  a  river  instead  of  a  strait.  Lastly,  on  the  west  side  the  Pacific  waters 
wash  the  base  of  the  foot-hills  belonging  to  the  Ilocky  Mountains  system. 

The  very  outlines  of  the  seaboards  suffice  to  reveal  their  various  origins.  The 
north-east  coastlands,  till  comparatively  recent  times  covered  with  an  icecap,  pre- 
serve in  a  slightly  modified  form  the  aspect  which  they  had  under  the  glacial  mass. 
Southwards  all  the  shores  of  marine  formation,  as  far  as  the  peninsula  of  Florida, 
present  a  series  of  sandy  cordons,  which  the  sea  has  disposed  in  front  of  the 

Square  tnilea. 

Area,  main,  United  States  (Gannett  and  Carpenter) 3.026.000 

,,     Aliis.ka 677,390 

,,      American  p{)rtion  Great  Lakes 65,177 

Total  area  United  States 3,608,107 

Area  dry  land,  main,  United  States 2,970,000 

,,    -water  ,,  ,,  ,,     except  Great  Lakes       ....  fi.l.OOO 

3,026,600 

Extreme  length  United  Sbites  from  east  to  west      .        .                 ...  2,876  miles. 

,,  „  ,,  ,,        ,,    north  to  south 1,600  miiea. 


m«> 


THE  SEABOARD. 


17 


primitive  IhsrcIi  by  regularly  upheaving  the  marine  bed  facing  the  coast.  On  the 
inner  Hide  of  the  terminal  mass  formed  by  the  peninsula  of  Florida  the  southern 
Bhoros  of  the  United  States  washed  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  j)resont  an  aspect 
analogous  to  that  of  the  Atlantic  coastline. 

The  Pacific  seaboard,  on  the  coiitrury,  is  rocky  throughout  nearly  its  entire 
extent,  or  at  least  the  strands  formed  by  the  "ontticting  marine  currents  develop 
their  curves  between  rocky  headlands. 

These  dillerences  in  the  conformation  of  the  seaboards  and  in  the  materials 


Fig.  8.— NoBTH  Atlantic  amp  Mkxioas  Oulv  CoA8Ti:.ANDa. 
Scale  1  :  ao.ouo.ooa 


AUnrial  Uuida.  Oldor  formatioiu. 

Bandjr  cooKta  4.8'0  mile*  in  lengrth. 
__  Bodcy  oooaU  3,800  mileii  in  leogrtb. 

eWMilefc 

composing  them  betray  the  diversity  of  their  geological  history,  and  are  associated 
with  the  secular  phenomena  of  upheaval  and  subsidence.  According  to  the 
observations  made  at  certain  points  on  the  coast,  the  Atlantic  shores  seem  to  be 
gradually  sinking  and  permitting  the  further  encroachment  of  the  sea.  Those  of 
the  Gulf  from  Florida  to  Texas,  as  well  as  those  facing  the  Pacific  Ocean,  woidd 
appear,  on  the  contrary,  to  have  entered  a  period  of  upheaval.  To  such  upheaval 
of  the  land  observers  are  disposed  to  attribute  the  position  of  a  marine  shell- 
68 


-nrr 


..m.. 


i'»»i , 


18  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

monnd,  which  at  pre«>nt  lies  to  tho  north  of  Mobile  50  miles  inland,  hut  which 
must  evidently  have  at  one  time  stood  on  the  seaHhoro. 

It  may  he  Htatcul  in  a  general  way,  that  tho  Atlantic  coast  of  tho  United  States, 
at  least  south  of  Chesapeake  Way,  is  one  of  those  that  have  been  the  least  favoured 
by  nature  as  regards  tho  diversity  of  its  contours  and  the  number  of  commodious 
havens.  Tho  section  of  tho  seaboard  most  easily  a])proache(I,  ami  possessing  tho 
tiuest  harl)our8  facing  towards  the  Old  World,  has  also  progressed  most  rapidly 
in  population,  trade,  and  general  prosperity,* 

Climatic  Aim  Botankai-  Zonks. 

Speaking  broadly,  the  United  States  corresponds  with  Europe  in  its  climate, 
although  in  its  mean  latitude  it  lies  much  farther  south.  It  is  comprised  between 
49°  and  25°  north,  whereas  tho  European  continent  is  limited  by  71°  and  36°. 
Thus  its  mean  latitude  is  indicated  by  tho  thirty-seventh  parallel,  which  traverses 
Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  while  that  of  Europe  is  situated  over  1,100 
miles  nearer  to  the  North  Pole,  passing  from  south  England  through  Holland, 
and  north  Germany,  to  the  central  steppes  of  Russia. 

The  discrepancy  seems  enormous,  but  if  we  take  tho  two  ports  of  Liverpool 
and  Now  York,  which  is  true  enough  from  the  economic  standpoint,  as  the  cor- 
responding cities  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantic,  one  the  >/mverging  point  of  the 
chief  European  Hues  of  emigration,  the  other  the  divergliig  point  for  the  various 
lines  of  migration  radiating  throughout  tho  interior  of  the  republic,  the  difference 
of  latitude  between  the  two  great  ports  is  found  not  to  exceed  12°  42'. 

The  difference  in  their  mean  temperatures,  also,  is  but  slightly  in  favour  of 
the  city  which  lies  nearer  to  the  torrid  zone.t  If  the  summer  heats  are  much 
higher  in  the  American  than  in  the  English  city,  the  winter  season  is  on  the 
other  hand  always  more  severe.  The  influnnoe  of  the  oceanic  currents,  whether 
atmospheric  or  marine,  which  set  normally  m  the  direction  from  south-west  to 
north-east,  both  raises  and  equalises  tho  temperature  on  the  west  coasts  of  Europe. 
This  movement  of  the  winds  and  waters  in  an  oblique  path  across  the  north 
Atlantic  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  general  translation  of  the  climate  of 

•  Length  of  the  United  States  coasts  measured  in  a  straight  line  from  one  extremity  to  the  other 

(No.   1)  ;  and  following  the  contour   lines  of   the  shores,  islands    and    navigable  estuaries  (No.  2)  ; 
according  to  a  chart  prepared  to  the  scale  of  1  :  1,000,000. 

No.  t.  No.  2. 

Miles.  Miles. 

Atlantic  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  Croix  to  Key  West   .         1,700  19,800 

Gulf  coast  from  Key  West  to  tho  mouth  of  the  Bio  Grande       .            950  9,600 

Shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  from  the  Thousand  Islands  to  Duluth           800  3,300 

Paciiic  coast  from  Cape  Flattery  to  the  Mexican  frontier   .         .         1,200  3,700 

Total         .         .         4,650  36,300 

Bocky  coast 15,500  miles. 

Sandy  coast 20,800  miles. 

+  Annual  range  of  temperature  at  Liverpool  and  New  York : — 

Liverpool.        New  York. 
63"  24'  N.  Lat  40°  42'  N.  Lat.  Difference. 

Mean  annual  temperature 60°  F.  62°  F.  2°  F. 

Mean  temperature  of  July 62°  76°  13° 

Mean  temperature  of  January 41°  30°  11" 


•''.i^Sgc-  iS 


■■:X^^.t-:l 


-rT* 


CLUI 


10 


he  cliii  '<*, 
ao  lide  tf  ifee 
emigrut  but 
r  .migrants  to 


Amcriuu  towunlH  tho  higher  Kuropetiii  Iiitit  lea,  i|«Me  '^e  extreme  importance 
of  tho  forocuHtiiigD  of  upprouching  HtoruiM  ui  oypilaflM  '  warded  one  or  two  lay* 
in  advunce  by  the  mcteoroIogiHts  of  fho  .  '        •>  tlioso  of     le  Old  \^'  »rld. 

Thus  also  thu  pusmige  from  Kuropo  to  .V^iurricu  ia  la.  'itu  1 
despite  thu  diiterouces  of  latitude.  Doubtless  the  removal  froin 
oceun  to  the  other  is  always  attended  by  risk  to  tho  health  of  t.i 
such  risk  is  less  for  tho  emigrant  to  the  I'nited  States  than  it  u 
any  other  country  at  as  great  diNtance  from  Europe. 

Tbo  climate  of  tho  United  States,  while  subject  to  greater  extremes  of 
temperature,  i«  also  drier,  more  inconstant,  more  capricious.  Nevertheless,  the 
Englishman  may  really  fancy  himself  ut  home  in  the  New  England  states;  tho 
Frenchman  might  on  his  part  recognise  iu  the  Ohio  u  river  of  his  native  land ; 
and  for  the  Spaniard  were  not  the  regions  of  New  Mexico  and  California 
anot'her  Castillo  and  another  Andalusia  P 

According  to  Gannett  the  central  point  round  which  the  temperature  of  the 

Fig.  9. — l80Tnicni{Ai,g  op  tub  Unitbd  States. 

Scale  1  :  I06,(KX),000. 


,  S,480  MUn. 


United  States  oscillates  would  appear  to  be  52°  F.,  the  same  as  that  of  the  lower 
course  of  the  Loire  between  Tours  and  Saint- Nazaire.  In  the  United  States  the 
population  is  found  to  be  densest  precisely  in  the  zone  which  corresponds  best  to 
West  Europe,  that  is  to  say,  between  the  isothermals  of  50°  and  56°  F.,  and  the 
isohyetose  lines  (lines  of  equal  rainfall)  of  30  and  50  inches. 

In  the  interior  of  the  land  there  are  no  natural  obstacles  interrupting  its 
geographical  unity  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south.  The  Appalachian  and 
Rocky  Mountains,  being  disposed  parallel  with  the  nearest  seaboards,  could  neither 
prevent  nor  retard  the  spread  of  population  along  the  line  of  the  meridian  between 
the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  the  Mississippi  basin 
the  migrating  hordes  had,  so  to  say,  merely  to  drift  with  the  current  of  the  great 
river  in  order  to  awarm  over  the  land  from  its  headwaters  to  the  delta. 

This  general  form  of  the  relief  has  imparted  to  the  whole  territory  a  remarkable 
degree  of   geographical  unity.     The  transitions  from  zone  to  zone,  whether  of 


■>■•:■■ 


20 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


RV 


climato,  floni  or  fuunii,  tukf  plmo  imporooptihly  from  liilitudo  to  lutUudo,  no  thiit 
the  f^roiitost  contruHtK  in  these  rPBpccU  occur  in  th«  diroction  from  oust  to  woHt. 
Thus  the  Hritirdi  colonicH  rcnminod  for  150  yoarH  contiiied  to  the  narrow  (dope  of 
the  Atlantic,  and  the  piiMiiyo  i>vor  tlie  Appuhichiuns,  iinduoroNS  the  fon-HtH  formerly 
clothing  their  weMtern  nlopes,  wax  u  nnrnt  arduous  undertakinj?.  The  Cunudiun 
voyugeurs  idw)  had  groat  ditUculty  in  Burmounting  the  Rocky  Moutituins. 

In  the  din>ction  fronx  eust  to  west  the  climatic  zones  are  indicated  hy  the 
character  of  the  Hoil  and  the  local  floras.  The  swanipy  or  low-lying  Atlantic 
ooastlands  are  followed  by  the  Appalachian  rangcH  and  plateaux  with  their  large 

Fig.  10. — Obrat  Rotasioal  Zoicbs  ok  tkb  Umitbu  Statbb. 

Hokic  I  :  ftO,()U),000. 


Limit  of  I'iaut  Strobui  .  .  T    NortlivrD  limit  of  faxtxliiim  dtiUrhnra. 

.8    Korfhera  limit  of  Sabal  Palmetto 


riceaalba.    Tioea  Riteheniii  Taugatuuadeniii.  riaucpondero-a. 


'.itnmiaia  tridentata. 


Bequoia.        CercuaRigunteui. 


Algxrobii 
glaiidiiloaa. 


Prairie*. 

innni 

Pinna  auatralia.    Hnmatoxyl.m    Quercua  croaalfolia. 
oarapecliiuuum. 


l/D<)Milea. 


) 


forest  growths.  Beyond  the  forests  come  the  prairies,  dotted  over  with  clumps  of 
trees,  merging  gradually  in  boundless  seas  of  u  herbaceous  vegetation,  steppes,  and 
arid  desert  regions.  The  saline  plateaux  and  snowy  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain region  form  another  zone,  which  is  followed  by  the  Culifornian  lowlands.* 


*  Main  phymcal  retfions  of  the  United  States : — 


Area  in  oq.  mile* 

Area  in  aq.  miles 

Pop.  In  1890 
(with  Indians) 

Density 

< 

(by  elopes). 

(by  states). 

per  sq.  mile 

Appalachians .        .        .        . 

276,908 

393,200 

2.5,876,232 

66 

MiHsissippi,  Lakes  and  Gulf    . 

1,901,300 

1,444,900 

33,904,089 

24 

Bocky  Mountains    . 

847,'»00 

1,187,600 

3,109,228 

3 

Alaska 

C77,000 

677,000 

31,796 

005 

Total 

3,602,000 

62,982,244 

.^r  ^mm^L'^m^ 


K 

jj^m 

iSlIP 

psm 

WX 

ggajjBfM 

Ij^ll 

g 

wi 

^p 

1^ 

^^^M 

PM 

mJM 

SmE 

l^HlBi!  HrS!?^3 

iwC 

Wdnni^S 

Bta. 


»p8  of 

i,  and 
[oun- 


lie 


cirAi'TEU  ir. 

INHAniTANTS     rNDIOENOUS  AND  FOREION  F,r-F.MF,XT8. 

IlKUK  cun  bo  no  doubt  uh  to  tlio  vust  anli(|ui*y  of  nuin  in  tho  pre- 
Noiit  territory  of  tho  United  Stutta  Tlio  tind.-,  liri-iidy  nuidc  hIiow 
tliut  ho  wuH  contcinporury  with  the  groat  piichydorirata  and  tl- 
prehistoric  horso.  Tho  skeloton  of  u  niuHtodon  discovered  by 
Koch  on  tliu  bod  of  u  swuinp  in  Missouri  whb  Hurrounded  with 
flint  arrowheads  und  other  stone  |)n)jectiles,  which  hud,  doubt h>s8,  been  hurled 
against  tho  animal ;  largo  heaps  of  ciudors,  some  no  lebo  than  mx  feet  high,  also 
show  that  ho  was  ultimately  depputched  or  perhaps  cooked  by  means  of  tire* 

In  California  and  Jiouisiana  explorers  have  also  picked  up  several  worked  im- 
plemonts,  mixed  with  tho  ronmius  of  huge  pachydermaln.  Tho  gravels  where  the 
goldhunters  now  search  fl»r  the  preeious  metal  date  irom  quaternary  times,  und 
it  can  be  stated  with  certainty  that  the  Culiforniaii  uian  lived  during  that  epoch, 
for  in  many  places  these  gravels  contain  stone  instr  anents ;  even  some  fragments 
of  human  bones  havo  hero  been  collected.  The  pick  has  como  upon  flint  objects 
resting  on  ground  tens  of  yardu  below  the  surfaco  of  tho  primitive  soil ;  such  ob- 
jects havo  even  been  found  in  the  erupted  bawilts.  A  report  was  even  spread  that 
a  human  skull  had  Ijoen  brought  to  light  on  tho  western  slope  of  tho  Sierra  Nevada, 
in  the  Calavei*a8  County,  in  the  tertiary  formation  itself,  under  several  beds  of 
lava ;  this  skull,  however,  was  not  seen  in  situ  by  any  observer,  and  the  miner 
who  produced  it  stated  that  he  hud  aiscoverod  it  in  u  mine  iu  Bald  Mountain,  near 
Altaville,  at  a  depth  of  forty-four  yards  ;'  but  the  hole  has  ever  since  been  flooded. 

But  however  this  be,  the  extreme  antiquity  of  man  is  well  established,  for  he 
was  certainly  contemporaneous  with  the  large  animals  that  lived  before  tho  last 
glacial  epoch.  The  patient  researches  made  by  Abbott  in  the  Trenton  glaeiul 
deposits  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia  seem  toprove  that  the  aborigines  dwelt 
on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware  before  the  last  ice  invasion  from  the  north.  In  this 
district  three  successive  civilisations,  revealed  by  the  corresponding  stone  imple- 
ments, have  been  superimposed  like  the  alluvial  deposits  of  a  river.  The  oldest 
paleolithic  objects,  attributed  to  peoples  leading  the  same  kind  of  life  and  probably 
belonging  to  the  same  race  as  the  present  Eskimo,  occur  iu  the  beds  of  sand  and 

*  Dana,  Amerienn  Journal  of  Sei«fie«  and  Arts,  May,  1876;  De  Nadiillac,  Prehittorie  America, 
fioglisb  editiun,  1885  ;  Emit  Schmidt,  Spuren  de$  Men*ehen  in  Nord-Amtrika. 


22 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


m' 


m 


gravel ;  they  are  quite  different  from  the  implements  of  comparatively  recent  origin, 
from  which  they  are  separated  by  a  bed  of  glacial  drift  with  striated  and  polished 
rocks ;  one  of  these  objects  has  even  scratches  exactly  like  those  of  the  boulders 
amongst  which  it  was  found. 

The  antiquity  of  the  fishing  people  is  also  as  well  attested  as  that  of  the  hunting 
tribes.  The  heaps  of  kitchen  refuse  occurring  in  many  of  the  coast  districts,  on 
the  Pacific  as  well  as  on  the  Atlantic  side  and  along  the  shores  of  the  tidal 
estuaries,  consist  almost  exclusively  of  shells,  whence  their  name  of  shell-mounds, 
and  they  must  consequently  have  been  uccumuldted  by  fishing  peoples.  Judging 
from  the  vast  size  of  the  mounds,  these  primitive  groups  must  have  sojourned  for 
long  ages  in  those  maritime  districts.  Some  of  the  heaps  ore  very  thick,  and  hun- 
dreds or  even  thousand:^  of  yards  long ;  one  occurs  in  the  outskirts  of  Baltimore, which 
supplies  the  carbonate  of  lime  for  smelting  the  iron  ores,  and  which  is  still  quarried 
by  the  contractor?  for  repairing  the  highways  without  being  yet  exhausted. 

These  kitchen-middens  date  from  a  very  remote  epoch,  for  none  of  them  have 
yielded  any  iron  or  other  metal  implements.  The  objects  contained  in  them  are 
coarse  potsherds  and  flint,  horn,  and  especially  bone  implements.  But  on  the  other 
hand  these  remains  of  prehistoric  banquets  cannot  be  referred  to  quaternary 
times,  for  the  shells  and  bones  collected  by  explorers  belong  to  contemporary 
species,  or  to  such  as  still  lived  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  ; 
such  are  the  Great  Auk  (Alca  impennis)  and  the  domestic  dog. 

If  the  kitchen  refuse  bears  witness  to  the  presence  of  man  in  America  at  a 
very  remote  period,  the  mounds  and  barrows  which  are  scattered  oviir  almost  every 
part  of  the  present  United  States  territory  give  evidence  of  a  civilisation  already 
somewhat  developed.  Although  thousands  have  been  levelled  by  the  white  settlers, 
many  other  thousands  still  remain.  The  Ohio  valley  and  the  lower  Missouri 
basin  are  amongst  the  regions  where  the  mound-builders  raised  these  structures  in 
the  greatest  profusion.  In  the  state  of  Ohio  alone,  as  many  as  ten  thousand 
have  been  recorded.  The  Yazoo  River  owes  its  Indian  name  of  "  Old  Ruins  "  to 
the  countless  artificial  knolls  strewn  along  its  banks.  St.  Louis  also  has  been 
called  "  Mound  City  "  from  a  hillock  that  had  formerly  been  raised  on  the  site 
at  present  occupied  by  this  town. 

Others  are  seen  farther  north  all  the  way  to  the  Canadian  region  traversed  by 
the  Red  River,  which  flows  to  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  farther  south  away  to  the  banks 
of  the  Louisiana  bayous.  They  are  also  found  in  the  Far  West  beyond  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  the  east  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  in  Florida,  and  even  on  the  cir- 
cumjacent islands.  The  mounds,  nearly  all  of  rectangular  shape,  vary  in  height 
from  about  two  to  over  thirty  yards,  and  most  of  them  have  been  raised  on  the  banks 
of  running  waters.  But  besides  the  simple  pyramidal,  conical,  oblong  or  octagonal 
structures,  besides  the  square  terraces  of  the  marshy  districts,  on  which  stood 
isv^Iated  habitations  and  even  villages,  there  are  yet  many  other  mounds  whose 
form  is  far  more  complex,  and  which  often  cover  a  vast  extent  of  ground. 

Some  of  these,  such  as  the  works  at  Marietta,  on  the  Muskingum  near  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Ohio,  were  evidently  fortresses,  with  defensive  works,  enclo- 


.— — ^'fr^(l(i  ■ririfiiiiliillj'iiu'if  ll>i; 'iiliilr. 


" 


THE  ABORIGINES. 


28 


3  cir- 


sures,  winding  paths,  trenches,  covered  and  underground  passages  continued  even 
beneath  the  river-beds.  Such  fortified  grounds  occasionally  occupied  immense  spaces 
from  two  to  four  square  miles  in  extent.  Fort  Ancient,  on  the  Little  Miami  River 
in  Ohio,  was  a  fortified  village  large  enough  to  afford  shelter  to  35,000  persons. 

Archaeological  research  has  also  shown  that  of  the  mounds  raised  by  the 
Indians  of  this  epoch  several  were  burial-places,  like  those  of  the  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  Gaul,  Thrace  and  Scythia.  Lastly,  tribal  and  religious  symbolism  has 
evidently  determined  the  form  of  the  numerous  earthworks,  whose  outlines  repre- 

Fig.  11.— Indian  FotTiFicATiONS  at  Mabietta. 
Scale  1  :  80,000. 


61'ii' 


West  oF  G-eenwich 


SI-SO' 


1,100  Tardi. 


sent  otems   (totems),*  or  tutelar  animals,  such  as  bears,  deer,  jaguars,  turtles, 
lizards,  herons  or  frogs. 

One  of  the  sepulchral  buildings  represents  a  man  ;  others  suggest  the  outlines 
of  a  mastodon,  while  another  figures  a  whole  procession  of  huge  beasts  following 
in  Indian  file.  On  the  banks  of  Brush  Creek,  in  the  State  of  Ohio,  is  seen  a  barrow 
of  unique  form  in  the  New  "World  and  without  analogue  in  the  Old,  representing 

•  Cuoq  has  shown  that  the  proper  form  of  this  word  is  not  Mem,  but  otem. — Etudet  philologigtui  sur 
guelquet  languet  tauvages  de  V Amkriqut. 


I 


24 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


a  gracefully  undulating  serpent  with  its  tail  in  a  triple  spiral  coil ;  its  mouth 
is  open  and  batween  its  teeth  it  holds  an  egg  some  300  feet  in  circumference, 
the  whole  distance  from  head  to  tail  exceeding  1,000  feet.  The  natives, 
having  no  knowledge  or  traditions  of  the  old  builders  of  this  structure,  regarded 
the  symbolic  snake  as  the  work  of  a  great  manitou. 

The  chief  objects  of  industry  contained  in  the  North  American  mounds  are  cut 
or  perforated  bones,  flint  instruments,  children's  whistles,  dolls,  warriors'  orna- 
ments, carved  shells,  earthenware  embellished  with  colours  which  rapidly  fade 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  Like  the  mounds  themselves  these  vessels  affect  the 
form  of  various  animals,  some  even  representing  human  beings.  Pipes  are  found 
in  all  the  mounds,  some  in  baked  or  dried  clay,  others  in  hard  stone,  even  in  por- 
phyry, and  fashioned  in  a  thousand  ways,  bespeaking  the  artistic  fancy  of  the  old 
mound-builders.  Like  the  shellfish-eaters,  these  peoples  had  no  knowledge  of 
iron ;  but  they  were  acquainted  with  copper,  a  metal  which  came  from  the  rich 
mines  situated  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Superior,  in  the  Keweenaw  peninsula,  and  in 
Isle  Royale  These  old  mines  have  been  discovered,  with  their  supporting 
galleries  half  hidden  by  the  vegetable  humus  where  whole  forests  have  sprung  up. 
The  hatchets  and  knives  detached  from  the  blocks  of  metal  still  lie  strewn  about 
in  these  ancient  excavations. 

The  first  explorers  of  the  American  mounds,  struck  by  the  difference  between 
the  civilisation  of  their  builders  and  that  of  the  present  generation  of  Indians, 
were  inclined  to  conclude  that  the  two  races  were  entirely  different,  and  that  the 
former  disappeared  by  the  process  of  extermination. 

But  most  modern  anthropologists  are,  on  the  contrary,  disposed  to  recognise 
in  the  American  aborigines  an  unbroken  continuity  of  the  ethnical  elements ;  nor 
do  they  at  all  admit  that  the  mound-builders  were  in  any  way  superior  in  the 
industries  and  general  culture  to  the  Indians  found  in  the  country  by  Jacques 
Cartier  and  the  other  European  pioneers. 

Many  of  the  mounds  already  examined  by  archeeologists  must  be  very  old,  for 
the  human  bones  found  in  them  are  almost  entirely  decomposed.  The  animal 
remains,  however,  even  in  the  very  oldest,  all  belong  to  species  still  living  in  the 
country  or  in  neighbouring  lands,  showing  that  the  climate  of  that  epoch  was 
the  same  as  at  present. 

It  may  also  be  asked  whether  there  has  not  been  a  gradual  transition  from 
the  architecture  of  the  Ohio  mounds — four-sided  step  pyramids — to  the  true 
pyramids  of  dried  bricks  which  are  met  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  the 
perfect  type  of  which  is  presented  by  the  Aztec  and  Maya  temples  of  Anahuac 
and  Yucatan?  Like  the  Mexican  edifices,  the  Illinois  and  Missouri  structures 
rest  against  adobe  walls,  and  certain  carved  shells  are  Aztec  in  design. 

Moreover,  even  in  the  upper  Mississippi  basin  modern  historic  evidence  shows 
that  the  erection  of  mounds  still  went  on  for  some  time  after  the  arrival  of  the 
Europeans.  The  Creeks  in  the  extreme  south  were  mound-builders,  as  were  also 
their  Seminole  neighbours  in  Florida,  the  Cherokees  of  Georgia,  and  the  Natchez 
of  the  Mississippi. 


■J 


THE  ABORIGINES. 


as 


During  the  period  when  fishing  populations  dwelt  on  the  Atlantic  shores,  or 
when  agricultural  tribes  occupied  certain  parts  of  the  interior,  such  as  the  fertile 
Ohio,  Miss  uri,  and  lower  Mississippi  valleys,  the  North  American  Indians  were 
probably  more  numerous  than  they  were  found  to  be  by  the  Europeans  four 
centuries  ago.  According  to  Bancroft,  not  more  than  300,000  natives  occupied 
the  section  of  the  northern  continent  comprised  between  the  Great  Lakes, 
the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Atlantic,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Certainly  this  is  a  very  small  number  for  such  a  vast  territory.  Nevertheless 
the  estimate  is  justified  by  sound  reasoning  and  the  known  historic  facts. 

At  the  time  of  the  discovery  the  most  civilised  Redskins  this  side  Mississippi, 
those  at  least  who  dwelt  north  of  the  Ohio,  had  but  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of 
husbandry.  The  Illinois  "made  Indian  wheat  [^raaizej  mostly  thrice  a  year,  and 
all  [had]]  water  melons  to  refresh  themselves  during  the  heats." — {^Joliet.)  The 
Iroquois,  the  Hurons,  the  Algonquins  of  the  coastlands,  and  other  half- sedentary 
peoples,  had  also  little  clearings  round  their  wigwams.  The  agricultural  nations 
of  the  south,  such  as  the  Appalachians,  the  Cherokees,  and  the  Natchez,  who 
occupied  the  uplands  of  the  southern  Appalachian  mountains,  the  Mississippi 
valley,  and  especially  the  part  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  even  possessed 
the  pruuus  Chickasaw,  a  fruit-tree  which  is  no  longer  found  in  the  wild  state,  but 
only  in  the  cultivated  clearings  since  abandoned  by  the  Indians. — (Brinton.) 

Had  these  various  agricultural  peoples  been  allowed  to  enjoy  their  plantations 
in  peace,  there  would  have  been  no  lack  of  space,  and  the  plains  might  have 
teemed  with  millions  and  millions  of  human  beings.  But  these  settled  tribes, 
being  tied  to  the  land,  were  for  that  very  reason  more  easily  subdued.  A  firm 
rule  of  chiefs  and  priests  established  over  them  had  kept  them  in  close  control, 
in  order  to  "  protect "  them  from  the  raids  of  the  hunting  tribes,  and  at  the 
time  when  the  whites  first  made  their  appearance  in  the  country  these  sedentary 
communities  were  for  the  most  part  on  the  decline.  Vast  territories  were  already 
abandoned,  and  travellers  often  made  long  journeys  through  the  forests  without 
seeing  the  least  trace  of  human  habitations. 

As  to  the  pastoral  stage,  which  the  historians  of  the  Old  World,  overlooking 
the  conditions  of  America,  supposed  to  be  a  social  state  necessarily  intermediate 
between  the  civilisation  of  the  hunting  and  agricultural  populations,  such  a  stage 
had  no  existence  at  all  in  North  America.  The  Indians  had  domesticated  neither 
the  bison  of  the  prairies  nor  the  goat  of  the  Rtjcky  Mountains. 

For  most  of  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  Redskins,  the  vast  forests,  the  savannas, 
the  marshy  plains  were  mere  battlefields  or  hunting -groimds,  and  the  hostile 
populations  roaming  over  domains  with  ever-shifting  frontiers  were  separated  from 
each  other  by  enormous  uninhabited  spaces.  According  to  Lubbock,  the  normal 
proportion  of  game  to  a  population  depending  for  its  existence  on  such  food  must 
be  estimated  at  750  animals  per  man,  renewed  from  year  to  year  by  natural 
increase.  Thus  the  tribes  had  to  maintain  a  state  of  war  and  incessantly 
decimate  each  other  to  spare  the  game.  The  life  of  wild  animals  was  more 
valuable  than  that  of  aliens.     At  the  most  flourishing  period  of  their  history,  the 


ml 


;<iiu 


MM 


26 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


m 

m 

'  It  "5 

I 


m 


— tv 


Iroquois,  Cherokee,  Creek,  Clioctaw,  or  Ojibway  nations  had  never  more  than  four 
or  tive  thousand  warriors  each. 

According  to  the  testimony  of  the  early  settlers  the  aborigines  of  New 
England  taken  collectively  comprised  at  the  utmost  20,000  persons.  If  we  add  to 
the  native  population  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  Mississippi  basin  the  relatively 
more  numerous  tribes,  who  till  recent  times  were  in  peaceful  possession  of 
certain  Rocky  Mountain  valleys  and  of  the  Pacific  slope,  we  arrive  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  number  of  aborigines  scattered  over  the  present  United  States 
territory  scarcely  exceeded  half  a  million  at  the  time  when  the  Europeans  first 
arrived  on  the  North  American  continent.  A  detailed  table  prepared  by  Qarland 
from  the  reports  of  travellers  and  missionaries  gives  570,000  as  the  number 
approximating  nearest  to  the  truth  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

All  the  members  of  the  various  North  American  tribes  present  great  uniformity 
in  their  physical  appearance,  and  in  this  connection  writers  have  often  quoted  the 
remark  made  by  d'Ulloa  in  the  last  century  that  "  when  you  have  seen  one  Indian 
you  have  seen  all."  Nevertheless,  this  is  a  highly  exaggerated  statement,  and 
undoubtedly  the  natives  themselves  clearly  perceive  all  the  contrasts  in  appearance 
and  expression  by  which  the  various  tribal  groups  are  distinguished  one  from  the 
other.  At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  general  type  of  the  Indian 
presents  great  uniformity  from  one  end  of  the  Union  to  the  other;  in  many  cases 
their  language  alone  enables  the  observer  to  determine,  if  not  the  race,  at  least 
the  ethnical  group  to  which  certain  individuals  belong. 

The  colour  to  which  the  North  American  aborigines  owe  their  name  of  "  Red- 
skins "  is  yellowish  in  infancy,  aftr>r  which  it  gradually  grows  red.  Consequently, 
argues  Manouvrier,  the  red  races  do  not  differ  essentially  from  the  yellow,  at  least 
so  far  as  regards  complexion,  and  from  this  point  of  view  they  might  be  regarded 
as  Asiatic  races  modified  in  their  new  environment.  In  the  children  may  also  be 
observed  narrow  oblique  eyes,  which  are  given  as  a  characteristic  of  the  Mongols. 

Nevertheless,  the  differences  between  the  Mongolic  and  North  American  types 
are  in  other  respects  well  marked,  and  in  their  structure  the  respective  forms  of 
speech  prevent  absolute  contrasts.  According  to  Volney  the  Miamis,  amongst 
whom  he  resided,  were  as  white  as  he  was  himself.  The  reddish  hue  which  they 
gradually  acquired,  and  which  is  much  more  highly-esteemed  than  a  fair  com- 
plexion, is  by  him  attributed  to  their  lives  passed  in  the  open  air,  where  they 
become  tanned  by  the  sun,  "  father  of  colour."  Amongst  other  tribes,  notably  the 
Californian  Diggers,  the  hue  is  almost  black. 

The  form  of  the  American  skull  is  by  no  means  uniform.  Most  of  the  Red- 
skins have  brachycephalic  (round)  heads,  while  that  of  others  is  highly  dolicho- 
cephalic (long).  In  no  region  is  the  divergence  in  this  respect  greater  than  in 
America.  The  aborigines  of  the  New  World  also  present  great  contrasts  in  the 
capacity  of  the  brain-pan.  According  to  Morton  and  Aitken  the  average  for  all 
the  Indians  would  be  1,376  cubic  centimeters ;  but  some  of  the  Redskin  tribes 
have  skulls  of  surprising  dimensions.  For  the  Ojibways  and  Potawatomees  the 
mean  cranial  capacity  is  stated  by  Morton  to  exceed  1,492  cubic  centimeters.    The 


Iw 


.     LKji   iitliil 


THE  ABOEIGINES. 


27 


average  of  seven  adult  „,ale  Chinook  skulls  preserved  in  the  London  College  of 
Surgeons  ,s  l,D89eubxc  ceatiiueters.  a  volu,ne  far  superior  to  the  average  for  the 


Fig.  12.-GE0UP  OF  PiMo  Indians  (Abizona). 


mhabitanu,  of  Frsnce  .„d  England.    Ihe  cranium  of  a  dceleton  found  in  Tenne«e 
whe,>  n.ea,ur«i  gare  the  prodigious  index  number  of  1.825  cubic  centimeter,. 


m 

m- 


98 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Wi 


Tliesc  skulls  may  doubtless  possibly  be  cxceptioiml,  and  the  normal  capacity 
may  on  the  whole  bo  loss  amongst  the  indigenous  populations  of  the  United 
States  ;  but  the  fact  remains  that  the  crania  of  some  Indian  tribes  are  of  surprising 
amplitude.  Hut  those  of  the  civilised  Mexicans  and  I'eruvians  are  on  the  contrary 
comparatively  very  small,  1,339  and  1,234  cubic  centimeters  respectively.  Such 
a  contrast  seemed  at  tirst  contradictory,  and  it  was  asked  how  the  savages  of  the 
North  American  forests  could  be  superior  in  cerebral  power  to  the  relatively 
civilised  inhabitants  of  the  elevated  plateaux. 

Yet  if  cranial  capacities  are  really  the  normal  index  of  greater  intellectual 
vigour,  the  North  American  savages,  struggling  so  fiercely  for  their  daily  exis- 
tence, must  assuredly  have  a  far  more  intense  mental  energy,  a  far  more  active 
initiative  than  the  wretched  Peruvian  Quichuas,  who  have  been  habituated  to 
servitude  at  all  epochs  of  their  history. 

Apart  from  the  tribes  debased  by  debauchery  and  drink,  and  these  are 
numerous  enough  on  the  plateaux  of  Utah  and  the  Californian  plains,  most  of  the 
Indians  are  of  high  stature,  with  strong  muscular  development.  For  381  Iroquois 
who  joined  the  Federal  Army  during  the  Civil  War,  and  who  were  no  doubt 
amongst  the  finest  and  strongest  of  their  race,  the  average  height  was  5  feet 
10  inches,  which  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  natives  of  Galloway  in  Scotland. 

The  few  survivors  of  the  Seminoles  in  the  peninsula  of  Florida  are  also  taller 
than  their  white  or  black  neighbours  ;  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  speaka  of  the  savages 
whom  he  met  in  Virginia  as  "  gigantic  monsters." 

But  although  very  strong  and  active,  the  natives,  even  when  equally  vigorous, 
have  a  less  robust  appearance  than  Europeans.  The  difference  is  attributed  to 
their  less  prominent  muscular  system.  Their  lank  hair,  round  and  sometimes 
hanging  cheeks  and  flowing  costume  give  a  feminine  appearance  to  many  warriors, 
who  nevertheless  have  nothing  feminine  in  their  character. 

At  present  the  native  costume,  exc3pt  on  gala  days,  is  little  more  than  a  make- 
up of  second-hand  clothes.  Formerly  it  varied  with  the  district  and  manner  of 
life.  Hunters  were  fond  of  arraying  themselves  in  skins  of  animals ;  they  wore 
robes  of  elk  or  bison  skins,  and  decked  themselves  with  flagles'  feathers,  foX'tails. 
or  the  quills  of  porcupines.  The  agricultural  peoples  combined  woven  fabrics  with 
the  spoils  of  animals,  or  else  dressed  in  materials  made  of  bark  or  root-fibres. 
Thus  the  Seminoles  of  Florida  wear  a  cotton  blouse  girdled  round  at  the  waist ; 
they  also  tie  a  cravat  round  their  neck,  and  envelop  their  head  in  a  kind  of  turban 
composed  of  woollen  scarfs. 

The  different  cut,  designs  and  ornamentation  helped  to  distinguish  the  various 
populations.  At  the  sight  of  a  warrior  his  nation  was  at  once  recognised,  and  the 
initiated  could  tell  from  some  apparently  insignificant  detail  whether  he  cume  to 
trade,  announce  peace  or  proclaim  war.  The  colours  with  which  the  men  painted 
their  face  had  a  well-understood  meaning,  whence  the  expression  "  war-paint ;'' 
and  the  typical  colours  changed  with  the  various  regions,  and  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  feasf.s,  mournings  and  the  like.  Tattooing  had  also  its  signifi- 
cance, especially  when  it  represented  the  animals  or  other  objects  symbolising  the 


''■i"W"i'^W'iJHI     >im< 


THE  AB0RI0INE3.  .g 

otera  or  tulcl.r  genius  of  lU  clan.     La,lly,  certain  tribe,  were  and  ,,ill  are  di,. 

..n^„hed  by  the  artificial  f„r„  given  b,  .he  mother,  .<,  the  *un,  ot  .heir  Md™ 
Tl.ehab,tal,o„,  w,cd  m  .h.pe,  ,,„,i,io„  and  material  in  diHercnt  region. 
The  w,g„.m     of  a„  AUeghanie,  conid  bear  no  resemblance  to   .ho.e  ofThe 
Rocky  Mountam.;    in  the  middle  of  the  fer™t,  the  Algonquin,  and  Jlurln 
butlt  tbemselve.  .hed.  or  cabin,  .nrrounded  by  ..out  paU-i«  on  the  Irglo 


Fig.  13.— An  OaxLALLAu  Ciiu,r. 


swamps  and  lakes,  and  in  the  treeless  solitudes  they  constructed  reed  huts,  and  at 
times  put  up  with  any  temporary  shelter.  On  the  open  plain  they  dug  a  hole 
which  they  covered  with  turf,  a  style  of  dwelling  absolutely  resembling  the  "dug. 
out     or  the  "  sod-house "  of  the  American  pioneers.  .     ^ 

n  Jr  ^"'"f  ;J^"^ding  in  deep  caves,  as  in  Kentucky  and  certain  parts  of  North 
Carolina  and  Alabama,  the  dwellings   were  ready  to  hand.     Lastly,  in  arid 


my 


m 


|i?5i 


m 


80 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


regions  whoro  the  Tnountains  nro  carved  into  "mesas"  (tables)  or  obelisks,  the 
threatened  populations  lournt  to  erect  their  structures  on  the  summit  of  cliffs, 
or  else  to  surround  them  with  vertical  walls  analogous  to  the  precipices  of  the 
neighbouring  hills. 

But  the  typical  abode  of  the  hunting  Indians,  the  dwelling  with  which 
descriptions  and  illustrations  have  made  us  most  familiar,  is  the  tent  of  conical 
shape  set  up  in  the  middle  of  the  pruirie.  At  the  epoch  when  the  bison  roamed 
the  plains  in  herds  of  u  hundred  thousand  heud,  these  tents  were  made  of  hides. 
But  the  Ojibways  used  birch-bark,  whence  the  term  uiywam  now  applied  by 
the  whites  to  all  Indian  habitations  except  the  huge  stone  houses  of  the  Pueblos. 

Character,  ideas  and  usages  necessarily  varied  greatly  amongst  the  aborigines 
according  to  their  pursuits.  But  though  some  were  hunters,  some  fishers  or 
agriculturists,  the  descriptions  left  us  by  most  of  the  early  writers  have  reference 
exclusively  to  those  Redskins  who  lived  on  game ;  hence  such  descriptions  cannot 
properly  be  applied  to  the  mass  of  the  native  populations.  The  Algonquins,  the 
Iroquois  and  Ilurons,  who  by  their  peaceful  or  warlike  relations  with  the  French 
and  English  settlers  naturally  attracted  most  attention  to  their  mode  of  life,  have 
been  the  most  frequently  described,  and  they  have  accordingly  been  taken  us  the 
type  of  the  whole  race.  The  *'  Last  of  the  Mohicans,"  the  Algonquin  warrior 
whose  fictitious  adventures  have  been  so  vividly  depicted  by  Fenimore  Cooper,  has 
remained  for  us  the  typical  Indian  ;  and  so  true  to  life  are  the  novelist's  descriptions 
that  the  life  of  this  hero  embodies  all  the  ideal  features  of  the  North  Americon  tribes. 

Wariness  is  the  dominant  quality  of  the  Indian  hunter.  He  searches  space 
with  a  scrutinising  glance,  notices  the  trace  of  footsteps  on  the  ground,  studies 
the  crumpled  leaf  and  twisted  branch,  lends  his  ear  to  distant  sounds,  ceaselessly 
questions  surrounding  nature,  and  in  it  reads  the  brewing  storm.  He  knows 
whence  the  wind  will  blow,  where  the  clouds  are  gathering,  from  what  quarter 
downpours  are  pending,  in  what  thicket  or  on  what  river-bank  will  be  found  the 
quarry  he  is  stalking. 

His  mind  is  ever  on  the  watch,  his  imagination  ever  rich  in  stratagem,  his 
patience  still  unflagging.  He  can  glide  stealthily  through  the  foliage,  drift  with 
the  floating  log,  creep  round  to  windward  of  the  ganne,  catch  the  scent  and, 
undetected,  crawl  through  the  grass  to  take  him  unawares.  And  when  all  his  cun- 
ning fails  he  quietly  resigns  and  unwearily  renews  his  skilful  tactics.  With  the 
enemy,  or  even  with  the  stranger  who  may  also  be  a  foe,  as  the  Paleface  is  for  the 
most  part,  he  is  still  the  crafty  hunter.  He  keeps  on  his  guard  and  hides  his  feel- 
ings under  an  impassive  countenance ;  seeming  neither  to  hear  nor  to  understand, 
he  sees  all  and  remembers  what  may  be  needed  to  ward  off  or  anticipate  attack. 

Should  he  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  stronger  or  more  cunning  adversary,  his 
mind  is  already  made  up.  He  feels  that  it  is  due  to  himself,  due  to  his  tribe,  still 
to  maintain  his  haughty  bearing,  ftill  to  defy  his  very  captors.  The  early  writers 
tell  us  how,  chained  to  the  stake,  he  urged  the  women  and  children  to  tear  his 
flesh,  to  sever  his  limbs,  to  burn  him  at  a  slow  fire,  and  how,  feeling  the  approach 
of  death,  he  entoned  his  war  song,  so  that  his  last  breath  might  still  be  a  death- 


.•//;. 


■-» 


Ihis 
ItiU 
lers 

Ibis 
loh 

Ith- 


TUE  ABOUIUINES. 


81 


rattle  of  scorn  and  pride.  But  such  atrocious  scenes  of  torture  have  long  passed 
oway.  In  the  intertribal  feuds  the  Indian's  only  ambition  is  to  sculp  the  enemy 
living  or  dead,  and  adorn  his  tent  with  the  "  buir  of  the  vanquished." 

The  vostncss  of  the  spaces  to  be  traversed  compelled  the  natives  to  live  in  small 
groups.  Their  political  world,  limited  to  the  circle  of  their  nearest  kindred,  was 
necessarily  very  narrow.  But  all  the  closer  was  the  union  between  the  members 
of  the  clin  and  allied  tribes.  From  childhood  upwards  they  hud  leurnt  tlut  their 
life  belonged  to  their  kinsfolk,  and  they  fearlessly  sacrificed  it  when  required  by 
the  collective  honour. 

In  such  a  narrow  political  system,  where  existence  and  the  common  weal 
depended  on  the  devotion  of  all  to  the  public  interests,  there  could  be  no  supreme 
autocratic  rule,  such  as  was  developed  amongst  the  agricultural  peoples,  tiid  to  the 
soil.  The  word  "king"  is  untranslatable  in  any  Indian  tongue,  for  the  very 
idea  answering  to  the  term  is  absolutely  unknown  to  the  Bedskins.  The  "  chit;f  '* 
is  merely  "  the  first  among  his  peers,"  the  companion  on  whom,  in  cuse  of  danger, 
they  most  reckon,  either  for  his  personal  merits  or  for  the  niugic  virtues  attached 
to  his  name  or  family. 

But  on  the  other  hand  the  feeling  of  exclusive  patriotism  in  respect  of  the 
clan  to  which  they  belong  prevents  them  from  understanding  the  idea  of  "  repub- 
lic "  any  more  than  that  of  "  kingdom."  They  hold  by  the  nobility  of  their  name 
and  kindred  as  much  as  any  lord  of  England  or  Sponish  grandee.  The  pride  of 
clanship,  the  possession  of  a  badge  or  otem,  the  glory  of  belonging  to  a  renowned 
tribe,  inspire  the  Indian  with  a  supreme  contempt  for  all  those  who  are  not  of 
his  blood.  The  "  Beaver  "  looks  with  contempt  on  the  "  Deer,"  the  "  Deer  " 
speaks  with  disgust  of  the  "  Fox."  The  symbol  chosen  by  each  group  is  at  once 
a  sign  of  union  for  the  associated,  and  of  hatred  towards  all  others. 

Nevertheless,  the  isolation  of  families  united  under  the  same  otem  does  not  con- 
tribute to  maintain  the  purity  of  the  race.  On  the  contrary,  the  associated  mem- 
bers, being  regarded  as  brothers  and  sisters,  cannot  intermarry.  In  most  of  the 
tribes  such  a  union  would  be  regarded  as  incestuous.  Hence  the  young  warrior 
has  to  seek  his  bride  outside  the  clan,  even  though  it  be  in  some  tribe  of  different 
speech  and  origin.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  group  is  reduced  in  numerical 
importance  by  epidemics,  famine  or  war,' it  may  be  reconstituted  by  the  admittance 
of  adopted  children,  nay,  even  of  prisoners  of  war.  The  new  arrivals  cherish  the 
same  love,  the  same  devotion,  for  the  tribe  as  do  its  own  kith  and  kin. 

The  tribes,  demoralised  and  humiliated  by  defeat,  flight  and  successive  dis- 
placements, as  well  as  by  the  degradation  caused  by  gamliling,  drink  and  mendicity, 
have  grown  somewhat  heedless  of  their  future.  But  at  a  period  when  they  were 
still  animated  by  a  proud  and  hopeful  spirit,  one  of  the  chief  cares  of  the  commu- 
nity was  the  education  of  the  children.  This  education  was  at  the  same  time  an 
easy  task  thanks  to  their  simple  lives  passed  mainly  in  the  open  air.  Adepts  in 
taming  wild  animals,  with  whose  ways  and  wants  they  are  familiar,  they  show 
no  less  skill  in  training  the  young,  who  have  one  day  to  take  their  place  as  props 
and  defenders  of  the  tribe. 


M' 


i^'^ 


Ml 


m 


&  i  I 


8S 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Tho  child,  wliich  is  woaned  after  a  period  of  a  twolvomonth,  is  allowed,  when 
strong  ('nou}j[li,  to  run  about  with  tho  others  outside  tho  village.  Soon  he  is  pro- 
vided with  his  bow  und  arrow,  practises  at  tho  target,  leaps  and  jumps  about,  tries 
to  run  {'own  the  animals,  and  learns  their  habits  by  imitating  them.  lie  glides 
along  like  the  weasel,  runs  like  tho  wolf,  erects  himself  like  tho  bear ;  a  huuter 
by  nature,  lie  already  joins  in  little  expeditions  with  his  playmates. 

Hut  however  skilful,  vigorous  and  brove  he  may  become,  he  well  knows  that 
ho  cannot  enter  man's  estate,  lake  part  in  the  assemblies,  or  cluira  the  name  of 
warrior,  until  he  has  given  proof  of  the  power  of  endurance  that  is  in  him.  Ilenco 
he  is  tho  first  to  demand  the  ordeal  which  will  entitle  him  to  rank  with  men, 
and  this  ordeal  is  terrible.  Tho  parents  are  fully  aware  of  its  nature,  but  more 
even  than  the  other  Indiana  they  are  anxious  that  their  son,  a  child  of  the  tribe, 
should  enter  with  honour  on  his  new  life  of  a  warrior.  There  is  no  kind  of  tor- 
ture, varying  according  to  traditional  and  local  usage,  to  which  the  candidates 
for  the  test  of  manhood  have  not  been  subjected.  Long  fastings,  exposure  of  the 
naked  body  to  stinging  insects,  to  intense  cold  and  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun, 
gashinga  and  Jeep  wounds,  straining  of  the  limbs  with  weights  and  the  forceps, 
suspension  by  the  hair  of  the  head  or  by  the  skin,  lastly,  insults  and  outrages — such 
are  the  sufferings  inflicted  on  the  candidates  during  those  days  of  probation,  during 
which  they  will  dream  the  "  dreara  of  life,"  and  often  allow  themsolvoa  to  be  done 
to  death  rather  than  cry  out  for  mercy. 

But  however  great  their  strength  of  soul  in  the  face  of  dangers  and  sufferings, 
the  Indians  none  the  less  remain  children  in  many  respects.  Thus  the  young 
man  ai,  times  gives  way  to  all  the  exultation  of  his  joy  in  mere  existence,  to  all 
the  blandishments  natural  to  his  age.  Warriors  disfigured  by  small-pox  have 
been  known  to  commit  suicide  to  escape  the  shame  of  their  marred  beauty. 

The  native  genius  is  remarkably  inventive  in  discovering  now  and  striking 
ornaments  for  their  costume  and  headdress.  The  variety  of  colours  used  in 
painting  the  face  is  endless  ;  at  times  the  paintings  present  startling  contrasts  on 
both  sides  of  the  countenance :  one  eye  seems  extinguished,  while  the  oth^r  is  all 
aglow  ;  one  cheek  beams  like  the  sun,  the  other,  all  black,  merges  in  the  hair. 
Often  the  paintings  are  changed  so  as  to  imitate  the  successive  phases  of  the 
moon.  Usually  the  first  coat  is  a  vermilion  red,  the  colour  of  joy  and  strength, 
which  symbolises  the  race,  and  on  this  ground  they  apply  the  other  colours,  all 
tho  various  shades  of  yellow  and  blue,  in  spots,  stars,  crosses,  and  bars.  More- 
over, every  fresh  event  involves  a  change  of  style,  more  bright  or  sombre  according 
to  circumstances. 

The  men  undertake  the  dangerous  duties  required  by  the  common  interests — 
the  chase  and  war.  They  have  also  reserved  to  themselves  the  functions  of  the 
general  assemblies.  Hence  they  are  taught  to  speak  and  express  themselves 
with  a  poetic  eloquence,  some  examples  of  which,  recorded  by  the  early  historians, 
reach  the  standard  of  perfect  beauty.  ITie  men  may  also  devote  their  time 
to  decorating  their  arms,  painting  or  embroidering  their  garments. 

But  on  the  woman  falls  all  the  heavy  work,  as  well  as  the  household  duties. 


m 


THE  ADOIUaiNES. 


88 


Sho  tilU  fho  liitid,  sows  the  corn,  and  reiips  thocrop  ;  sho  receives  the  produce  of 
the  chttse,  mid  turns  it  ull  to  account,  the  flesh  for  food,  the  sinews  und  tendons 
in  the  preparation  of  the  implements  of  the  chaso,  the  bones  for  diverse  domestio 
purpscs,  the  skins  for  the  costume,  tho  "  leather  stookingH,"  the  mocassins. 

The  Indian  takes  pride  in  departing  this  life  with  dignity,  not  only  when   a 

Fig.   U.-TuE  UkHs  or  Wolf  anp  Mbab 


ig 


le 


violent  death  awaits  him  in  presence  of  the  enemy,  but  also  when  condemned  by 
age  or  ailments  to  pass  away  ingloriously  in  the  midst  of  his  people.  Like  the 
wounded  animal  he  seeks  some  dark  recess  to  sleep  in  peace.  In  many  tribes,  as, 
for  instance,  amongst  the  Dakotas,  where,  owing  to  the  severe  climate  and  lack  of 
game,  the  struggle  for  existence  wus  exceptionally  hard,  the  aged  were  the  first  to 
ask  for  death.  In  such  cases  it  was  tnought  filial  piety  for  their  own  children 
to  dispatch  them  from  this  vale  of  tears  to  the  spirit  world,  where  sufCering  is 
69 


U 


mm 


84 


TUK  UNITKI)  HTATK:i. 


unknown.     For  pconlit  who  boliovcd  in  un  after  life,  nuch  an  act  wan  regurduil  •• 
u  iiu|irt<nio  proof  of  uUVt-tion. 

Amioii^nI  ihv  IiiilianH,  at  iimonp[Nt  •uOHt  p«'o|)l»H  in  their  childhoiKJ,  thu  fuiiural 
riUm  wuru  aNsociatod  with  l)an(|iu>tH  for  the  dead,  who  ref;eiv>>d  proviniona  and 
urniN  f(»r  thoir  h>n^  journey.  The  Siiuke  Indiunii  oven  killed  the  chief 'h  favourite 
horxe,  and  the  wife  herNtdf,  ao  that  hu  might  not  huvc  to  travel  alonu  to  the  Mpirit 
land.  The  Ojihway  mother,  when  oim  of  her  infants  dieM,  immediately  prepan-* 
ti  doll,  whit-h  nIk!  droH.HUs  in  the  ehild'H  elothcH,  and  adoniH  with  itH  huir  inter- 
twino<l  with  ril)bon».  Tiiis  ouriom  elhgy*  which  nIic  calls  her  "  grief,"  and 
whieh  reminds  her  of  her  lo.it  one,  she  places  in  the  cradle,  sprinkles  with  u  few 
dropi  of  her  milk,  curries  ulM)ut  iu  her  arms,  entrusts  to  the  other  children  to 
take  it  for  a  walk.  It  is  thus  kept  for  mimths,  oven  for  u  year,  until  the  departed 
darling  is  suppost'd  to  Ih;  big  enough  to  find  its  way  alono  to  the  uftor-world. 

Hut  death  is  the  great  mystery.  Dispite  their  belief  in  immortality,  the  sur- 
vivors huvo  none  the  less  the  instinct  of  life,  and  when  illness  strikes  down  a 
young  or  still  vigorous  man,  they  struggle  energetically  against  the  malady,  and 
strive  to  scare  the  evil  spirit  returning  from  the  other  world  in  search  of  com- 
jmnions.  The  wizards  assemble  to  boat  the  drum  and  raise  shouts  to  drive 
away  the  ghost.  liut  if  thoir  efforts  fail,  and  the  spirit  receives  the  lust  breath 
of  the  sick  ono  whom  ho  cume  to  curry  off,  the  body  is  immediately  carried  away, 
not  through  the  door,  but  through  u  hole  mudo  in  the  side  of  the  wigwam.  Then 
the  hearth  fire  is  quenched,  the  hut  demolished,  and  the  spot  beaten  smooth  in 
order  to  etruce  all  truces  of  the  old  dwelling.  In  the  now  home  the  tire  is  kindled 
with  a  fresh  spark  taken  from  the  brusier  of  a  family  in  good  health,  and  from 
uU  quarters  people  guthor  to  console  the  living  and  with  their  songs  and  discourse 
dispel  the  dread  thought  of  death. 

The  memory  of  their  forefathers  is  intimately  associated  with  the  religious 
idous  of  tho  aborigines.  It  seems  natural  enough  that  they  should  turn  to 
their  predecessors  to  learn  from  them  the  mysteries  of  tho  unknown  world.  The 
idea  of  extinction  not  bt'lng  grasped,  the  present  life  was  supposed  to  be  continued 
beyond  the  grave.  But  tho  .sentiments  of  hatred  or  fear,  of  admiration  or  affec- 
tion were  consequently  also  supposed  to  bo  perpetuated  amongst  the  departed,  and 
thus  the  dcud  became  transformed  to  good  or  evil  spirits,  to  protectors  or  wicked 
demons.  At  times  they  becume  the  otems  of  the  tribe,  and  so  the  two  worlds,  the 
natural  and  the  preternatural,  were  incessantly  intermingled. 

Nevertheless,  this  unknown  bourne,  to  which  the  imagination  of  the  Red- 
skins gave  "a  local  habitation  and  a  name,"  formed  but  a  small  purt  of  the 
general  mystery  surrounding  them.  Attempts  had  also  to  be  made  to  explain  the 
nutur'il  phenomena,  and  in  their  primary  stuto  of  ignorance  this  could  be  done 
only  by  means  of  legends.  Everything  assumed  life  in  their  eyes,  either  to 
favour  or  thwart  them.  Every  living  being,  every  strange  object,  every  unin- 
telligible manifestation  of  nature  was  for  them,  as  it  is  for  all  primitive  peoples, 
a  spirit,  a  "  medicine,"  that  is  to  say,  a  force  always  at  work  for  good  or  evil. 

A  living  man,  no  less  than  the  dead,  might  become  for  the  Indian  an  object 


"^m 


— t. 


•^«iVi«*fMil^*9  ^V^ 


TUB   AIIOUKIINKH. 


85 


.IglOUS 

Irn  to 
The 
inued 
affcc- 
,  and 
icked 
.8,  the 

Red- 
)f  the 
in  the 

done 
lier  to 

unin- 
poples, 

r 

[object 


of  HuporntitiouH  worHliip.  IIo  voiuTittod  tho  nii'i/n,  or  iniij^uiun,  who  pn^tciidt'd  to 
undi'i-Rtiind  the  (wcrota  of  natun.  Ho  voiiorutod  the  bravo  uIho,  who  feirod  no 
di'uth,  iind  this  vury  Hoiititnunt  oxpluitiH  the  uctH  of  roligioiin  cuniiibuliHtii  dt-Horibrd 
by  fho  I'lirly  tnivi'llorn.  Kvcii  quite  rocontly  the  rcnowiiod  Diiknta  t-liiof,  Sitting 
Hull,  (»puiiod  tlio  brt'iiMtrt  of  |'V(hnil  offit^JTH  who  hud  fulh'ii  lioroically  in  baltlo. 
and  ato  thoir  huarU  in  onlur  to  noiirinh  hin  vah<ur  with  that  of  tho  enemy. 

Moreover,  each  tribe  had  u  M[)eeial  regard  for  tho  animal   whidi  Herved   us   itH 
utem,  und  of  which  it  culled  itself  daughter.     Tho  mysteriouH  euuko  also,   which 

Fig-    lA.  -  MANtTOir    IHI.4NU8. 
tJoaU  t  :  »l().i)i)0. 


ntnS 
Fatuum* 


Deptbi. 


6  to  10 
Fittbumi. 


lOtofio 
Fathom*. 


50  Fathnmii 
and  upward*. 


,  6  Milea. 


glides  through  the  grass  aud  disappears  in  the  ground,  is  one  of  the  beings 
whose  name  is  most  fretpu'iitly  heard  in  song  and  legend.  The  nutritive  plants 
are  similarly  venerated,  and  the  spirits  of  corn,  beans,  peas  and  the  pumpkin  are 
solemnly  invoked.  The  fire,  which  cooks  the  viands  and  which  warms  the  sick 
and  the  cold,  likewise  receives  its  ofi'erings;  tho  hunter  throws  to  the  plains  a 
little  of  the  fut,  a  fe^v  fibres  from  the  muscles  of  the  captured  prey.      Even  the 


.4-...- 


80 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


|ji'! 


1 1 


very  instrumentB  and  weapons  that  have  long  been  in  use  are  supposed  to  have  a 
sort  of  life,  and  become  domestic  genii. 

But  the  grand  ceremonies  are  celebrated  especially  in  honour  of  the  natural 
phenomena,  the  rainbow,  the  storm,  the  clouds,  the  light  of  the  heavenly  orbs. 
The  vanished  Natchez  nation  was  one  of  those  that  associated  the  events  of  their 
daily  life  with  the  orderly  path  of  the  sun.  The  whole  routine  of  iheir  existence 
was  a  continued  worship  of  the  fire.  Every  morning  the  high  priest  hailed  the 
rising  sun  in  the  name  of  his  people,  offering  it  his  calumet,  and  with  his  finger 
indicating  the  track  which  he  expected  to  see  it  follow  across  the  firmament. 

The  chief  r.'asts  of  the  Pueblos  and  other  New  Mexican  and  Arizona  Indians 
are  also  made  in  honour  of  the  sun,  which  from  the  Flat- Heads  even  received  san- 
guinary offerings.  The  bravest  woman  of  the  tribe  presented  him  with  a  piece 
of  her  flesh  cut  from  her  breast,  and  this  hud  also  to  be  done  by  the  son  of  the 
chief.  The  dances,  religious  acts  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  have  for  the  most  part 
an  astronomic  character,  and  solar  worship  also  appears  in  the  paintings  with 
which  the  Indian  artists  embellish  their  festive  robes,  their  tent  skins,  the  bark 
of  trees,  and  the  surface  of  the  rocks.  The  sacred  calumet,  painted  blue,  which 
was  decked  with  many-coloured  feathers,  and  which  was  held  up  between  com- 
batants to  stop  hostilities,  appeared  in  the  eyes  of  all  an  image  of  the  blue  sky 
and  sun.  Presented  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  heavens,  it  traced  on  the  ground 
the  figure  of  a  large  cross,  rendering  it  propitious  to  human  enterprises. 

All  these  genii,  all  these  forces  of  the  earth  and  of  the  firmament,  culminated 
in  one  supreme  and  mysterious  spirit.  The  term  Mauitou  (Manito),  usually 
supposed  to  mean  "  Great  Spirit,"  would  have  been  much  more  correctly  inter- 
preted in  the  sense  of  the  "Unknown."  The  first  Catholic  and  Protestant 
missionaries,  who  visited  the  Algonquian  tribes  on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
or  in  the  forests  of  New  England,  studied  these  newly-discovered  peoples  from  the 
standpoint  of  their  own  preconceived  ideas.  Some  sought  in  the  religion  of  the 
aborigines  traces  of  Judaism,  or  even  of  some  ancient  Christian  revelation,  others 
recognised  in  it  nothing  but  the  work  of  the  devil,  and  prematurely  stigmatised 
the  words  and  acts  of  the  natives  as  blasphemy  and  profanation. 

Vet  the  Indians  in  no  respect  yielded  to  the  Puritans  in  their  serious  view  of 
life  and  respect  for  the  supernatural.  Veneration  is  one  of  the  distinctive  traits 
of  the  Redskins,  none  of  whose  languages  possess  irreverent  terms  offensive  to 
their  Manitous  ;  when  they  want  to  swear,  they  have  to  borrow  the  abusive 
expressions  from  English  or  French. 


ifi' 


Tribes  and  Nations — The  Algonquian  Family.* 

As  in  the  St.  Lawrence  basin,  the  tribal  family  most  numerously  represented 
in  the  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi  was  that  to  which  the  French  have  given 
the  name  of  Algonquins.      The  Lenni-Lenap^,  that  is,    "Original  Men,"  who 

•  The  ending  -an  is  here  adopted  with  .T.  W.  Powell  (Linguistic  Stoeks  of  American  Indiam  North 
of  Mexico,  1891)  in  the  widest  collective  sense,  to  indicate  the  whole  fa'nily  or  group,  that  is,  all  the 
tribes  speaking  dialects  of  a  common  etock  language.    Thus  Iroquois  comprises  only  the  "Six  Nations," 
hut  Iroqumaii  comprises  the  Hurons  and  the  Cherokees  as  well,  and  all  the  other  tribes  speaking  idiums 
derived  from  the  common  Ir^quoian  stcck  language. 


M 


•  iftpi  mimhi''^ 


ew  of 
I  traits 
3  to 
busive 


bented 
I  given 
who 

,  North 
[all  ibe 
JionB," 

I  idiums 


THE  ALGONQIIIANS. 


were  the  nation  in  a  pre-eminent  sense  of  ttiis  Algonquian  family,  dwelt  on  the 
hanks  of  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  in  the  present  states  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  Jersey.  A  very  large  number  of  clans,  all  calling  themselves 
"  children  "  or  "  nephews  "  of  the  Lenni-Lenape,  were  scattered  round  the  chief 
tribe ;  they  were  met  in  the  whole  region  stretcKing  from  the  Labrador  plateaux 
southwards  to  the  northern  estuaries  of  Georgia,  and  from  the  shores  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay  westwards  to  the  Athabaska,  a  space  altogether  of  about  1,500,000 
square  miles.  This  vast  territory,  however,  was  shared  by  thom  with  the  Iroquois 
and  some  other  peoples  of  different  ethnical  families. 

In  the  north-east  the  region  of  the  fjords  was  occupied  by  the  Mic-Macs 
and  Etchemins  jointly  with  the  Abenaki,  or  "  People  of  the  Dawn."  The 
Massachusetts,  the  Narragunsetts,  Pequods,  Mohicans,  Manhattuns,  and  other 
clans,  whose  names  still  survive  as  the  designation  of  states,  districts,  towns  or 
islands,  in  New  England  and  New  Yprk,  were  dominant  in  this  part  of  the 
coastlands  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson. 

South  of  the  Lenni-LenAp^  dwelt  the  Powhattans,  the  Accomacs  and  Pamlicos, 
while  in  the  AUeghanies  the  hunting-grounds  from  South  Carolina  to  Kentucky 
were  roamed  especially  by  the  Shawnees,  or  "  Men  of  the  South."  South  of 
the  Great  Lakes  the  Ottawas,  Miamis  and  Potawatomees,  the  Illinois  with 
their  Kaskaskia,  Cahokia  and  Peoria  sub-tribes,  the  Saulteux  or  Ojibways  of 
Lake  Superior,  the  Menomonees  of  Green  Bay  (Lake  Michigan),  the  Mascoutins, 
or  "  Prairie  Men,"  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  the  Kickapoos,  Sacs  (Sauks),  and 
Foxes  of  "Wisconsin  and  the  trans-Mississippi  region,  the  Cheyennes,  and  the 
Blackfeet,  were  all  alike  Algonquians. 

The  Len&p^  language,  a  typical  member  of  the  Algonquian  family,  is  one 
of  those  which  are  usually  referred  to  as  an  ex&mple  of  the  American  polysyn- 
thetic  idioms,  in  which  the  words  of  the  sentence  tend  to  merge  in  a  single 
polysyllable  of  great  length,  each  syllable  often  representing  a  distinct  word 
more  or  less  modified  or  reduced  by  contraction,  and  acquiring  its  definite  mean- 
ing from  its  position  relative  to  the  other  syllables.  Most  of  the  Indian 
expressions  that  have  passed  over  to  the  European  languages  proceed  from 
one  or  other  of  the  numerous  Algonquian  dialects;  such  are  the  terms,  "Manitou" 
(Manito,  Manitto),  spirit,  great  spirit,  the  unknown  forces  of  nature ;  "  saga- 
more" aud  "  sachem"  (sakima),  applied  to  chiefs  or  headmen. 

The  Iroquoian  or  Wyanuottian  Family. 

The  great  Iroquoian  or  "Wyandotlian  family,  represented  in  Canada  by  the 
Hurons  and  Iroquois,  had  also  a  wide  domain  south  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Some  of 
the  Hurons,  driven  by  people  of  the  same  stock  from  the  inter-lacustrine  region 
that  has  now  become  the  Canadian  province  of  Ontario,  had  escaped  beyond  Lake 
Superior,  and  formed  camping-grounds  in  the  woods  and  prairies  which  were 
also  frequented  by  the  Ojibways.  Others  had  penetrated  southwards  in  the 
direction  of  the  waterparting  between  the  basins  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  Ohio 
River.     Thus  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie  to  those  of  the  Mississippi  were 


J.-_ 


kj''i^, 


Wt' 


U  i 


88 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


scattercfl  numerous  groups  of  Ilurons  ;  known,  however,  by  the  most  varied 
desifrnutions.  Sonic  of  the  same  race  were  even  found,  possibly  from  a  remote 
poriod,  on  the  Virj^inian  coastlands  and  in  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  Sueh 
were  the  Chowans,  the  Nottoways,  the  Cherokees,  and  perhaps  the  far-famed 
Tu8t!iirora8,  who  later  retraced  their  steps  northwards  and  joined  the  Iroquois  league. 
These  Iroquois,  who  played  a  conspz'cuous  part  in  the  modern  history  of 
North  America,  were  the  undisputed  masters  of  the  territory  comprised  between 
the  Green  Mountains,  Lake  Erie  and  the  region  about  the  headwaters  of  the 
(Jliio,  Delaware  and  Susquehanna  rivers.  Moreover,  the  terror  inspired  by  their 
name  caused  theui  to  be  dreaded  far  beyond  the  limits  of  their  national  hunting- 
grounds.  Numerous  tribes  of  their  own  and  of  other  races  obeyed  their  orders ; 
they  overruled  the  tribes  of  New  England,  and  when  William  Penn  penetrated 

Fig.  16.  -Frontikr  op  tite  Iboquois  Nation  after  the  Cession  of  Canada  to  Enqlani). 

Scale  1  :  14,000,000. 


.,.-.?"> 

Indian  Frontier  in  1768. 
.^.— _^_^^.^__^  810  HilM. 

into  the  domain  of  the  Algonquian  Delawares  (Lenni-Len&p^),  he  fcund  that 
these  had  already  given  up  all  right  to  resist  the  exactions  of  the  Iroquois. 

The  Iroquois  were  dreaded  also  by  the  whites,  and  with  good  reason.  Occupy- 
ing the  intennodi  ite  space  between  the  regions  colonised  by  the  French  and 
English,  these  Indians  held  the  balance  between  the  domains  of  the  two  rival 
nations,  and  possibly  the  English  may  have,  in  some  measure  at  least,  been 
indebted  for  their  final  triumph  to  the  advantage  of  having  the  Iroquois  on 
their  side.  This  powerful  federation,  treated  on  a  footing  of  equality  with 
Great  Britain,  exacted  a  scrupulous  respect  for  their  frontiers,  which  in  this  direc- 
tion coincided  with  the  watershed  of  the  Susquehanna  and  the  course  of  the 
Ohio  from  near  its  source  to  the  Mississippi  confluence. 

The  military  strength  of  the  Iroquois  was  derived  especially  from  their  con- 
stitution,   a   league    of    "nations,"    enjoying   self-government    in    all    special 


r 


,1  <-"i!«i||'wqL»  ii»i*'  ^1  w^r  ■^fyyjT^ffir^vt  y^^.W' 


i'|»'  yTf«IMi'll>Ui 


THE   IfiOQUOIANd. 


89 


administrative  matters,  but  closely  united  in  the  struggle  against  the  common 
enemy.  The  Americans  have  been  inclined  to  recognise  in  this  league  the 
model  which  in  their  own  constitution  gives  equal  rights  to  each  citizen  and 
to  each  state  as  collective  individualities.  The  original  "five  nations,"  whose 
descendants  still  oxisr,  dwelling  in  the  same  country  as  their  forefathers,  were 
the  Mohawks,  Oueidas,  Onondugas,  Cayugm  and  Senecas,  who  in  1714  wore 
joined  by  a  sixth  nation,  that  of  the  Tuscaroras  from  the  south.  Ileuoe  tlie 
conquering  league  of  the  Iroquois  is  known  in  history  as  that  both  of  the  "Five  " 
and  "  Six  "  Nations.  Among  the  natives  themselves  the  general  designation  of 
the  league  was  Ilodenosaunee,  or  "  People  of  the  Long  Cabin,"  in  allusion  to  their 
common  life  in  a  great  confederacy. 

The  Cherokees,  or  "Beloved  People,"  constituted  another  ethnical  group 
of  the  Iroquoian  family.  They  were  a  highland  people,  living  in  hundreds  of 
separate  communities  in  the  upper  Appalachian  valleys,  both  on  the  eastern  and 
western  slopes  of  the  range,  as  well  as  on  the  plains  of  the  Tennessee  River  as  far 
as  the  Muscle  Shoal  rapids,  Alabama. 

Occupying  one  of  the  most  delightful  regions  in  North  America,  where  every 
district  has  its  diversified  woodlands,  its  hills  and  rocks,  its  fert'le  valleys  and 
running  waters,  the  Cherokees  were  one  of  the  most  sedentary  of  all  the  aboriginal 
populations.  They  had  their  permanent  cabins  and  encampments,  and  when  they 
were  compelled  to  forsake  their  ancestral  homes,  and  remove  to  reserves  beyond 
the  Mississippi,  they  cheerfully  resigned  themselves  to  the  inevitable,  and  in  their 
new  territory  maintained  the  advantage  that  a  long  inheritance  of  civilisation  had 
given  them  over  the  other  Indian  peoples.  Even  now  they  are  still  regarded  as 
the  foremost  of  the  cultured  nations  amongst  the  descendants  of  the  aborigines. 

The  Muskhogean  and  Natchesan  Famii,ies. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi  not  occupied  by  the 
Algonquian  and  Iroquoian  families  belonged  to  various  branches  of  the  Muskhogean 
(Muskogean)  family.  The  Mobiles,  who  have  left  their  name  to  the  bay  adjoining 
the  Mississippi  delta ;  the  Alibamons,  whose  name  survives  in  that  of  the  great 
river  Alabama ;  the  Chickasaws,  who  dwelt  chiefly  in  the  pleasantly-undulating 
plains  of  the  upper  Tombigbee,  but  who  also  held  camping- grounds  on  the  heights 
facing  the  Mississippi ;  the  Creeks,  or  Muskogees,  people  who  inhabited  tee  Iom'- 
lying  plains  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  from  the  Algonquin  frontier  at  Cape  Fear 
as  far  as  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  of  Florida ;  the  Yamassees,  or  Savannahs,  whose 
original  domain  is  recalled  by  the  name  of  a  river  and  a  large  city  ;  and  lastly, 
between  the  Alabama  and  the  Mississippi,  the  Choctaws  (Chacta),  who  became 
famous  for  their  relations  with  the  French  settlers  in  Louisiana  —were  all  members 
of  the  great  Muskhogean  linguistic  family. 

Agriculturists,  like  the  Cherokees,  and  occupied  scarcely  at  all  with  hunting, 
the  Muskhogees  had  even  approached  nearer  to  a  state  of  civilisation  analogous  to 
that  of  modern  societies.  In  many  parts  of  their  domain  they  had  formed  large 
village  communities,  and  in  field  operations  the  women  were  assisted  by  the  men. 


-|K^^gag;m»^^4:;^#^^«>i'ite^«^^ 


•ffW 


■**wwp'iw»w^*"«<^^Bijin"i|Hi>|i»T 


40 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Mm 


The  Natchez  (Nakch('),  who  were  conterminous  with  the  Choctaws  nnd,  like 
them,  occupied  the  eastern  bunks  of  the  Mississippi,  formed  a  separate  nation, 
distinct  in  speech,    although  closely  resembling    the  Alibaraons  in    tlioir  mode 

Kg.  17-— Abouoinbs  East  of  the  Mississippi  is  the  16th  Cestuey. 

Boole  1  :  28,0UU,0UX, 


gT3 


Indiiiis  uoSCr  u(  the  MuussippL 

^  EM 

TixDAT  (Hurom-Iroqdoian).  ALOOxquiANt.  ArrAbiCHTAin.  VciiBBa. 

(o)  Narragansiettg.    (fr)  requodi.    (e)  Mntiicans.    [U)  LeDni-Len&p^s. 
Indians  weat  of  the  Misaiasippi. 

BiouANg.  TrxAN  TniBKa. 


I,2fi0  Milea. 


■  t 


of  life.  Excellent  husbandmen,  they  were  also  acquainted  with  a  large  number 
of  alimentary  plants,  from  which  they  understood  the  art  of  preparing  savoury 
dishes  highly  appreciated  by  all  their  neighbours.  The  Natchez  were  perhaps 
the  most  civilised  nation  of  the  slope  facing  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  But  their  very 
culture,  by  giving  them  leisure  and  even  wealth,  had  facilitated  the  development 


I 


iw-ii^-.- 


^f^^ 


1 


III   '■    i>,n»i|y<i,ii  liwtMii  lyi 


-«,i'i)<u}iimiji>it»ii!iiiwii 


i  'ill 


.  y,.'.!.,!.!..  Ul.i  11.41111  J 


—. — r^T — 


usmm 


o 


z 
O 

w 


a; 


L., 


TS^s^J'^s^SW^Siprrrts 


[I  ' 


"'i.'lH'^' 


THK  DAKOTANS. 


41 


of  aristocrntio  clnsROB,  which  Iiv(Kl  at  tho  exponso  of  the  common  peoplu  con- 
temptuously deaignatod  "  StinkurdH,"  the  "I'uuntH"  of  French  writers. 

The  Natchez  chiefs  were  "  Sun  KiiigN  "  like  liouis  XIV.,  uad  when  they  diod 
numerous  uttondunts  hud  to  follow  iui'in  to  the  grave.  The  wife  of  the  departed 
Sun  WU8  also  strangled,  on  winch  account  the  aristocracy  had  framed  a  law 
interdicting  marriage  between  women  of  their  clans  and  the  chiefs. 

Some  other  tribes  east  of  the  Mis8is8ipi)i,  loss  famous  thun  the  Natchez,  op])ear, 
like  them,  to  have  been  linguisliciilly  distinct  from  the  dominant  Algcnquian, 
Wyandottian,  and  Muskhogeun  groups.  Such  wore  Timuouitniin,  or  the  SeminoUs, 
or  "  Wild  People,"  who  had  given  up  agriculture  for  the  chase  and  taken  refuge 
in  the  lacustrine  archipelagoes  in  the  interior  of  Florida  ;  and  the  Catawbas  and 
Uchees,  ol  the  Atlantic  8lr)pe,  both  isolated  amid  |x)pulations  of  dill'erent  speech. 
The  Uchees,  who  are  quite  extinct,  are  supposcfl  by  some  ethnologists  to  liuvo  been 
au  outlying  branch  of  the  Athabascan  family,  corresponding  on  the  Atlantic  side  to 
the  Apaches  of  the  Far  West.  In  Powell's  scheme  both  Ucheun  and  Natchesun 
are  clasjed  as  stock  languages  without  any  sub-groups. 

The  Dakotan  or  Siouan  Family. 

Till  recently  the  n;  ist  powerful  Indians  west  of  the  Mississippi  were  the 
Dukotas,  who  have  given  their  name  to  two  of  the  states  of  the  North  American 
republic.  They  are  the  Naudouisscs  or  Naudouissioux,  the  "  (^oupeurs  de  Gorge" 
("  Cutthroats"  )  of  the  early  French  voyageurs.  But  the  inconveniently  long 
word,  N(tii(louianiotix  has  survived  only  in  its  last  part,  Sioux,  which  has  become 
practically  synonymous  vith  Dal-ota,  os  an  alternative  collective  designation  of 
nearly  all  the  Redskins  in  the  northern  section  of  the  United  States  between 
the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  missionary,  Charles  Raymbault,  was  the  first  to  speak  of  the  Sioux  in 
1642,  but  none  of  the  Canadian  traders  and  trappers  ("coureurs  de  bois  ")  resided 
amongst  them  before  the  year  1659.  Since  that  time  their  tribes  had  been 
frequently  displaced,  even  before  the  later  rush  of  settlers  had  crowded  them  out 
in  the  direction  of  the  Rockies  and  the  northern  frontier.  The  bulk  of  the 
nation  has  received  the  name  of  the  "  Seven  Councils,"  or  rather  "  Seven  Great 
Council-fires,"  but  the  tribes  originally  associated  under  this  common  designa- 
tion were  afterwards  joined  in  various  ways  by  other  peoples  of  the  same  race. 
Amongst  them  were  the  Winnebagoes,  or  "  Lake  People,"  who  lived  near  the 
lake  of  that  name,  which  represents  a  former  southern  extension  of  Green  Bay 
on  the  west  side  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  Winnebagoes,  who  had  long  held  aloof, 
were  later  removed  to  Nebraska  beyond  the  Missouri. 

Another  important  branch  of  the  Dakotas,  who  since  the  arrival  of  the 
Europeans  in  North  America  appear  to  have  always  inhabited  the  plains  beyond 
the  Mississippi,  is  the  Omaha  or  Thegiha  nation,  whose  social  constitution, 
thoroughly  studied  by  Dorsey,*  is  regarded  as  the  type  of  the  Indian  tribe. 

The  Hidatsas,  Minetarees, or  Gros- Ventres  ("Paunches"), of  the  upper  Missouri, 

•  J.  Owen  Doraey,  Omaha  Socio'ogy. 


mttK»t0^i-»m7^>e^mimsT- 


-  —  ■     m  Ml  II—  I  itmum     ■'■ 


I     1 


42 


THE  I  NITliU  8TATl.y. 


m 


1  i 


<h«  rpmirtikiii,  pr  "  f'rows,"  of  the  foothilln  of  tlio  Rocky  Mountains,  who  main- 
tiiincd  un  uliiHmt  conHtiint  wurfuro  with  tho  kiii(li'i.>(l  AHMinibniiifH  of  thu  Ciiiiiiliiiit 
rroiilinr,  tin-  (  Ihu^cm  of  the  lower  MiHHouri,  iho  Iowiih,  ()tot>«  und  MiHKomiM,  tho 
KiinNaH  tuui  ArkanxiiM,  whoHo  nunioM  arc  applied  both  to  thn  htiitim  and  to  tho 
rivorn  travcCMinj^  their  domain,  aro  also  mernherH  of  the  Dakotan  family. 

Another  hranoli  of  tho  Hamo  Htock  aro  tho  MandaiiH,  thu  "  Montons  "  of  the 
enily  Froneh  voyaKeur«,  who  call  theniHolves  Namakaki,  that  i«,  "Men." 
Alflioiijifh  rediKfd  to  a  few  fiimilies  liy  an  outbreak  of  Muallpox  in  IH.'JT,  tho 
Mandans  woro  formerly  a  powerful  natii>n,  and  ono  of  ihe  moHteiviliHed  groupH  of 
abori^inof*,  with  larfje  villa^uH  Hurroundin^  tho  *' medicino  lodge,"  and  carefully 
cultivated  Hclds  Hfretchinj^  to  great  diMtaneen  along  the  watercoursos. 

Other  tribes,  such  an  the  PawneeH  (I'ftiii,  or  "  Wolves"),  tho  Arrapahoos,  and 
liieiireoH  of  tho  western  prairies,  formerly  much  dreaded  owing  to  their  pro- 
datory  habits,  have  by  dilferent  writers  been  variously  grouped  with  the  Dakotas, 
tShoslumes  and  Athaijascans.  Regarded  as  low-caste  marauders  by  all  the  noble 
tribes  of  the  West,  the  Pawnees  were  the  only  people  the  Canadian  traders  thought 
it  possible  to  reduce  to  a  state  of  slavery.    No  other  nation  would  have  endured  it. 

Athapascan  and  Coi.i'Mhian    Guoii'ti. 

The  Athapascan  tribes,  as  indicated  by  their  name,  occupy  tho  northern  wilds 
of  the  Athabascan  basin  ;  but  they  have  also  some  representatives  south  of  tho 
Canadian  frontier.  Nearly  all,  having  been  first  visited  by  tho  Canadian  traders, 
have  preserved  their  French  names  ;  such  are  the  T^tos- Plates,  now  better  known 
as  Flat-Ifeuds,  tho  Pend'Oreilles,  the  Nez-Perces,  and  tho  Ccours  d'Alfine. 
This  group  of  Athapascan  tribes  is  usually  known  by  the  collective  names  of 
Salish  ;  it  comprises  most  of  the  natives  dwelling  south  of  Rritish  Columbia, 
between  the  (Jascado  range  and  tho  main  chain  of  tho  Rockies  in  the  part  of 
tho  Columbia  basin  lying  to  tho  north  of  the  Dalles.  The  term  Flut-IIeads,  attri- 
buted to  the  chief  tribe,  is  also  applied,  even  in  a  higher  degree,  to  all  the  other 
members  of  tho  family,  and  not.tbly  to  the  Chinooks.  Few  other  American 
aborigines  aro  so  addicted  to  the  practice  of  manipulating  the  skull  und  introducing 
ornaments  into  the  nostrils,  ears,  and  lips. 

Down  to  the  middle  of  tho  present  century  numerous  tribes  of  diverse  speech 
were  crowded  together  in  the  narrow  zone  of  the  coastlands  along  the  slope  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains  north  and  south  of  the  Columbia  River.  This  region  of  deep 
gorges,  similar  to  many  others  in  the  Old  World,  might  bo  compared  to  a  sort  of 
trisp,  where  easy  access  was  afforded  to  the  Columbia  valley,  but  whence  it  was 
difficult  to  get  back.  Nowhere  else  in  America  is  there  found  such  a  chaos  of 
distinct  tribes  unrelated  to  each  other. 

Amongst  these  groups  of  distinct  speech  some  are  Tinneh  or  Athapascans, 
some  are  allied  to  the  Columbians  of  Vancouver  Island,  and  to  others  who  are 
8ui)po8cd  to  belong  to  the  same  stock  as  the  Shoshones.  The  Nisqually,  who  dwell 
on  the  shores  of  Puget  Sound,  are  akin  to  the  Vancouver  Nootkas,  and,  like  them, 
live  on  a  liish  diet.  To  the  same  ethnical  division  belong  the  Clallams  of  Cape 
Flattery  and  the  Kliketats  of  the  Olympia  district. 


TUK  HHOSIloNKANa. 


48 


;an8, 
are 

well 
em, 
'ape 


The  RIitriiiitliH,  who  iin<  aUo  a  riverine  people,  iiiul  who  formerly  occupied  tht* 
iliiviul  vaUey  of  thoir  iiaino,  Hoiith  of  tlie  Coliiiiihia,  fori'\  a  perfectly  distinct 
etlinie.d  ^roii]),  which  lon^  coiitiiiiiud  in  a  Ntate  of  lioHtilltiuM  ii^tiiiiNt  the  whitea. 
Hyiico  the  nuiiio  of  "  Romies"  applied  to  fhein  hy  the  Hrnt  Aii^ht-American  Nolllerii 
in  Califurnia.  Like  the  ll(H)paH,  the  Khantaa  and  the  Modoca,  they  are  of  Atha- 
paHciin  Htock. 

Thu  (^hinooks,  who  prai'lisc  cranial  doformatiori  like  tlieir  Fhit  Head  nei^li- 
bourH,  inhabit  the  liilly  diMtricts  of  the  lower  Colinnhia.  They  appiMir  to  [w  a  very 
mixed  people,  probably  tho  rcMultof  their  uoiiHtant  journevH  aH  uarrieru  and  pack- 
men. lionideH  their  native  language,  they  uRod  a  trade  jargon  of  a  few  hundred 
words,  amongst  which  are  Hevoral  of  French  and  KngliMh  origin.  Thin  lingiui-francn 
has  since  been  greatly  developed,  and  is  now  the  chief  medium  of  intercuurHc 
between  the  whites  and  the  aborigines  throughout  the  whole  region  of  tlio  coaat- 
landa  from  Alaska  to  the  old  Spanish  missions  ot  South  California. 

TuK   SllOHHONKAN    AND   CaIIIK)»N    FaMII.IKS. 

To  the  Shoshoncan  family  b.  long  most  of  the  iribea  in  tho  Great  Basin  and 
neighbouring  mountains.  VVheii  the  Kuropcans  first  arrived,  the  eistern  groups 
occupied  the  Missouri  basin  in  thi>  i>resent  Dakota  don\ain ;  but  with  the 
general  displacement  of  the  aboriginal  populations  they  w'o  gradually  pressed 
westward  to  and  beyond  the  main  runge  of  tie  Rocky  .Lountauis.  The  Shoshones, 
or  "Snakea,"  proj)erly  so  called,  at  present  occupy  ^^v  olcvated  plains,  limited  on 
tho  north  by  the  Snake  River,  to  which  they  have  {^iven  theii    lame. 

Like  their  western  neighbours,  tho  Wi  in  hts,  who  dwell  amongst  the  Sierra 
Nevada  uplands,  the  Shoshones  eke  out  a  so.A' existence  on  their  arid  lands, 
whore  they  are  often  reduced  to  great  distress,  and  even  absolute  starvaiiou.  To 
the  Shoshonean  ethnical  division  belong  most  of  those  degraded  and  almost  black 
natives  of  the  Californiun  plains  who  are  subject  to  rickets,  and  who  are  col- 
lectively known  as  "  Diggers,"  from  the'^  habit  of  grubbing  in  the  ground 
either  in  search  of  roots,  or  to  make  themselves  dens.  Rut  all  the  Indian  races 
are  represented  amongst  these  wretched  famine-stricken  fugitives.  Like  the 
Shoshones,  the  Diggers  make  baskets  so  closely  wickered  as  to  hold  water.  In 
these  baskets  they  even  boil  the  water  by  moans  of  rod-hot  stones. 

Members  of  the  Snake  family  are  also  the  Utahs  (Yutes,  Utes),  from  whom 
one  of  the  territories  of  the  ;. "blic  takes  its  name.  These  aborigines  of  the 
Wahsatch  Mountains  have  no  claim  to  the  grave  demeanour  said  to  be  the  chief 
characteristic  of  their  race;  on  the  contrary,  they  have  for  tho  most  part  an 
excessively  mobile  physioj^iiomy,  and  speak  with  great  volubility.  Thuir  language, 
like  all  the  other  S)  oibonean  idioms,  shows  cert;iin  phonetic  affinities  to  the 
Aztec-Sonora  group  of  Mexico,  and  is  one  of  tho  most  harmonious  of  Indian 
tongues ;  b';t  it  is  already  greatly  corrupted,  and  includes  many  English  and 
Spanish  terms.  Even  with  the  Navajo  tribes  on  their  southern  frontier  they  are 
unable  to  converse  except  through  the  medium  of  a  more  or  less  correct  Spanish. 

The  Utahs  are  amongst  the  most  talented  artists  of  all  the  aboriginal  tribes 


I 


&t.. 


il^ 


f 


44 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


In  almost  every  lodge  are  seen  representations  of  men,  animals,  tents  and  diverse 
objects  intended  to  commemorate  battles  or  other  important  events. 

The  Pah-Utahs  (Piutcs,  Pah-Utes),  who  dwell  farther  south  on  the  plateaux 
and  in  the  river  gorges  tributary  to  the  Colorado,  belong  to  the  same  group  as  the 
Utahs.  But  in  the  more  arid  districts  they  are  reduced  to  the  same  miserable 
condition  as  the  Diggers,  with  whom  the  more  prosperous  Indians  associate  them 
in  a  common  feeling  of  contempt. 

Some  of  the  Comanches,  or  Nayuni,  that  is,  "  Neighbours,"  are  conterminous 
with  the  Utahs  on  the  east  side  towards  the  sources  of  the  Colorado.  But  the  bulk 
of  their  nation  live  farther  south  along  the  middle  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  del 
Norte  and  in  the  Pecos  valley.  The  Comanches  are  akin  to  the  Shoshones,  and, 
like  them,  speak  a  language  perhaps  remotely  related  to  the  Aztec-Sonora  group. 
But  they  are  a  very  mixed  people,  for  the  Comanches,  like  the  Apaches,  were  in 
the  habit  of  organising  warlike  and  plundering  expeditions  for  the  purpose  of 
sweeping  from  the  surrounding  plains  women  and  children,  that  is  to  say,  wives 
and  future  companions  in  arras.  Hence  amongst  them  are  mot  many  persons 
who  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  Crows,  Pawnees,  Navajos  or  Ricarees. 

Eastwards  the  Comanches  bordered  on  numerous  Texan  peoples,  who  were 
visited  by  Cabega  de  Vaca,  Cavelier  de  la  Salle  and  other  explorers,  but  who  have 
now  disappeared.  The  Caddoes,  who  dwelt  along  the  middle  course  of  the  Red 
River,  had  trading  relations  on  one  side  with  the  Comanches,  on  the  other  with 
the  Natchitoches,  the  Nacogdoches,  the  Attakapas  or  "  Man-Eaters,"  the  Chiti- 
machas  of  the  Teche  bayou,  the  Taensas  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Natchez  east 
of  that  river.  The  Caddo  language  served  as  the  medium  of  intercourse  for  all 
these  peoples,  as  the  Chinook  jargon  does  for  those  of  the  Pacific  seaboard. 

The  Moqui  ;  Yuman  and  Piman  Families. 

The  Moquis  of  the  lower  Colorado,  who  already  show  Mexican  influences,  and 
wear  the  Mexican  poncho,  resemble  the  aboriginal  populations  of  Anahuac  in 
their  traditions  and  mode  of  life.  Their  western  and  south-western  neighbours, 
the  Mojaves  (Mohaves)  of  the  lower  Colorado,  form  another  distinct  ethnical 
division,  which  also  comprises  the  Yumas  and  Cocopas  of  the  Colorado  estuary, 
the  Dieguenos  of  the  San  Diego  district,  California,  the  Yaquis  of  Sonora,  the 
Maricopas  of  tho  Gila  River,  and  the  Hualapais  of  north-western  Arizona. 

These  various  kindred  peoples  are  for  the  most  part  of  middle  size  but  well-pro- 
portioned and  muscular ;  they  live  in  little  houses  of  beehive  form,  wooden  frames 
covered  with  earth  and  with  only  one  opening.  They  cultivate  the  alluvial  tracts 
left  dry  by  the  subsidence  of  the  Colorado  flood-waters,  raising  crops  of  wheat, 
maize,  haricot  beans,  melons  and  pumpkins. 

Till  recently  the  Mojaves  covered  the  surrounding  rocks  with  inscriptions, 
and  M.  Pinart  thinks  he  may  state  positively  that  they  perfectly  understood  the 
meaning  of  these  hieroglyphics ;  they  even  still  employ  them,  but  are  careful 
not  to  interpret  them  to  the  whites. 

Other  frontier  peoples,  notably   the   Pimos,  or  Pima,  greatly  resemble  tbo 


KAI-VAV-rr  OR  KAIBAB  WOMEN,  PAH-UTK  NATION. 


tbo 


r!;i^^T?^'..V...-tv.iU.;,TlB(-"''ai'.>l->-.v;.'--.VA';'.;#.>t.,! 


-teka^ 


H-,f^'-. 


J£te.i^  . 


'''^' ; ■,».u;ii »_  1,1 1  jKi  )ur|w»;  f  iimiiff 


THE  PIMAS. 


45 


Mojaves  in  appearance,  although  their  language  is  fundamentally  different. 
They  belong  to  the  division  represented  in  Mexico  by  the  Opata  nation.  Of 
short  stature  and  for  the  most  part  well-shaped,  they  have  a  prominent  brow, 
narrow  nose,  mild  expression,  soft  flesh  and  fair  complexion.  From  time  imme- 
moritil  possessing  a  considerable  degree  of  civilisation,  the  I'imas  cultivate  the 
la  la  V  ith  intelligence,  and  construct  their  irrigation  canals  with  great  care. 
Thb  uydraulic  works  carried  out  by  their  ancestors  might  serve  as  models  for  the 

Fig    IR.     YtTMA  Indian. 


v4^n 


^\t  I*-:.     ;^' 


"t.if/,. 


Americans  themselves.     Drains  and  trenches,  now  almost  obliterated,  may  still  be 
traced,  winding  for  a  distance  of  twelve  miles  round  the  foot  of  the  hills. 

But  the  Pimaa  are  on  the  decline,  and  are  well  aware  of  the  fact.  According 
to  a  national  tradition,  they  were  driven  from  their  old  homes  by  a  ferocious  tribe, 
probably  the  Apaches,  and  after  seeking  refuge  in  the  mountains,  returned  greatly 
reduced  in  numbers,  only  to  find  their  lands  wasted  and  their  buildings  destroyed. 
The  rains  of  structures  still  seen  on  the  hillside,  the  so-called  casas  grandes  ("  great 
houses  ")  described  by  archaeologists,  would  appear  to  have  been  the  habitations  of 
their  forefathers.  It  is  in  their  territory,  on  a  hill  commanding  the  Gila  valley  to 
the  north-  west  of  Tucson,  that  is  found  the  Casa  Grande  of  Montezuma,  mentioned 


-iVj 


'■■Km 


mmmmmmtmmLmMmtn\m«ui\miiiiiillit^U^ 


„„ 


■  III.  II  ip,i    w  ■#i;^t^iji>;'iyy-«i-'i"jStM>m"""'W'i"V 


'U 


46 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


by  tbe  Jesuit  iniBsionary,  Kino,  at  tlio  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.     Of  this 
edifice  nothing  now  remains  except  some  walls  built  of  sun-dried  brii-ks. 

The  Pukhlos  Indians  and  Cmff-Dwem.krs. 

Of  all  the  aboriginal  natives  none  have  in  recent  times  been  more  carefully 
studied  than  the  I'uebios  of  Now  Mexico,  so  named  from  tbe  nineteen  puvblon 
("  villages  ")  inhabited  by  them,  'i'ho  interest  of  archajologists  and  ethnologists 
has  been  awakened  by  thd  form  and  magnitude  of  their  dwellings,  the  antiqui- 
ties discovered  in  the  country,  the  Montezuma  legend,  the  memory  of  the  expedi- 
tions formerly  made  in  quest  of  the  "  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,"  the  social  condition 
and  religious  practices  of  these  native  communities. 

A  rich  literature  has  already  been  devoted  to  the  now  impoverished  Pueblos, 
who  are  supposed  by  many  to  form  an  ethnical  transition  between  the  northern 
mound- builders  and  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico.  They  dwell  for  the  most  part  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  bmks  of  the  Rio  Grande  ;  the  Zuni,  however,  one  of  their  best- 
known  tribes,  are  settled  far  from  that  river  near  the  sources  of  the  Gila,  while 
the  Moqui,  who  are  also  reckoned  amongst  the  Pueblos,  live  near  the  Colorado 
in  north-east  Arizona. 

In  the  Pueblos  country  were  discovered  in  the  middle  of  the  present  century  * 
those  astonishing  habitations  of  the  so-called  "Ciiff-Dwellers,"  who  perched  on  the 
top  of  steep  cliffs,  or  else  occupied  natural  or  artificial  caves  excavated  half-way 
up  the  side  of  these  cliffs.  The  apparently  inaccessible  heights  were  scaled  by 
means  of  long  poles  with  lateral  teeth  disposed  like  the  rungs  of  a  ladder,  and 
inserted  at  in':ervals  in   notches  let  into  the  face  of  the  perpendicular  rock. 

The  most  curious  of  these  dwellings,  compared  to  which  the  most  rugged 
Alpine  crags  are  of  easy  access,  have  ceased  to  be  occupied  ;  but  the  Moqui  still 
possess  villages  built  on  sandstone  mesas  or  "  tables,"  standing  isolated  in  the 
midst  of  a  sandy  ocean  almost  destitute  of  vegetation. 

The  Moqui  have  never  had  anything  to  fear  from  the  surrounding  Apache 
or  Navajo  marauders  :  their  eyries  could  be  reached  only  by  a  single  dangerous 
track  easily  defended.  They  stood  in  uU  the  greater  need  of  such  habitations 
that  they  were  forbidden  by  immemorial  religious  tradition  to  offer  any  physical 
resistance,  or  to  shed  human  blood  under  any  pretext. 

It  is  evident  from  the  term  Pueblos,  applied  by  the  Spaniards  to  the  Indian 
settlements  on  the  Rio  Grande,  that  at  the  time  of  tbe  discovery  these  natives 
no  longer  occupied  those  elevated  rocky  strongholds,  but  already  dwelt  in  vil- 
lages on  the  plains  resembling  tbo.se  still  inhiibited  by  the  kindred  peoples  of 
the  Californian  peninsula  and  north  Mexican  provinces.  But  their  casas 
grandes  are  also  strongholds,  for  the  uuter  vertical  or  step  walls  present  no 
opening  and  have  to  be  mounted  by  means  of  ladders.  When  the  top  is  thus 
reached,  the  inmates  descend  on  the  iimer  side  down  to  the  roofs,  platforms  and 
courtyards,  grouped  round  and  facing  which  are  the  cells  of  the  clan,  the  whole 
of  which  is  thus  accommodated  under  a  single  roof. 

•  .1  H  Kimp'on,  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  18)0  ;  Holmes,  Jackson,  rowell,  Newberry, 
Sohwatka,  H-Miny,  itc. 


1 


THE  PUEBLOS. 


47 


lian 

res 
Hl- 
of 
fsas 
I  no 
ms 
^id 
Jle 

py, 


It  is  conjecturod  that  tho  New  Mexican  Cliff- Dwellers  were  compelled  by  (he 
gradual  diminution  of  moisture  to  descend  from  the  rocky  summits,  and  excavate  the 
artificial  caves  lower  down.  This  hypothesis  is  rendered  somewhat  probalrlo  by 
the  so-called  kd-kd,  a  sacred  dance  performed  cspeci  illy  by  the  Zufii,  but  only  on 
rare  occasions,  after  prolonged  droughts.     The  men  alone  are  privileged  to  take 

Fig.  19.— Indian  Populations  West  of  the  Missisbippi. 

Scale  1  :  60,0U0,UU0. 


45° 


Vest  o 


ALOONgUIAMg. 


Atiiapabcanb. 
(a)  Hoopaha.    (6)  Umpqnaa. 


Indiana  beyond  the  Jllaaiaafppf . 


SiouANS.  Trzam  Tbibei. 

Elamaths  (Coluhbiams). 


Ukxioakb. 


TiSNKIIH. 

{o)  Clallams.    (d)  Songbi. 


Indiana  east  of  the  Miasisaippi. 


m 


ALUu^QUIAN8. 


ApPALACIIIAirS, 

,  1,2G0  MileH. 


part  in  this  religious  act ;  the  women,  however,  being  also  represented  by  masked 
youths  arrayed  in  a  long  black  wig. 

The  division  of  labour,  which  English  political  economists  speak  of  as  a  dis- 
covery of  modern  industry,  prevailed  from  time  out  of  mind  amongst  the  Pueblos 
Indians,  Each  tribe,  although  completely  independent,  is  united  with  all  the 
others  in  a  perfect  bond  of  common  interests.  Thus  the  Jemez  people  furnished 
the  cereals,  the  Cochiti  made  the  earthenware,  others  wove  the  textile  fabrics, 
and  the  Moqui,  the  poets  of  these  nations,  composed  the  war  and  love  songs.         ' 


•T'SKij;' ■,."»;  v"S' 


%sw^] 


...jjMWHiiiwriBitiiiiiii <'nii ■riiiiiiniii'iii"ii'iitiinfnm 


■«*!•' 


'^>i 


t  I 


t  I 


48 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


p4   !l    > 


TiiK  SovTHKRX  Athapascan  Families. 

In  close  proximity  to  these  peaceful  communities,  the  most  civilised  in 
America  north  of  the  Anahuac  plateau,  roamed  the  Apaches  (Lipaues,  Jicarillas, 
Mescaleros  and  others),  most  ferocious  of  all  the  marauding  tribes.  Those  fierce 
Apache  rovers  are  an  outlying  branch  of  the  Athapascan  fumily,  far  removed  from 
their  northern  kindred,  and  driven  by  the  altered  conditions,  especially  the  arid 
character  of  their  new  domain,  to  support  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  fertile  neighbouring  valleys.  Their  last  retreat,  before  the 
American  Government  had  them  interned,  was  the  Metzatzal  Sierra  in  the  heart 
of  Arizona.  Here  in  the  upper  llin  Tinto  valley,  carved  into  steep  mountain 
gorges  and  encircled  by  rocky  cavernous  recesses,  the  indomitable  warriors  glided 
from  cave  to  cave  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Federal  troops,  whom  they  were 
able  to  shoot  down  from  their  vantage  ground. 

The  Navajos,  also  of  Athapascan  stock,  but,  according  to  the  national 
legend,  sprung  from  a  maize  cob,  occupy  the  plateaux  between  the  Rio  Grande 
and  the  Colorado.  But  these  have  better  than  their  Apache  kindred  adapted 
themselves  to  the  changed  environment,  living  not  on  rapine  but  by  labour  and 
industry.  Already  half  civilised,  they  have  been  more  successful  even  than  their 
Spanish  neighbours  in  sheep-breeding.  AVith  the  wool  they  have  also  learnt  to 
weave  blankets,  which  for  durability  and  imperviousness  to  moisture  surpass  all 
similar  products  of  the  European  looms. 

Foreign  Setilers — Whites  and  Blacks. 

In  European  lands  it  would  no  longer  be  possible  even  approximately  to  deter- 
mine the  precise  ethnical  elements  of  the  various  races  that  have  gradually  merged 
in  homogeneous  peoples.  Not  only  are  we  ignorant  of  the  proportions  in  which 
these  elements  have  been  intermingled,  but  ethnologists  are  atill  discussing  the 
very  identity  of  the  populations  bearing  a  common  name  in  history. 

But  in  the  United  States  it  is  an  easier  task  for  families  and  communities  to 
trace  back  their  lineage  to  white  ancestors  of  European  origin.  Apart  from  a  few 
unimportant  gaps,  here  we  possess  the  records  of  colonisation  for  three  hundred 
years.  But  although  all  the  ethnii  .1  elements  merged  in  the  American  people 
are  known,  it  would  be  rash  to  assign  to  each  its  respective  share  in  forming  the 
mass  of  the  nation,  or  attempt  to  determine  the  special  features  they  have  im- 
pre  -^ed  on  its  character. 

In  any  case  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  recognise  none  but  English  colonies  in  the 
United  States,  colonies  such  as  they  were  constituted  before  the  great  flood  of 
modern  immigration.  The  term  "  Anglo-Saxon,"  often  applied  to  the  Union,  if 
taken  in  the  strict  ethnical  sense,  is  all  the  less  justified  that  Great  Britain  her- 
self is  far  from  being  exclusively  peopled  by  the  descendants  of  the  Angles  and 
Saxons.  The  early  Britons  and  Welsh,  the  Gaels  of  Ireland  and  the  Scotch 
Highlanders  were  admittedly  Celts  with  possibly  a  substratum  of  Silurian,  Iberian, 
or  other  primitive  non-Aryan  peoples,  and  this  already  mixed  Celtic  race  is 
perhaps  more  numerously  represented  in  the  United  States  than  the  Teutonic 


THE  WHITE  IMMIGRANTS. 


49 


element  itself.     Of  over  60,000,000  citizens  of  the  Union,  Fleming  calculates  that 
not  more  than  18,000,000  are  English,  or  of  English  descent.* 

But  however  this  be,  the  North  Americans,  of  such  diverse  European  origin, 
are  a  new  people,  modified  at  once  by  crossings  and  by  a  climate  different  from 


6 
S 


■^ 


that  in  which  their  forefathers  were  themselves  developed.  In  the  veins  of  the 
white  American  flows  British  (English,  Scotch,  and  Welsh),  Irish,  French, 
German,  Spanish  and  Scandinavian  blood — mingled,  in  some  cases,  with  a  slight 
negro  and  Indian  strain.       - 

•  John  C.  Flomingi  Aorth  American  Review,  August,  1891. 
70 


•rf. ■■,',! 


"U:. 


"14 


■M 


I 


timmmmaimimmitmm 


\tMm\M  II  <m  iHMuimnuuMJi » 


i>iui«>>wiiitmiinj»»ii 


'ni 


no 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Police  do  Leon,  Painpliilo  do  Narvacz.  Trernaiido  do  Soto,  and  thoir  compan- 
ions, all  SpanianJK,  M-ero  the  first  Kiiropoans  who,  after  the  discovery,  stood  on  soil 
embraced  in  tlie  present  United  States,  thon<j;h  only  to  |)orish  or  escape  at  great 

Fio.  21.— FiitsT  KnKNcn  and  Spanish  Colonim  in  KLoniDA. 

Kualu  i  :  TIH),0()0. 


0  toB 
ft'.tboms. 


Dpptha. 


6  to  10 
Fathoma. 


10  Fntlinma 
and  npwiu-da. 


ISHilM. 


risk.  The  immigrants,  properly  so  called,  who  established  themselves  at  the 
earliest  known  date  within  the  limits  of  the  present  Union  were  not  English  but 
French.  Already  in  the  year  1562  the  L'nguenot,  Riband,  sent  by  Coligny, 
founded  a  settlement  on  the  south-east  cr  ast  of  the  territory  still  called  by 
him  "  Floride,"  but  renamed  "  Carolina "  after  the  English  occupation  under 


-tim- 


THE  FIBST  SETTIiEIlS. 


51 


rharlt«8  !!.•  The  immigrants  erccto.1  their  first  cabins  on  the  inlet  of  Charles- 
fort,  perhaps  near  I.emou  Island,  on  the  shores  of  one  of  the  broad  estuaries  near 
which  wa.  afterwards  founded  the  city  of  (Charleston.  Wut.  reduced  by  hardships 
ond  fever,  the  twenty.six  survivors,  resolvin-  to  escape,  took  to  the  high  sea  in  a 
rudoly-built  bark,  and  after  long  exposure  to  the  Atlantic  billows  were  at  last 
rescued  by  an  English  vessel  in  European  waters. 

Tv7o  years  ufterw.rds  LaudonnitVe,  another  of  Coligny's  officers,  ascended  the 
course  of    the    Floridan    river, 
May,     probably    the     one     now      ^'"^^  "—The  Old  Catuemal,  St.  Auousti.n«,  Flor.da. 

known  as  St.  John,  and  then 
erected  the  fortalico  of  Caroline 
on  a  triangular  island.  But  the 
following  year  the  Spaniards 
hastened  to  repel  this  encroach- 
ment, made  on  what  they  re- 
garded as  their  exclusive  domain 
by  right  of  discovery.  Arriving 
with  a  whole  fleet  and  over  2,600 
men,  soldiers  and  crew,  Men- 
endez  took  up  a  strong  position 
at  San  Agustin  on  the  coast ; 
then,  having  surprised  the  little 
group  of  Huguenot  settlers,  ho 
butchered  them  all,  *'not  as 
Frenchmen  but  as  heretics." 

Three  years  later  Dominique 
de  Gourgues,  a  Gascon  nobleman, 
avenged  these  murders  by  seizing 
with  a  small  band  the  three 
Spanish  forts  lying  nearest  to 
the  site  of  the  massacre,  and 
hanging  the  defenders,  "  not  as 
Spaniards  but  as  traitors,  thieves 
and  murderers." 

The  station  of  San  Agustin,  the  present  St.  Augustine,  still  exists ;  and  except 
the  towns  that  rose  on  the  sites  of  ancient  Indian  villages,  it  is  the  oldest  place 
in  the  United  States. 

The  Makers  of  Virginia. 
In  virtue  of  the  right  of  possession  based  on  the  Cabots'  discovery  of  the 
North  American  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  English  Government  claimed  all  the  coast- 
lands  at  present  comprised  within  United  States  territory ;  but  for  nearly  a  century 
the  claim  remained  unsupported  by  any  attempt  to  actually  occupy  and  settle  the 
land.  At  last,  in  158  i.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  received  in  fief  a  great  part  of  tho  coast 

•  Paul  GafEarel,  Hiatoire  de  la  Floride  fran^aiie. 


J  1 


s 


gS3^3iasj-'«v«j*?i*«««w33'-» 


xr-'^snuf-  i,if"rw^wCTj^y.fiwgr- 


62 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I 


m 


roj^ion,  fo  which  tho  virgin  queen,  Klizoboth,  gave  the  name  of  "  Virginia,"  in 
honour  of  herself,  but  his  three  succeHsive  ossiiyH  of  colonisation  uU  omlud  in  failure. 

Thus  ut  tho  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  not  n  single  Englishman 
was  resident  on  tho  North  American  continent,  which  is  ut  present  inhabited  by 
HO  many  millions  of  their  race.  They  effected  no  footing  in  the  country  till 
the  year  1(507,  that  is  to  say,  forty-five  years  after  the  landing  of  the  French  on 
the  shores  of  Carolina  and  Florida.  About  u  hundred  persons,  led  by  Wiug- 
field.  established  themselves  on  the  shores  of  a  peninsula  in  tho  estuary  of  the 
James  River,  Virginin,  and  here  founded  the  settlement  of  Jamestown,  which, 
however,  was  too  badly  situated  to  prosper.  Nothing  now  remains  of  this  place 
except  the  ruins  of  a  church. 

The  first  settlors  had  been  labourers,  artisans,  and  "  poor  gentlemen,"  without 
any  profession,  and  the  recruits  by  whom  the  Virginian  pioneers  were  joined  during 
the  following  years  belonged  to  the  same  social  classes.  The  immigrants  were 
so  decimated  by  famine,  sickness  and  war  ihat,  in  1019,  twelve  years  after  the 
foundation  of  Jamestown,  not  more  than  600  persons  were  found  in  the  colony. 

But  after  this  period  the  population  increased  rapidly,  thanks  to  tho  cultiva- 
tion of  tobacco,  which  had  been  introduced  from  the  West  Indies.  Numbers  of 
respectable  young  women  were  sent  to  the  colony  from  the  English  ports,  and 
were  married  to  the  planters,  each  planter  paying  the  charges  for  the  trans- 
portation of  his  bride  with  from  1,200  to  1,500  pounds  of  tobacco.  All  the 
colonists  of  both  sexes  were  exclusively  of  English,  Scotch,  or  Irish  origin. 

The  landed  proprietors  soon  cast  about  for  hands  as  substitutes  in  the  field 
operations  ;  even  before  employing  negroes  imported  from  the  West  Indies,  they 
ut  iliaed  white  servile  labour  for  the  purpose.  These  "  indented  servants  "  were 
temporary  slaves,  who  wore  purchased  like  pack  animals.  Agents  were  commis- 
sioned to  buy  up  this  human  cattle  in  all  the  English  ports,  and  to  consign  them 
at  so  much  a  head  ;  at  times  they  completed  their  cargoes  of  men  and  women  by 
kidnapping  people  in  the  streets.  The  English  Government  itself  fostered  this 
white  slave  trade  by  shipping  to  Chesapeake  Bay  the  prisoners  taken  during  the 
civil  wars.  Doalers  furnished  with  full  powers  became  man-hunters,  and  the 
English  authorities  also  transported  criniinuls  to  the  American  colonies  and  sold 
them  to  tho  highest  bidders. 

Thus  the  Virginian  population  consisted  at  first  of  the  most  diverse  elements 
But  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  in  England,  over  forty  years  after  the  founda 
tiou  of  the  colony,  a  considerable  number  of  cavaliers,  nobles  and  citizens  emigrated 
to  Virginia,  and  many  of  those  became  large  landowners.  But  in  16G0,  after  the 
Restoration,  most  of  t'uem  returned  to  the  mother  country.  Although  the  ex- 
pression "first  families  of  Virginia,"  the  familiar  ii'lF.  F.,  has  become  proverbial, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  great  mass  of  the  white  population  in  this  region 
is  of  plebeian  origin ;  it  descends  chiefly  from  the  first  settlers  and  from  the 
numerous  class  of  indented  servants. 

What  tended  above  all  to  make  the  settlement  un  aristocratic  colony  was  the  em- 
ployment of  black  labour  on  the  plantations.     In  the  year  1620  the  first  slaver 


-^.- 


THE  ANOLO- AMERICANA. 


•8 


landed  ita  living  freight  on  the  bunks  of  the  Jumcs  River.  Thus  becoming  inuHtor 
of  human  hpids,  and  acquiring  a  life  of  ease  and  luxury,  the  planters,  the  magin- 
tratcB,  and  the  roproBentuiivos  of  the  districtn  readily  fancied  thiinsclvoa  descended 
from  the  oldest  families  of  Great  Hritain.  They  culled  themselves  "  sfiuiros,"  and 
the  state  of  Virginia  still  proudly  keeps  the  title  of  the  Old  Dominion. 

The  Makehs  of  Nkw  E-voland — The  Pilgrim  Fathkks. 

While  the  colonisution  of  the  Virginian  regions  had  been  entrusted  by  King 
James  1.  to  an  association  of  courtiers  whom  their  American  feudatories  accepted 
as  their  models,  the  northern  districts  bordering  on  Canada,  already  known  as 
New  England,  had  been  ceded  to  a  company  of  traders  residing  for  the  most  part 
in  Plymouth  and  Bristol.  These  also  mude  several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  turn 
their  domain  to  profitable  purpose. 

But  from  the  year  1620  dates  the  first  settlement,  which  was  destined  in  the 
history  of  the  nation  to  have  greater  importance  even  than  that  of  Virginia.  In 
that  memorable  year  one  hundred  and  two  emigrants,  martyrs  to  the  faith,  who 
had  first  been  driven  to  take  refuge  in  Holland,  and  who  sailed  on  the  Mayflower 
for  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  landed  at  a  place  which  they  culled  Plymouth,  in  the 
province  of  New  England.  Nine  years  later  three  hundred  other  Puritans  arrived 
at  the  port  of  Salem,  which  commands  the  north  side  of  the  entrance  to  the 
horbour  of  Boston,  and  thus  the  settlement  went  on  step  by  step. 

Thanks  to  the  remoteness  of  the  mother  country  the  immigrants  enjoyed  ihe 
inestimable  privilege  and  advantage  of  self-government.  But  the  fanatical 
Puritans  of  Massachusetts  aimed  at  the  establishment  of  a  theocratic  democracy 
on  the  Jewish  model.  The  devout  members  of  the  congregation  had  alone  the 
rights  of  citizenship ;  the  laws  were  extended  to  all  conduct  and  actions,  publio 
and  private  ;  the  Penul  Code  was  terribly  severe.  Intolerance  grow  to  such  a 
head  that  the  dissidents,  compelled  to  fly,  went  in  search  of  new  homes,  and  founded 
Rhode  Island,  while  others  settled  in  Connecticut  and  New  Hampshire. 

The  harshness  of  Puritan  rule,  combined  with  the  rigour  of  the  climate  and  the 
poorness  of  the  soil,  was  not  calculated  to  attroct  strangers  ;  hence,  down  to  the 
period  of  the  great  modern  immigrations,  the  population  of  New  England  remained 
of  a  very  homogeneous  character.  It  consisted  almost  f  •clusively  of  Anglo- 
Saxons,  to  a  slight  exten.t  mingled  with  the  de.ecendant8  rf  Scotch  and  Irish 
Presbyterians,  and  a  very  small  number  of  indented  servants,  like  those  of 
Virginia,  drawn  from  all  quarters.  A  few  French  Huguenots  settled  in  Massa- 
chusetts after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  ;  but  compared  with  the  mass 
of  the  English  colonists  their  number  was  insignificant.  Some  negroes  were  also 
imported,  and  after  landing  the  "  pilgrims,"  the  Mayflower  is  said  to  have  sailed 
for  Africa  to  ship  a  cargo  of  blacks  for  the  West  Indian  market. 

The  Peopling  of  New  York  and  Neighbouring  Colonies. 

The  populations  of  the  state  of  New  York  are  far  more  mixed  than  those  of 
New  England  and  Virginia.      In  1615,  several  years  before  the  arrival  of  the 


.,SJB*(jlM«>S«l«B*MS»li»»a«ii»«*«^ 


-llfitT 


.•>4 


THE   UNITKI)  HTATES. 


*'m\ 


I'liritiuiri  ill  AruMMicluisottH,  tlio  Dutch  Imd  oro«'tv<i  lAtrt  Oniiijrc  on  tlu'  IIikIpkmi, 
Uiver,  lu'iir  tlu)  Kpot  wIuto  iii»\v  f*tiuuls  tins  city  of  Alliuiiy,  cii|iitiil  of  tlic  htiitu. 
\n  m^'-i  tliri'n  liuiKlrcd  l''loiiiiiij{-,  of  French  Rpcoch,  from  the  Avcsnea  diNtriot, 
wore  conducted  by<io;iu  dc  ForcMt  to  Munhuttiin  IshmV  hlch  is  now  occupied  by 
t ho  city  of  Now  York;  thoto  woro  followed  by  w)r..o  ■  .U'h  settler",  'vho,  thuuku 
to  the  support  of  tho  homo  j^ovorninent,  were  Btr  ;  ,  ^i.  ugh  lo  Hubstituto  the 
niuno  of  Niouwo  AniMterduin  for  thut  of  Nouvclle  Avo"<no«,  the  llrst  title  of  the 
Mctllemont  whiiOi  hiis  since  bocornc  tho  "  Hinpire  City  "  of  tho  New  World. 

At  tirHt  tho  prowth  of  New  AinHtcrdiiin  wum  very  slow  ;  but  towards  tho 
iniddlu  of  tho  Moveiitounth  century  tho  coininerciul  advantuj^cs  oifered  by  the  jwrt 
of  the  Hudson,  uiid  tho  relig;iou4  toloriitiou  ostubliHlied  by  the  Dutch,  attractod 
Hottlers  from  various  parts  of  Europe,  Jews,  French  Huguenots,  German 
Lutheruns,  Swiss,  and  even  Italians.  kSoino  English  people  and  I'uritaiia  from  Now 
I'iHgland  also  came  to  seek  a  refuge  in  tho  Dutch  poHsessious,  which  rapidly  grow 
in  importance  and  population. 

After  half  a  century  of  oxistonco  tho  colony  fell  into  the  handn  of  the  English  •, 
but  down  to  tho  beginning  of  tho  eighteenth  century  the  Dutch  and  even  the  French 
Protestant  settlors  muiiitaiuoil  their  numerical  superiority  over  tho  Anglo-Sax(m 
immigrants.  From  this  diito,  however,  tho  influx  from  Great  Britain  gave 
tho  predotninanco  to  the  British  olement.  Nevortheless,  the  state  of  Now  York, 
t)wiug  to  the  attraction  of  its  trade,  has  always  had  a  relatively  higher  proportion 
of  inhabitants  natives  of  tho  European  mainland  and  of  Ireland.  Non-English 
foreigners  are  reckoned  at  not  less  than  one-fourth,  and  to  these  should  he  added 
the  Anglicised  descendants  of  the  original  settlers. 

The  colony  of  Now  Jersey,  thanks  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  great  city  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Hudson  River,  has  from  tho  ethnical  standpoint 
become  little  more  than  a  district  of  tho  state  of  New  York.  Here  also  are  found 
representatives  of  every  coimtry  in  Europe ;  but  tho  first  settlers  were  almost 
exclusively  English,  some  Quakers  and  some  Puritans. 

English  Quakers  also  form  one  of  the  three  eloments  from  whi(!h  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Pennsylvania  are  mainly  descended,  the  other  two  being  North  Germans, 
nearly  all  Protestants,  and  Irish  Presbyterians  from  Belfast  and  the  surrounding 
district.  Although  of  little  numerical  importance,  the  English  Quaker  section  long 
maintained  a  preponderating  influence.  When  the  War  of  Independence  broka 
out,  the  Germans  formed  no  less  than  a  third  of  the  whole  population,  which  at 
that  time  was  estimated  at  80,000  souls.  Amongst  the  inhabitants  of  Pennsylvania 
should  also  be  mentioned  a  few  descendants  of  the  Swedes  who  had  founded  a  settle- 
ment on  the  bunks  of  the  Delaware  (New  Sweden),  and  some  Scotch  peasants, 
besides  a  number  of  convicts  forwarded  by  tho  British  Government. 

Similar  conditions  prevailed  in  Maryland,  which,  ever  since  the  year  1699,  had 
fully  adopted  the  principle  of  religious  toleration.  This  state,  which  about 
Chesapeake  Bay  is  conterminous  with  Delaware,  while  its  northern  frontier  borders 
on  Pennsylvania,  is  connected  ethnologicaliy  with  both  of  tbese  states.  In  the  east 
English  and  Irish  (Roman  Catholic)  elements  are  dominant;  elsewhere  families  of 
vierman  descent  are  verv  numerous. 


M>. 


THE  ANULO-AMKBIUANS. 


60 


TlIK    PkoPMNO    <»K   TIIK    ('aKOI.INAH   AM)   CkNIKAI    SlAlKH. 

Of  111!  partH  of  tlut  Union,  North  Carolinu  has  bivnt  prcitervod  the  purity  of  ita 
orif^iniil  wliito  population,  wliicli  wm  ulmoMt  oxclii  iv-ly  Hritihh  und  Iriwh.  A  f«w 
groups  of  (jcriniiiiH  und  SwinH  iilnnc  i'Mtahlishod  theniwlvcN  at  Now  Homo,  and  at 
«oin(»  othor  poiutH  on  tho  banlvH  of  tho  Nouso.  Homo  Hcotch  Hij^hlandorH  aluo 
frequently  landed  ut  Wilmington,  and  till  u  recent  eiM)ch  several  Gaelic-Hpouking 
groups  continued  to  maintain  theniMelvos  in  tho  pino  forests  of  tin  interior.  Since 
Fijf.  2:}.  — Fbejioh  Inland  CotoNini  in  tub  IHtk  CitNTOBV. 

Hnilo  1  :  |7.(K)(>f)(i(). 


0    Ficncli  fort  or  atatioo. 


Indian  village. 


o    Kugliali  fort  or  station. 


310  Miles. 


the  War  of  Independence  foreign  immigration  to  this  part  of  the  republic  has 
almost  entirely  ceased,  and  many  European  states,  notably  France,  have  a  far 
more  cosmopolitan  population  than  North  Carolina. 

On  the  other  band,  the  ancestors  of  the  white  inhabitants  of  South  Carolina 
were  of  very  diversified  origin.  The  first  colcuitil  communities  were  formed  by 
English  Puritans,  Scotch  Presbyterians,  Irish,  Dutch  from  New  Amsterdam, 
Germans,  convicts,  and  indented  servants  from  various  quarters,  while  some 
planters  from  Barbadocs  brought  with  them  their  establishments  of  slaves. 


u:>..  Jill  lOWiiii'ii  III  II  iilWiiiifti>pi<iNfcl*  iniilu 


56 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Thousands  of  French  Protestants,  expelled  from  Saintonge,  Languedoc,  Poitou 
and  Touraine,  also  sought  new  homes  in  this  region,  the  colonisation  of  which  had 
first  been  attempted  by  one  of  their  co-religionists  and  fellow-countrymen.  Most 
of  these  Huguenots  settled  at  Charleston  and  farther  north  on  the  banks  of  the 
Santee  river.  But  although  their  descendants  form  a  considerable  element  in  the 
present  population  of  South  Carolina,  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  their  number, 
a  great  many  family  names  having  assumed  English  forms,  while  others  were 
simply  translated  into  English. 

Georgia,  southernmost  of  the  thirteen  original  colonies,  was  founded  by  Ogle- 
thorpe in  1732,  but  its  original  population  was  of  a  far  less  varied  character  than 
that  of  South  Carolina,  having  been  drawn  almost  exclusively  from  England, 
Scotland,  Salzburg  in  South  Germany,  and  Switzerland.  The  Moravian  Brothers 
also  formed  an  important  community  in  the  province. 

Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  territories  which  originally  formed  part  of  Virginia, 
are  amongst  those  states  of  the  Union  where  the  primitive  British  substratum 
has  been  maintained  in  the  greatest  purity.  The  more  enterprising  colonists,  who 
had  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  the  Alleghanies,  ascended  the  parallel  fluvial 
valleys  running  towards  the  south-west,  and  by  following  these  long  depressions 
at  last  reached  the  upper  Tennessee  basin.  But  immediately  to  the  west  the 
Appalachian  foot-hills  and  the  slopes  draining  to  the  Ohio  were  densely  clothed 
with  a  continuous  forest  which  long  seemed  impassable. 

But  in  1775  some  adventurous  pioneers  cut  themselves  a  track  through  the 
pathless  woodlands.  These  were  soon  followed  by  others  who,  after  a  long  struggle 
with  the  Indians,  succeeded  in  holding  their  ground  and  establishing  permanent 
settlements  on  the  "  dark  and  bloody  ground  "  of  Kentucky.  The  descendants 
of  these  daring  pioneers,  later  joined  by  others  from  Virginia,  still  reside  in  the 
country,  where  they  have  scarcely  intermingled  with  other  Anglo-Americans  or 
with  direct  immigrants  from  Europe,  -except  along  the  course  of  the  Ohio. 

The  Seitlemejtt  of  the  Mississippi  Basin  and  the  Far  West. 

In  the  Mississippi  basin  and  the  regions  stretching  thence  to  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific  the  immigrants  of  Anglo-Saxon  race  had  been  preceded,  us  in  Florida,  by 
French  and  Spanish  pioneers.  Penetrating  southwards  from  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  the  early  French- Canadian  trappers  and  half-breeds  had  founded  a 
few  villages  here  and  there  in  the  peninsulas  washed  by  Lakes  Huron  und 
Michigan,  as  well  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Wabash  and  Illinois  Rivers.  They  had 
even  crossed  the  Mississippi  and  opened  some  lead-mines  in  the  Far  West. 

Then  after  the  year  1699,  when  tl  y  established  Biloxi,  in  Mississippi, 
they  connected  their  northern  with  their  southern  possessions  by  a  continuous 
chain  of  fortified  posts  erected  at  intervals  on  the  bluffs  along  the  left  bank  of 
the  Mississippi.  The  whole  of  the  English  territory  on  the  Atlantic  slope  was 
thus  completely  girdled  round  by  a  vast  semicircle  of  solitudes,  which  were 
claimed  by  France  in  virtue  of  the  few  stations  founded  by  her  colonists  and 
connected  together  by  uncertain  tracks  across  prairie  and  forest. 


THE   ANGLO-AMERICANS. 


57 


Beyond  the  Mississippi  basin,  on  the  Texan  seaboard,  in  the  Pecos  and  Rio 
Grande  valleys,  and  lastly  on  the  shores  of  California,  all  the  in.  ibitants  of  white 
race  were  Spaniards  or  Creoles  of  Spanish  speech  ;  even  still  the  people  of  New- 
Mexico  claim  to  be  for  the  raost  part  descended  from  the  followers  of  Cortes. 

But  except  in  New  Mexico,  and  in  ciTtain  districts  of  Michifn^an,  Illinois, 
Missouri  and  Louisiana,  the  groups  of  purely  Latin  population  have  long  been 
merged  in  the  flood  of  Anglo-Americans.  Nevertheless,  all  the  fortified  stations 
founded  by  them  served  as  so  many  centres  of  population,  abridging  by  several 
years  the  preliminary  work  of  colonisation,  by  the  introduction  of  agriculture  and 
the  pacification  of  the  Indians. 

When  the  colonies  of  the  Atlantic  slope  had  definitely  secured  their  indepen- 
dence, when,  free  from  the  scourge  of  war,  they  were  able  to  turn  their  attention 
to  the  development  of  the  boundless  resources  of  their  territory,  the  farming 
classes  migrated  in  thousands  and  thousands  across  the  mountain  ranges  and  the 
forest  which  for  a  hundred  years  had  serVed  as  a  barrier  to  the  progress  of  British 
colonisation  westwards.  While  these  were  moving  into  the  fertile  regions  of  the 
Ohio  basin,  the  Virginians  were  establishing  themselves  in  Kentucky,  and  giving 
birth  to  that  energetic  race  of  pioneers  who  have  become  renowned  for  their 
cool  courage,  their  presence  of  mind,  and  inexhaustible  fertility  of  resource. 

At  that  time  the  Puritan  families  of  Massachusetts,  the  farmers  of  Connecticut 
and  neighbouring  states  were  distinguished  for  their  numerous  progeny.  Hence 
a  veritable  flood  of  migration  set  steadily  from  these  regions  towards  the  western 
plains.  No  warlike  expeditions  were  ever  comparable  to  this  free  and  peaceful 
movement  of  a  whole  nation  in  search  of  new  homes. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  towards  the  year  1850  one-third  of  the  white 
inhabitants  of  the  Union,  say,  8,000,000  altogether,  reckoned  amongst  their 
ancestors  one  op  more  of  the  4,000  families  who  were  settled  in  the  Puritan 
colonies  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  And  how  is  it  possible  duly 
to  estimate  the  far-reaching  influence  of  this  element  on  the  destinies  of  America  P 
Doubtless  the  "  pilgrim  fathers  "  might  be  called  irrational  fanatics,  but  they 
had  risked  all,  not  to  go  in  search  of  gold,  nor  to  amass  wealth  by  raising  colonial 
produce  on  slave-worked  plantations,  but  to  conquer  the  right  to  believe,  to  live, 
and  to  govern  themselves  in  their  own  way. 

At  the  same  time  the  ethnical  composition  of  the  populations  spreading  over 
the  Mississippi  regions  has  been  considerably  modified  by  the  great  movement  of 
emigration  which  after  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  has  drawn  the  destitute  and 
adventurous  classes  of  Europe  towards  the  New  World,  "  common  refuge  of  the 
desperate,"  as  it  was  called  by  Cervantes.  The  blood  of  the  "  Bostonian " 
pioneers  has  been  profoundly  aJlected  by  the  swarms  of  Germans  and  Irish,  by  the 
English  either  arriving  directly  from  the  home  country  or  overflowing  from  British 
North  America,  by  the  French-Canadians  of  New  England  and  the  states 
bordering  on  the  Great  Lakes,  by  the  Scandinavians  settled  in  Wisconsin  and  the 
neighbouring  states,  and  lastly  by  Russians,  Italians,  Portuguese,  Azorians  immi- 
grating in  continually  increasing  numbers. 


':.  ■  i,: 


,1 


4 


tin  ■j'liiyjftgiali^rtwaBaBi 


'iutltii 


68 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


In  1848  the  occupation  of  Cdlifornia  and  the  discovery  of  the  gold-fields  intro- 
duced other  additional  elements  into  the  circuliition  of  American  life.  With  the 
representatives  of  every  European  nation  have  been  mingled  Mexicans,  Peruvians, 
Chilians  and  other  Creoles  of  semi-Indian  stock.  The  Kanakas  (Polynesians)  of 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  Tagals  of  the  Philippines,  the  Malays  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  have  also  entered  as  chemical  ingredients  into  this  laboratory  of 
races ;  and  although  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  keep  generally  aloof,  nevertheless 
they  contribute,  in  isolated  instances,  to  the  experiment  in  miscegenation  which 
is  being  carried  on  on  a  colossal  scale  in  the  North-American  republic. 

The  Israelites,  very  rare  in  the  early  days  of  the  immigration,  have  in  recent 
years  become  one  of  the  most  rapidly  increasing  ethnical  elements,  and  every 
town  has  already  its  crowded  quarter  of  German  and  Russian  Jews.  And  as  if  to 
complete  this  medley  of  races  and  peoples,  thousands  of  Gypsies,  mostly  from 
Great  Britain,  have  reached  the  New  World,  there  to  continue  their  nomad  exis- 
tence. The  minglings  of  the  diverse  elements  of  population,  even  1  tween 
fundamentally  distinct  races,  adds  still  new  groups  to  those  arriving  from  every 
region  of  the  globe  in  United  States  territory. 

In  the  presence  of  these  multitudinous  races  and  sub-races,  and  in  our  almost 
complete  ignorance  regarding  the  relative  fecundity  of  the  various  family  groups 
during  successive  generations  under  the  varying  climates,  it  becomes  absolutely 
impossible  to  calculate  the  true  proportion  of  the  ethnical  elements  in  the  people 
of  the  United  States.  All  that  can  be  done  is  to  reckon  the  number  of  colonists 
actually  born  in  foreign  countries. 

The  people  of  New  England,  the  Yankees  properly  so  called,  though  this 
Algonquin  designation  of  the  early  English  settlers  has  since  been  wrongly 
applied  to  all  North  Americans,  were,  before  the  invasion  of  their  states  by  the 
Irish  and  French  Canadians,  the  purest  representatives  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race, 
that  is  to  say,  of  the  English  nationality  transplanted  to  the  New  World.  Hence 
the  term,  "  New  England,"  given  to  their  states  collectively  was  perfectly  justified. 
Of  all  the  Anglo-Americans  those  of  New  England  most  resemble  their  English 
forefathers  in  their  habits,  traditions,  and  family  life ;  they  also  cherish  most  filial 
affection  for  the  old  mother-country,  entertain  the  warmest  relations  with  their 
English  cousins,  and  hold  in  the  greatest  respect  the  precious  treasure  of  their 
common  English  speech. 

But  however  strong  may  still  be  the  ties  of  kindred  and  sympathy,  consider- 
able changes  have  taken  place  during  the  course  of  three  centurica  in  the 
population  of  New  England  under  the  influence  o*  a  different  environment  and 
in  some  respects  of  a  new  mode  of  life.  As  a  rule,  the  New  Englanders  ai"e 
thinner  and  slimmer  than  the  English  ;  they  have  more  decided  features,  sharper 
contour  lines,  thinner  lips,  more  jerky  motions,  and  a  more  nervous  temperament, 
although,  like  most  other  Anglo-ximericans,  they  are  relatively  cool  and  masters  of 
their  feelings.  Hence  the  nickname,  "  white-livered,"  given  them  by  their 
more  excitable  follow-countrymen  of  the  Southern  States. 

But  whatever  thoy  may  owe  to  the  original  stock  and  to  the  new  environment 


'»■;?".■>>.'. 


THE  ANGLO-AMERICANS. 


69 


in  which  they  have  been  developed  since  the  arrival  of  the  Mayflower,  the  New 
En  glanders  unquestionably  take  the  foremost  position  amongst  the  North  American 
populations.  To  them  belongs  the  intellectual  and  moral  leadership.  The  list  of 
American  authors  attests  the  enormous  pre-eminence  of  New  England  in  the  world 
of  thought,  letters,  and  the  arts.  In  the  practical  appliance  of  science  to  the 
industries  the  Yankees  also  hold  the  front  rank. 

If  they  somewhat  contemptuously  leave  to  other  Americans  the  chief  role  in 
noisy  electoral  contests,  in  the  political  arena  and  popular  clamour,  thoy  have 
,  more  than  once  played  the  decisive  part  in  the  great  historic  movements  of  the 
nation  ;  to  them,  above  all,  was  due  the  work  of  independence.  The  first  appeal 
to  arms  took  place  near  their  chief  city,  Boston ;  from  the  outset  of  the  struggle 
they  had  recovered  their  freedom  and  hastened  to  confer  it  on  their  neighbours. 
The  little  Yankee  state  of  Massachusetts  had  alone  more  soldiers  in  the  Revolution 
than  all  the  Southern  States  collectively. 

To  the  moral  influence  of  New  England  the  North  American  republic  was  also 
chiefly  indebted  for  its  reconstitution  by  the  abolition  of  slavery.  Thus  in  the 
two  great  national  crises  the  Yankees  took  the  initiative.  Their  relative  impor- 
tance in  the  Union,  as  u  whole,  must  naturally  diminish  according  as  the  rest  of 
the  country  becomes  more  peopled,  and  the  centres  of  culture,  trade,  and  wealth 
displaced.  But  the  New  England  states  will  still  retain  their  supremacy,  at  least 
indirectly,  by  the  ceaseless  flow  of  their  emigrants  into  the  newly-settled  districts, 
and  by  the  eminence  they  have  acquired  in  the  general  work  of  public  instruction. 
They  have  hitherto  supplied  the  rest  of  the  Union  with  perhaps  a  majority  o* 
teachers  of  both  sexes,  as  well  as  with  many  of  the  standard  text-books. 

Just  as  the  New  England  families  hav  ■  swarmed  especially  into  the  regions 
lying  due  west  of  their  domain,  the  Virginians  have  gradually  peopled  the  Central 
States  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  besides  largely  contributing  to  the  colonisation 
of  those  beyond  the  Mississippi.  From  eight  to  ten  millions  of  people  would 
tippear  to  be  descended  from  this  stock,  although  the  white  inhabitants  of  Virginia 
itself  do  not  greatly  exceed  a  million  and  a  half,  and  even  including  West 
Virginia  number  but  little  over  2,100,000.  But  according  to  Shaler,  this  constant 
drain  has  had  the  consequence  of  impoverishing  the  original  stock,  impairing 
its  physical  strength  and  moral  manhood.  The  departure  of  the  young  and 
vigorous,  leaving  behind  them  the  feeble  and  sickly,  and  those  lucking  in  enter- 
prise, would  appear  to  have  acted  injuriously  on  the  primitive  race. 

But  however  this  be,  there  can  be  no  question  of  decrepitude  on  the  part  of 
the  Virginian  emigrants  themselves,  notably  the  inhabitants  of  the  upper  valleys 
of  the  Tennessee  and  its  affluents.  The  population  of  Kentucky  even  enjoys  a 
far-famed  reputation  for  its  physical  strength,  beauty,  and  general  capacity. 
These  lands,  which  in  the  New  World  most  resemble  the  gently  rolling  regions 
of  West  Europe,  are  also  those  in  which  the  European  stock  has  taken  most 
vigorous  root.  The  natives  of  these  Central  States  have  a  less  stern  aspect  than 
the  Yankee.  Of  a  genial  and  kindly  disposition,  they  hav3  nothing  of  the  faiiatic 
in  their  expression,  no  rigid  sourness  of  morals ;  but  they  are  equally  active 


~i 


E3g?;jj|^fl|iiiff'tlnlwi^' *''"'*' '  'I*  i(iift>n(i i*««irtwiL'»i • " 


!i'^  I 


1';; 


60 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


and  versatile,  equally  eager  for  gain,  and  still  more  open-banded  in  its  expenditure. 
The  mos'  striking  contrast  between  Americans  and  Americans  are  tbose  pre- 
vailing between  the  Northern  farmers  and  the  descendants  of  the  old  planters, 
such  as  the  "  Creoles,"  especially  those  of  Louisiana,  and  the  petils  blancs  ("  little 
whites ")  of  the  South.  But  these  contrasts  are  mainly  duo  to  their  diflPerent 
pursuits,  the  different  habits  arising  from  their  different  social  conditions.  The 
CuHfornians,  also,  may  at  a  glance  be  distinguished  from  the  Americans  of  the 
Eastern  and  Central  States  by  their  greater  cheerfulness,  vivacity,  freedom  of 
manners  and  morals. 

The  Irish. 

Till  recently  the  Irish  element  was  far  mere  distinct  in  tbe  Anglo- American 
social  world  than  it  is  at  present.  After  the  great  famine  of  1845-6  emigration 
assumed  gigantic  proportions.  The  exodus  of  the  unhappy  fugitives  from  the 
distressful  country  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  Roman  Catholics,  who  tended, 
through  community  of  race,  sufferings  and  religion,  to  gravitate  together  in  separate 
groups.  In  1880,  when  the  stream  of  emigration  reached  its  high-water  mark, 
190,000  children  of  the  "  Emerald  Isle"  landed  in  the  United  States,  and  at  that 
diite  in  the  whole  Union  there  were  reckoned  1,855,000  Irish  by  birth,  and 
4,529,000  born  in  America  of  Irish  fathers.  At  present  the  number  of  direct  or 
indirect  Irish  settlers  is  more  than  double  that  of  the  population  of  Ireland  itself. 

By  a  remarkable  phenomenon  in  "  ethnical  chemistry  "  these  immigrants, 
nearly  all  belonging  to  the  peasant  class  in  the  home  country,  generally  adopt 
other  pursuits  after  reaching  the  United  States.  While  tbe  German  agriculturists 
continue  to  occupy  themselves  with  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  spreading  over 
the  villages  and  hamlets  from  the  coast  to  the  Mississippi,  the  Irish  prefer  to 
remain  in  the  large  towns  or  their  outskirts.  They  seek  employment  as  porters, 
day  labourers,  stevedores,  or  navvies  ;  then  after  scraping  together  a  few  dollars 
they  become  artisuns,  contractors,  traders,  and  especially  "  politicians,"  taking  a 
vehement  part  in  local  politics  and  sharing  in  the  prizes  of  victory. 

But  this  new  Erin  gradually  loses  its  old  cohesion  ;  the  depopulated  mother 
country  no  longer  sends  a  large  yearly  contingent  of  fresh  colonists.  Marriages, 
business  interests,  the  storm  and  stress  of  social  life  tend  more  and  more  to  merge 
the  Irish  elements  in  the  Anglo- American  world  ;  and  as  the  Catholic  worship 
has  adherents  of  all  races  and  of  all  languages  in  the  United  States,  religion  has 
ceased  to  have  any  special  influence  in  fostering  the  Irish  national  sentiment. 
It  is  a  well-ascertained  fact  that  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  Union  the  Irish  have 
always  taken  sides  politically  with  the  slave  party,  doubtless  through  antagonism 
to  their  negro  competitors  in  the  labour  market.  During  the  Civil  War  the 
Southerners  in  their  long  and  stubborn  resistance  received  most  encouragement 
from  the  Irish  of  New  York  and  of  the  other  large  cities  of  the  Northern  States. 

The  Germans. 
The  German  element  in  the  United  States  comprises  two  perfectly  distinct 
divisions — the  desoendiuits  of  the  old  indented  servants  and  of  others  introduced 


I 


ti 


'«>•>■!'::;? 


THE  GEEMANS. 


61 


during  the  Britisli  ad  minis  tration,  and  the  free  immigrants  who  have  arrived  since 
1848,  a  date  which  marks  a  turning-point  iu  German  history.  Nearly  all  those 
of  the  first  division  were  natives  of  8uabia  and  the  Khino  Valley.  As  soon  as 
William  Penn,  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  had  purchased  from  the 
Indians  the  lands  destined  to  become  first  a  colonial  province  and  then  the  state 
of  Pennsylvania,  a  number  of  Rhenish  peasantry  from  the  Black  Forest,  from  the 
Bauhe  Alp  and  Rhineland,  began  to  flock  round  him  in  response  to  his  appeal  to 
all  the  wretched  and  oppressed  of  the  earth.  These  pioneers  of  the  colonisation 
were  followed  by  other  immigrants  from  the  same  regions  and  in  the  same  state 
of  extreme  destitution.  Many  had  begged  their  way  along  the  Rhine  down  to 
Holland,  where  they  engaged  themselves  for  several  years  to  some  ship's  captain, 
who,  in  his  turn,  sold  them  in  the  labour  market  of  some  American  seaport. 

The  terrible  winter  of  1709  had  reduced  to  the  utmost  distress  the  populations 
of  the  Rhenish  provinces  and  of  the  Palatinate  districts,  which  had  already  been 
wasted  by  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  occasion  seemed  favourable  for  the 
Government  of  Queen  Anne  to  engage  labourers  for  the  transatlantic  colonies. 
The  fugitives  came  in  swarms,  far  more  numerous  than  had  been  expected.  Aa 
many  as  32,000  famished  Germans  encamped  in  the  neighbourhood  of  liondon  on 
Blackheath  Common.  But  the  Government  had  made  no  preparations  for  their 
reception,  or  to  protect  them  against  rivals  clamouring  for  work,  and  naturally 
hostile  to  the  aliens.  All  the  Roman  Catholics  were  pitilessly  sent  back  to  the 
Continent.  Others,  despatched  in  thousands  to  the  right  and  left,  to  the  North 
of  England,  to  the  Scilly  Isles,  to  Ireland,  went  about  begging  for  work  or  for 
land,  which  were  almost  everywhere  denied  them. 

But  more  than  a  third  of  the  exiles,  about  10,000  altogether,  after  over  a  year's 
delay,  at  last  saw  the  fulfilment  of  the  royal  promise,  and  were  transported  to 
Pennsylvania  as  indented  hirelings,  tbat  is  to  say,  temporary  slaves.  A  special 
class  of  speculators,  known  by  the  name  of  "  soul  drivers,"  became  the  agents  of 
this  traffic,  and  every  town  had  its  market,  v/here  the  wretched  victims  were 
openly  sold  for  T'eriods  ranging  from  two  to  ten  years.  Down  to  the  War  of 
Indcj[)endence,  and  evoii  in  the  present  century,  such  hired  labourers  were  sold, 
and  the  traffic  was  nt  last  discontinued,  because  these  labourers,  differing  in  no 
respect  from  their  task -masters  iv  physical  appearance,  were  able  too  easily  to 
escape  and  avoid  detection. 

No  doubt  the  German  settlers  in  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  whether  free 
or  engaged,  were  better  grouped  than  the  immigrants  from  other  European 
countries,  and  they  would  have  sufficed  to  build  up  a  new  nation  had  they  pos- 
sessed the  least  solidai'ity  and  consciousness  of  their  own  strength.  But  they  were 
by  nature  and  religion  too  retiring,  too  crushed  also  by  misfortune,  to  assert 
their  nationality  with  sufficient  pride.  Hence,  they  almost  everywhere  sought 
advancement  in  life  by  sinking  their  individuality  in  that  of  the  Anglo-American 
rulers  of  the  land. 

Nor  had  they  maintained  any  political  or  commercial  relations  with  the  father- 
land, nothing  beyond  some  rare  family  correspondence.     Tho  result  was  that  the 


■  5j 


"Ta'^fvSiSIW^''-' 


(ia 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


lit 


Wl,:  I 


mujority  forgot  tbeir  mother  tongue  after  the  first  or  second  generation.  A  very 
large  proportion  even  changed  thoir  names,  either  translating  them  into  English 
or  replacing  them  by  others  derived  from  various  sources.  Hence  it  is  no  longer 
possible  to  determine  the  numerical  strength  of  the  German  families  that  helped 
to  people  the  Central  States,  and  especially  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland. 

Those  who  have  preserved  their  German  names  and  kept  up  the  original  pro- 
vincial dialect,  have  borrowed  so  many  English  terms,  required  by  the  new  con- 
ditions of  their  existence,  that  they  are  quite  unintelligible  to  Germans  arriving 
fresh  from  Europe.  Light  literature  is  rich  in  works  written  in  this  curious 
jargon,  which  is  neither  German  nor  English,  and  which  gives  rise  to  the  most 
amusing  misunderstandings. 

The  Teutonic  immigrants  who,  from  the  year  1848,  began  to  swarm  into  every 
part  of  (he  republic — peasants,  artisans,  traders,  members  of  the  liberal  professions 
— had  amongst  their  ranks  men  of  worth  and  enterprise  in  sufficient  numbers  at 
once  to  make  their  mark  as  joint  workers  for  the  common  weal  of  the  American 
nation.  The  majority  have  become  fellow-countrymen  of  the  Anglo-Americans 
by  the  more  or  less  habitual  use  of  the  English  language,  and  by  the  share  they 
have  taken  in  the  social  and  political  life  of  thcr  people. 

These  Germans  have  maintained  constarst  relations  Tith  the  fatherland,  and 
contribute  in  a  very  large  measure  to  the  trade  that  has  been  developed  between 
New  York  and  Hamburg,  as  well  ns  between  the  other  seaports  of  both  countries. 
They  have  introduced  into  the  States  certain  Ger.nan  feasts  and  ceremonies,  they 
sing  the  national  hymns  in  chorus,  cultivate  the  native  literature,  and  develop  it 
in  the  schools,  theatres,  periodical  and  other  publications.  They  even  exercise  a 
powerful  influence  on  public  opinion  in  a  sense  favourable  to  themselves,  a?  was 
made  evident  during  the  Franco-Gorman  war  of  1871. 

As  regards  the  proportion  of  Germans  settled  in  the  Anglo-American  republic, 
the  estimates  vary  enormously  according  to  the  views  taken  by  different  statisti- 
cians. Ill  the  eyes  of  several  patriots  all  those  are  Germans  who  are  born  in 
America  of  German  parents,  or  even  who  can  trace  their  descent  from  German 
immigrants.  Thus  are  explained  such  figures  as  6,000,000,  or  even  10,000,000  of 
Gcrmana  mentioned  in  sorao  worJ;8  as  inhabiting  the  United  States.  Other 
writers  holding  less  exaggerated  views  r>n  this  subject,  class  amongst  the  Germans 
all  tlio  inhabitants  of  the  republic  who  have  preserved  their  fmnily  names  and 
Di- ;  still  able  to  converse  more  or  less  fluently  in  the  mother  tongue. 

A  more  reasonable  calcnlation  restricts  the  name  of  Germans  to  the  immigrants 
properly  so  called  ;iud  to  iliose  members  of  thoir  families  whose  ordinary  language 
has  remained  G«rmau.  This  is  a  fu.  'xr>m  numerous  class,  so  potent  is  the  attrac- 
tion exercised  by  Ar.ierican  society  on  tlie  new  arrivals.  It  may  bo  stated  gene- 
rally that  all  the  children  begin  by  thinking  in  the  English  lunguage.  Most 
of  the  immigrants  bccon>e  rapidly  assimilated  to  the  Anglo-Americans,  so  much  so 
that  they  soon  speak  English  almost  exclusively,  even  in  the  family  circle  itself. 

In  the  absence  of  special  statistics  based  on  the  declaration  of  the  citizens  them- 
selves, the  Teutonic  element  in  the  United  States  may  be  approximately  estimated 


I 


j9'i.,-. 


THE  FRANCO-CANADIANS. 


G8 


at  2,500,000  souls.*  The  Tsraolites,  who  are  usually  classed  either  with  the  Ger- 
mans or  the  Russians,  shovild  be  reckoned  apart.  They  number  probably  half  a 
million,  and  their  colonies  have  rapidly  increased  since  the  severe  administrative 
measures  have  rendered  existence  almost  intolerable  for  the  Jews  of  Russia. 

TiiK  Frknc'II,  Fh/Vnco-Canaoians,  Scandinavians,  and  Italians. 

CJompared  with  the  Irish  and  Germans,  the  oth(  I'luropean  nations  have  taken 
hut  a  8li<^ht  share  in  the  peopling  of  the  United  States.  The  colonists  who  have 
arrived  directly  from  Franco  and  settled  chiefly  in  New  York,  California  and 
Louisiana,  are  even  less  numerous  than  the  descendants  of  the  French  immi- 
grants in  the  seventeenth  century,  who  have  become  more  or  less  mingled  withi.he 
mass  of  the  American  people.  They  are  especially  far  inferior  to  the  Franco- 
Canadians  in  direct  and  potent  influence  on  the  race. 

But  these  Canadians  are  not  immigrants  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  terra. 
Migrating  but  a  short  distance  from  their  native  country,  already  too  narrow  for 
their  expansion,  they  merely  enlarge  their  domain  by  following  in  the  wake  of 
the  movement  which  attracts  the  New  Englanders  towards  the  western  regions. 
The  general  upheaval  which  displaces  the  Yankees  also  displaces  the  Canadians, 
who  come  in  swarms  to  fill  the  gaps  left  void  by  those  that  have  quitted  the  indus- 
trial centres  of  New  England  ;  but  they  come  either  with  the  intention  of  return- 
ing to  their  Canadian  homes,  or  else  of  settling  in  new  lands  always  within  easy 
communication  with  their  kindred  on  the  other  side  of  the  political  frontier. 

The  northern  part  of  Maine  is  already  annexed  to  the  Franco-Canadian  ethnical 
domain  of  the  province  of  Quebec.  In  some  districts  of  "Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire bordering  on  Lower  Canada,  the  element  of  French  origin  is  also  predominant. 
Every  industrial  town  in  New  England  has,  moreover,  its  Canadian  colony,  which 
soon  becomes  divided  into  two  fractions,  one  assimilated  to  the  Anglo-Americans, 
the  other  that  of  the  "  Jean-Baptistes,"  who  have  remained  loyal  to  their  twig  of 
maple,  emblem  of  their  nationality.  In  Michigan,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Wisconsin 
and  Minnesota,  the  expansive  movement  of  the  Franco- Canadian  race  is  going  on, 
though  to  a  less  extent,  and  in  this  respect  Lower  Canada  may  be  compared  to  a 
lake  gently  overflowing  its  banks. f 

*  German  emigration  to  tha  Uniteil  States  from  1820  to  1890  : — 

1820  to  1831) 0,751 

'.«:U  to  1840 162, 45i 

18U  to  1850 454.62(5 

1851  to  1860 951,667 

1861  to  1870 8^:2,077 

1871  to  1880 767,62a 

1881  to  1390 1,457.000 

Total    .         .         .    4^8^03 

t  Frenoh  imd  Canadiuna  in  the  United  Stiitea,  according  to  an  approximate  estimate  for  1891  : — 
DMceniluiits  of  the  Fieuch  cohmists  I  i 

and  black  "  Creoles  "  of  Louisiana  ; ' 

French  immigrants ...       100,000 

Franco-Cauadians 820,000 

Total  .        .        .    MJOMOti 


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64 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  Scandinavian  immigrants — Swedes,  Norwegians,  Djnc8  and  Icelanders,  have 
in  recent  decades  become  relatively  numerous,  and  have  added  a  valuable  element 
to  the  farming  population  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota. 

The  Italians  also,  who  till  recently  emigrated  exclusively  to  South  America, 
have  found  their  way  to  the  northern  continent.  Here  their  enterprising  spirit, 
the  eogornesa  for  gain  acquired  by  misery,  their  extreme  frugality,  the  ease 
with  which  they  adapt  themselves  to  the  .climate,  have  made  them  buitablo 
colonists  for  every  part  of  the  Union. 

But  the  great  epoch  of  immigration  is  drawing  to  a  close.  The  settlement 
of  the  land  and  the  relative  equilibrium  of  the  population,  henceforth  distributed 
throughout  every  part  of  the  vast  domain,  must  have  the  necessary  consequence 
of  steadily  reducing  the  influx  of  immigrants.  But  while  the  stream  of  immigration 
subsides,  the  nation  as  a  whole  increases.  Thus  the  new  arrivals  become  all  the 
more  rapidly  merged  in  the  surrounding  ocean  of  Anglo-Americans. 

The  Negro. 

Nevertheless,  while  the  white  population  tends  to  become  more  and  more 
homogeneous,  there  remains  an  ethnical  element  of  considerable  importance,  with 
which  but  slight  fusion  has  taken  place,  and  fusion  with  which  is  even  looked  on 
with  horror  by  the  great  majority  of  white  Americans.  This  element  is  that  of 
the  Africans,  who  already  number  from  seven  to  eight  millions,  or  about  one-ninth 
of  the  whole  population  of  the  republic. 

The  African  immigration,  unlike  that  of  most  Europeans,  was  not  spontaneous 
but  forced ;  all  are  descended  from  the  Negroes  imported  by  the  slavers,  and  sold 
like  cattle.  During  their  first  expeditions  to  the  coast  of  Florida  and  to  New 
Mexico  the  Spanish  conquerors  were  accompanied  by  slaves.  The  English  colonies 
in  their  turn  eagerly  sought  for  black  labour,  and  so  early  as  l(i20  the  Virginians, 
"  by  a  hiippy  dispensation  of  Providence,"  received  their  first  consignment  of 
Negroes  from  a  Dutch  shipper.*  Soon  after  the  event  the  traffic,  carried  on  almost 
exclusively  by  English  slavers,  was  legally  regulated  throughout  all  the  British 
North  American  colonies. 

The  sale  of  Africans,  however,  was  chiefly  carried  on  in  the  settlements  lying 

south  of  the  Delaware,  that  is  to  say,  where  the  land,  divided  into  large  domains, 

yielded  tobacco  and  other  colonial  produce.     The  number  of  Africans  transported 

from  Africa  or  from  Jamaica  and  Barbadoes  down  to  the  War  of  Independence, 

to  all  the  English  colonies  north  of  Florida,  is  estimated  at  300,000.     By  natural 

increase  this  enslaved  population  would  at  that  epoch  have  probably  grown  to 

half  a  million,  of  whom  nine-tenths  lived  south  of  Muson  and  Diion's  line. 

*  It  should,  however,  be  remembered,  in  justice  to  the  Virg^nianH,  that  in  the  first  instance  "  the  slaTeo 
were  forced  upon  them"  (G.  W.  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Kaee  itt  America  from  1619  to  1880,  vol, 
i.,  pp.  110,11!));  that  the  first  man  who  ever  raised  his  voice  aj^inst  the  slave  trade  was  the  Bev. 
Morgan  Oodwin,  an  Anglican  minister  in  Virginia,  during  Qovemor  Berkeley's  administration  ;  and 
that  a  petition  to  the  Throne  was  presented  from  the  House  of  Burgesses  of  Virginia,  April  Ist,  1772, 
in  which  it  is  urged  that  "  the  importation  of  slaves  into  the  colonies  from  the  coast  of  Africa  hath 
long  been  considered  ns  a  trade  of  grcHt  inhumanity,"  and  more  to  that  effect  (see  Collections  of  the 
Virainia  Historical  Society,  new  series,  vol.  vi.,  "  The  Fourth  Charter  of  th«  iloyal  African  Compiny," 
with  prefatory  note  by  It.  A.  Brook,  Riobmond,  1887).— Ec. 


I'l  rwwy^""^"  * 


■tUvyytn.^'T 


THE  NEGRO. 


(50 


It  might  Imvo  been  supposed  that  the  dechvration  of  prinoiplos  which  pro- 
claiuied  "all  men  free  and  equal"  would  neeesnarily  be  followed  by  the  abolition 
of  Negro  slavery;  but  sueh  was  not  the  case.  No  doubt  the  revolted  colonies 
reproached  Great  Britain  with  having  imposed  the  slave  trade  on  them  ;  but  they 
continued  it  to  their  own  profit.  The  sliippors  of  llliode  Island  simply  took  the 
j)laco  of  the  Liverpool  merchants  as  consigners  of  human  freights,  and  the  South- 
ern planters  continued  to  provide  themselves  with  African  labourers. 

Of  the  old  provinces  Pennsylvania  was  tbe  first  to  take  steps  for  the  sup- 
prL'ssiim  of  slavery ;  in  KHO  it  abolished  servitude  for  all  children  yel  to  bo  bom. 
The  other  Northern  States  successively  imitated  Pennsylvania  by  diverse  enact- 
ments tending  in  the  same  direction,  and  it  was  even  decided  that  the  "  Territory 
north-west  of  the  Ohio"  should  be  later  divided  inio  sevend  new  freestutes.  But 
no  change  was  made  in  the  social  condition  of  the  slaves  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  the  Government  maintained  the  freedom  of  the  traffic  down  to  the  year  1808. 

After  this  date  the  slave  trade  continued  to  bo  carried  on  secretly,  nor  was  the 
practice  placed  on  a  level  with  piracy  till  the  year  1^20.  As  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  century  cargoes  of  Cuban  negroes  continued  to  be  landed  on  the  coastt  of 
Florida  and  Alabama.  Then  the  natural  increase  of  the  African  population 
by  the  excess  of  births  over  the  mortality  enabled  the  planters  to  maintain 
their  cultivated  land'*,  their  opulence,  and  consequently  their  pov  ir  without 
the  necessity  of  importing  fresh  hands. 

The  difference  in  the  institutions,  mode  of  life  and  interests  between  tne  Slave 
and  Free  States,  which  were  marked  off  by  a  sharply-defined  frontier  line  run- 
ning east  and  west,  bad  the  natural  consequence  of  giving  vital  importance  to 
the  slave  question.  Jt  became,  in  fact,  almost  the  only  question,  all  other  factors 
in  contemporary  politics  being  subordinated  to  this  primary  subject.  The 
struggle  became  incessant  in  Congress,  and  the  Southern  politicians,  who  in  the 
early  period  of  the  conflict  had  felt  some  reluctance  to  pose  as  champions  of  servile 
institutions,  gradually  grew  bolder  and  more  energetic  in  their  resistance. 

In  1820  they  succeeded  in  getting  Missouri  added  to  the  Union  as  a  slave 
state,  undertaking,  however,  by  way  of  compromise,  never  to  demand  the  introduc- 
tion of  negro  labour  into  the  regions  lying  to  the  north  of  36°  30'  north  latitude. 
Nevertheless,  they  forgot  their  promise,  and  every  fresh  extension  of  the  domain 
of  the  republic  gave  rise  to  fresh  debates  and  to  more  aggressive  action  on  their 
part.  The  representatives  of  the  Northern  States  had  even  to  yield  on  questions 
of  internal  jurisdiction ;  the  vote  of  1850  secured  for  the  113,000  Southern 
planters  the  surrender  of  their  fugitive  slaves,  and  a  famous  decision  of  the  Supreme 
Court  even  declared  the  Negro  to  possess  no  rights  which  the  whites  were  bound  to 
respect,  l^eing  more  united  than  their  opponents,  more  accustomed  to  command, 
the  plantation  lords  had  become  habitually  victorious  in  the  legislative  debates. 

But  oratorical  and  judicial  triumphs  were  not  suflicient.     They  needed  espe- 
cially an  enlargement  of  their  domain  in  order  to  hold  their  ground  against  the 
Northern  communities,  which  had  entered  a  period  of  marvellous  prosperity. 
France  and  Spain  had  ceded  Louisiana  and  Florida,  both  slave  territories ;  the 
71 


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66 


THE   UNITKI)   HTATE8. 


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political  supremacy  of  the  plaTitcrs  had  nho  onahlcd  them  to  acquire  Missouri, 
while  the  annexation  of  Texas,  a  region  vaster  'luin  VV'anee,  wiw  hronght  about 
by  steady  encroachments,  attempts  at  colonisation -thougli  often  frustrated,  lastly 
by  diplomacy  and  open  war.  Nevertheless,  all  this  increase  of  territory  still  left 
them  admittedly  inferior  in  industrial  development  and  general  wealth.  Hence 
those  e.\j)editions  of  Southern  filibusters  to  the  island  of  Cuba  and  to  ('entral 
America  (Nicaragua),  expeditions  which  were  mure  than  onco  on  the  point  of 
succeeding,  but  which  eventually  failed,  thanks  to  the  resistance  of  the  local 
populations  and  of  foreign  powers,  but  especially  to  the  refusal  of  their  Northern 
fellow-citizens  to  become  accomplices  in  these  attempts  There  remained  nothing 
for  the  slave  party  but  to  sever  the  political  tie  with  the  Union  ;  this  meant  civil 
war,  but  for  such  a  contingency  the  Southerners  had  long  been  preparing,  and 
when  it  arose  they  had  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  assume  the  offensive. 

Nevertheless,  the  elements  of  resistance  had  also  been  gradually  accumulatinfj 
in  the  North,  not  only  through  the  clash  of  interests,  but  also  by  the  formation  of 
the  party  of  Abolitionists,  who  demanded  the  emimcipation  of  the  blacks.  Ix)cal 
conflicts  had  taken  place  in  Missouri  and  Kansas ;  John  Brown  and  some  of  his 
friends  had  even  attempted  to  induce  the  Negroes  to  rise  in  the  very  heart  of 
Virginia.  Opposition  increased  with  the  growing  rigour  of  the  "  black  codes," 
and  especially  when  the  planters,  not  content  to  profit  by  the  labour  of  their 
slaves,  went  so  far  as  to  proclaim  this  condition  as  a  sacred  principle,  in  accordance 
with  the  Divine  will  and  with  the  economical  results. 

Even  the  churches  were  fain  to  take  sides.  Forgetting  that  Wesley  had  defined 
slavery  as  the  sum  total  of  all  crimes,  most  of  the  i^Southorn  Wesleyans,  as  well  as 
the  members  of  other  denominations,  professed  to  see  no  harm  in  rearing  slaves, 
and  deprecated  all  religious  propaganda  and  all  brotherly  action  towards  the 
enslaved  blacks.  Common  political  life  became  daily  more  and  more  difficult 
betweeu  the  two  groups  of  states  ;  passions  grew  to  a  white  heat,  and  the  mon- 
strous contradictions  tolerated  in  the  Constitution  by  the  founders  of  tht»  republic 
at  last  found  their  definite  solution  in  the  arbitrament  of  the  sv  ord. 

Yet  a  mere  glance  at  the  map  might  have  sufRced  to  fcresee  the  inevitable 
failure  of  the  attempt  at  secession  made  by  the  aristocracy  of  ■  he  Slave  States.  In 
point  of  fact,  the  region  which  they  aimed  at  constituting  a  distinct  empire  is 
separated  by  no  natural  frontiers  from  the  Free  States  of  the  North.  On  both 
sides  race,  language,  and  religion  are  the  same,  and  the  only  difference  was  that 
created  by  the  interests  of  a  class,  itself  but  a  small  minority  of  the  body  politic. 
The  moment  the  Mississippi,  a  river  traversing  the  entire  territory,  had  been 
conquered  to  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  confederacy  of  slave-owners 
necessarily  collapsed,  rolled  up  and  crushed  in  the  iron  embrace  of  the  armies 
invading  it  on  all  sides. 

Of  their  own  initiative  the  Negroes  took  no  part  in  the  war;  they  nowhe^j 
rose  in  revolt  against  the  planters,  but  it  is  estimated  that  about  300,000  en- 
listed in  the  Federal  forces.  They  are  now  emancipated,  but  with  freedom  they 
could  not  be  endowed  with  the  intelligence  and  self-reliance  necessary  to  a  state 


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A  STREET  IN  THE  CHINESE  QUARTER,  SAN   FRANCISCO. 


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of  real  independence.  Being  thus  launched  all  unprepared  on  the  struggle  for 
existence,  they  were  obliged  to  take  for  their  motto  the  proverbial  Southern 
expression,  "Root,  hog,  or  die."  Endowed  with  the  suffrage  by  law,  they  were 
practically  disfranchised  in  the  regions  of  the  South,  where  they  possessed  a  clear 
majority,  by  the  shrewder  white  man,  or,  if  allowed  to  exercise  their  political 
rights,  it  was  only  to  further  the  ends  of  designing  politicians.  But  a  brighter  era 
has  dawned  for  the  Southern  Negro.  Separate  public  schools  are  maintained  for 
him  at  the  public  charge  in  all  the  Southern  States,  and  with  the  gradual  diffusion 
of  knowledge  a  distinct  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  race  is  discoverable. 
Though  the  great  mass  of  the  Negroes  still  finds  employment  in  the  lowest  positions 
of  manual  labour,  a  constantly  increasing  number  is  acquiring  land,  learning  the 
trades,  engaging  in  commercial  pursuits,  and  even  entering  the  learned  professions. 

The  Chinese. — Problems. — Prospects. 

Recently  it  was  also  asked  whether  the  destinies  of  the  United  States  might 
not  be  endangered  by  another  question  of  race.  Reference  was  commonly  made 
to  the  Chinese  immigrants,  as  if  it  were  feared  that  a  serious  yellow  invasion 
might  possibly  contest  with  the  whites  the  territory  they  had  scarcely  wrested 
from  the  Redskins.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  movement  of  Chinese  immigration 
on  the  Pacific  seaboard  acquired  a  remarkable  development  during  the  years  that 
followed  the  rush  of  the  whites  to  the  gold-fields.  San  Francisco  and  every  town  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  Rockies  soon  had  their  Chinese  quarter,  a  maze  of  filthy  and 
malodorous  streets,  in  which  shops,  fitted  up  and  managed  like  those  of  Canton 
and  Shanghai,  jostled  with  substantial  American  structures. 

Chinamen  seemed  to  swarm  in  all  the  poor  districts,  and  hundreds  were 
added  to  their  numbers  by  every  vessel  arriving  from  the  extreme  east.  It  was 
asked  whether  America  might  not  be  rapidly  overrun  by  a  new  race  as  soon  as  the 
"  Celestials"  began  to  arrive  with  their  families  to  settle  down  permanently,  and 
not  merely,  as  hitherto,  as  temporary  immigrants.  These  coolies  from  the  banks 
of  the  Si-Kiang,  however,  were  not  free  labourers  arriving  at  their  own  expense. 
Recruited  by  the  "  five  companies,"  which  were  represented  by  a  "  sixth  com- 
pany "  in  San  Francisco,  they  came  nearly  always  deeply  burdened  with  debt,  so 
that  most  of  their  little  earnings  went  to  defray  the  exorbitant  fares  of  the  pas- 
sage, including,  by  a  shrewd  provision,  the  return  journey,  either  alive  or  in  a  fine 
coffin  supplied  by  the  company. 

Chinese  emigration  to  California,  however,  has  now  been  made  extremely 
difficult,  if  not  almost  impossible,  by  means  of  a  severely  prohibitive  legislation  ; 
hence  this  element,  for  the  moment,  no  longer  threatens  to  disturb  the  economic  con- 
ditions of  the  United  States.  But  this  passing  phase  of  the  question  is  but  of  secon- 
dary importance.  The  essential  point  is  that  a  conclusive  experiment  has  already 
been  made,  and  that  an  exodus  of  Mongolians  by  millions  and  millions  to  the  New 
World  has  been  recognised  as  a  possible  future  contingency.  By  compelling  the 
Pekin  Government  to  receive  and  protect  the  "  foreign  devils,"  the  Americans 
at  the  same  time  undertook  to  welcome  the  "  Celestials  "  on  their  own  territory. 


Ii^*    dk 


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THE  UNITED   STATES. 


In  any  case  there  can  be  no  question  of  economic  or  political  isolation  in 
times  when  a  single  month  suffices  to  reach  Europe  from  the  far  East  by  the 
overland  routes  across  the  North  American  continent.  The  United  States  share 
in  all  the  ebbs  and  flows  of  the  gi-eat  ocean  of  humanity,  and  cannot  keep  them- 
selves aloof  despite  the  vast  marine  waters  compassing  them  on  the  east  and  west. 
They  have,  however,  this  advantage,  that,  taking  the  world  as  a  whole,  they 
represent  such  prodigious  latent  strength  that  no  other  power  could  ever  dream 
of  measuring  forces  with  them.  Almost  without  an  army,  and  having  at  its 
disposal  a  fleet  of  only  secondary  importance,  the  Anglo-American  republic  hats 
nothing  to  fear  from  states  whose  battalions  are  best  organised  for  attack. 

This  very  indifference  to  foreign  menace  makes  the  strength  of  the  Union. 
Not  only  is  its  political  unity  no  longer  threatened,  as  it  was  during  the  Civil 
War,  but  if  there  be  any  peril,  it  is  rather  of  an  iiiverbe  order  that  may  be 
feared  in  the  too  rapid  expansion  of  the  North  American  republic,  were  that 
expansion  to  be  other  than  spontaneous,  effected,  for  instance,  by  brute  force  or 
by  the  purchase  of  territory  without  the  consent  of  its  inhabitants. 

At  the  same  time,  such  is  their  political  power  that,  were  the  Anglo-Americans 
to  make  up  their  mind  for  such  material  enlargement  of  their  domain,  they  could 
not  fail  of  any  desired  success.  Will  they  have  the  wisdom  not  to  display  their 
strength,  and  thus  give  a  srlutary  lesson  to  other  states,  amongst  whom  the  eager- 
ness for  easy  foreign  conquests  is  in  direct  proportion  to  their  internal  difiiculties  ? 
It  may  be  feared  that  this  aigaified  reserve  may  not  be  always  maintaineu  when 
certain  politiriuns,  not  satisfied  with  claiming  "America  for  the  Americans,"  are 
found  agitating  for  the  formation  of  a  "  Pan  Amorica,"  the  hegemony  of  which 
would  be  assigned  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  republic. 

But,  owing  to  the  irregular  distribution  of  the  population,  the  United  States 
are  hampered  with  quite  speciul  difficultiea  in  developing  a  homogeneous 
nationality,  and  these  difficulties  are  still  further  pnbanced  by  the  discordant 
ethnical  elements  with  which  the  administration  has  to  deal,  Other  and  even 
more  serious  difficulties  exist  in  xespect  of  the  Negroes,  for  hero  the  country  has 
to  deal  with  a  population  fiveand-twenty  tirricsmore  numerous  than  the  primitive 
aborigines.  To  remove  all  grounds  for  a  possibly  pending  struggle  would  involve 
no  less  a  task  than  to  persuade  the  Negroes  to  colonise  Africa,  or  else  gradually 
drive  to  the  West  Indies  the  millions  of  human  beings  belonging  to  the  despised 
race.  All  these  great  problems  have  to  be  solved,  besides  those  which  arise  in  all 
industrial  lands  from  the  conflicting  interests  of  capital  and  labour.  The  terrible 
war  which  for  four  years  saturated  American  soil  with  blood  has  removed  only  a 
part  of  the  danger,  and  other  no  less  formidable  conflicts  may  still  arise  amongst 
Bo  many  hostile  elements.  But  even  so,  a  magnificent  future  is  secured  for  this 
energetic  section  of  mankind,  which  has  possessed  itself  of  the  whole  space  com- 
prised between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  which,  in  a  single 
century,  has  become  the  most  powerful  and  wealthiest  of  all  nations. 


m 


CHAPTER  III. 

TTIE   APPALACHIANS  AND  THE  ATLANTIC    SLOPjC 

I. — The  Appalachians. 

IIP]  relief  of  the  Atlantic  mountains  begins  far  beyond  the  United 
States'  frontier,  for  the  Labrador  and  Newfoundland  u])land8, 
whose  crests  stretch  along  both  sides  of  Belle  Isle  Strait,  all 
belong  to  the  orographic  system  which  within  the  territory  of  the 
republic  takes  the  name  of  the  Appalachians.  But  the  extreme 
north-eastern  ranges  are  interrupted  by  the  broad  estuary  and  Gulf  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  so  that  the  main  Appulachi:in  axis,  properly  so  called,  has  its 
origin    in    the    Sbikshak    Mountains    of    the    east    Gaspean    peninsula,   which 


develop  their  long  rounded  summits  along  the  southern  shore  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence. Then  diverging  from  this  river,  under  the  name  of  the  Notre-Dame  range, 
they  penetrate  into  Vermont,  where  they  merge  in  the  Green  Mountains. 

From  the  Canadian  extremity  of  the  Appalachians  above  Gasp^  Bay  to  the 
centre  of  the  state  of  Alabama,  where  the  last  crests  of  the  hills  disappear  beneath 
the  cretaceous  and  tertiary  strata  of  almost  level  plains,  the  total  distance  is  1,600 
miles,  not  counting  the  various  deflections  of  the  main  range.  The  normal  trend 
of  the  chain  runs  north-east  and  south-west. 

The  Appalachian  system  is  composed  of  numerous  secondary  sections,  all 
differing  in  direction,  form,  and  relief,  but  disposed  in  well-marked  northern, 
central,  and  southern  groups.  The  northern  group,  traversing  New  England,  is 
the  oldest,  its  mass  belonging  to  Silurian  and  Devonian  formations,  which  are  far 
older  than  the  rocks  prevailing  in  most  of  the  other  Atlantic  mountains.  This 
group  is  also  by  far  the  most  irregular  in  ics  outlines,  its  crests  and  slopes  having 
for  incalculable  ages  been  exposed  to  weathering,  to  glacial  abrasion,  and  to  the 
erosion  of  running  waters.  The  Maine  uplands,  fringed  at  their  base  by  a  laby- 
rinth of  lacustrine  basins  ;  the  Green  and  the  White  Mountains,  facing  each  other 
across  the  intervening  Connecticut  river-valley ;  the  Taconic  and  Hoosac  ranges, 
which  are  disposed  north  and  south,  parallel  with  the  fluvial  depressions — all 
these  rugosities  of  the  surface  constitute  so  many  perfectly  distinct  sub-groups, 
resting,  however,  on  a  common  pedestal,  which  slopes  in  one  direction  towards 
the  Hudson  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  in  the  other  towards  the  Atlantic. 


J 


if'r 


kSI 


im 


70 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Farther  aouth-west  the  continental  breach  now  flooded  by  the  waters  of  the 
Hudson  represents  un  okl  marine  inlet  forming  a  real  break  in  the  system.  A  rising 
of  not  more  than  200  feet  in  the  sea  level  would  suffice  for  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
communicate  through  the  reservoir  of  Lake  Chnmplain  with  the  ocean,  while  a 
second  rise  of  200  feet  would  connect  the  basin  of  Ijake  Ontario  witli  that  of  the 
Mohawk  and  the  Hudson  rivers  across  the  present  watcrparting.  Within  tliis 
triangular  space,  limited  north-west  by  the  St.  Lawrence,  south  by  the  Mohawk, 

Fig.  24.— Axis  op  the  Appalachian  System  bouth  or  the  Susuuehanna. 

Scale  1  :  1 1,000,000. 


186  MUes. 


east  by  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson,  stands  the  Adirondack  plateau,  a 
detached  mass  of  the  northern  Appalachians  traversed  by  parallel  ridges. 

The  middle  section  of  the  Appalachian  system  begins  in  the  state  of  New 
York  with  the  Catskills  and  the  Highlands.  At  first  forming  a  relatively  narrow 
range,  it  gradually  expands  in  Pennsylvania  over  a  vast  space,  developing 
numerous  folds  and  ridges,  which  present  a  remarkable  uniformity  in  their  form, 
height,  escarpments,  and  general  trend.  All  thest  parallel  chains  are  carved  irto 
short  sections  by  the  streams  descending  to  the  Atlantic. 

This  part  of  the  Appalachian  system  has  received  the  collective  name  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  while  the  main  range,  lying  nearest  to  the  Atlantic  coast, 
is  known  as  the  Blue  Ridge.     Between  the  two  basins  of  the  river  Roanoke, 


'^*n 


THE  Ari'ALACUI.VN  RANGES. 


71 


irto 


flowing  to  tho  xVtlantic,  nn.l  of  the  Kunawha,  running  through  tho  Ohio  to  tlio 
Mississippi,  tlio  inequalities  of  the  chiiin,  with  its  windings  and  rtuuiticutious, 
indicate  the  beginning  of  the  southern  Appahichians,  where  tho  whole  system 
oulminates  in  the  Hlack  and  the  Smoky  ^lountains. 

In  their  general  disposition  the  northern  and  central  sections  are  slightly 
curved  so  as  to  present  their  convex  side  north-westwards  towards  tho  dcprossiou 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ontario  basin,  whereas  tho  southern  Appalachians  are,  on 
tlie  contrary,  somewhat  curved  in  the  reverse  direction. 

In  most  mountain  ranges  the  dominant  summits  are  situated  about  tho 
centre  of  the  system.  Not  so  in  the  Appalachians,  whose  highest  ])oak8  rise 
symmetrically  towards  both  extremities,  northwards  in  the  White  Mountain**, 
where  Mount  Washington  has  an  altitude  of  6,300  feet,  southwards  in  the  Black 
Mountains,  where  Mitchell's  Peak  rises  411  feet  higher.  Tho  AUoghanies 
towards  the  middle  of  the  system  haye  a  mean  elevation  of  2,000  feet. 

By  a  similar  contrast  the  loftiest  of  the  parallel  ridges  lies  not  in  the  middle 
but  rises  on  the  east  side  immediately  above  the  plains  of  the  Atlantic  slope.  Thus 
the  Blue  Ridge,  facing  seawards,  maintains  its  position  as  the  Appalachian  chain 
in  a  pre-eminent  sense.  A  broad  and  deep  longitudinal  valley  disposed  from 
north-east  to  south-west  between  the  parallel  ranges  has  given  rise  to  the  state 
ment  that,  at  least  in  the  AUeghanies,  the  positive  axis  of  a  central  ridge  has  been 
replaced  by  a  negative  axis,  that  is  to  say,  by  a  depression  through  which  flow 
the  affluents  of  the  Ohio  and  Atlantic.  The  upper  strata,  which  were  formerly 
developed  towards  the  centre  of  the  axis  to  many  times  the  present  height 
of  the  ranges,  were  less  compact  than  the  compressed  rocks  of  the  synclinal 
foldings,  and  during  the  long  work  of  erosion  those  softer  rocks  at  lust  dis- 
appeared, leaving  exposed  the  old  foundations. 

When  studied  in  detail  the  various  sections  of  the  Appalachian  system  are 
found  to  constitute  so  many  little  worlds  apart.  In  the  state  of  Maine  the 
highlands,  which  partly  serve  as  the  frontier-line  between  tho  Union  and  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  are  rather  an  irregular  divide  than  a  mountain  range  con- 
nected by  a  distinct  backbone  with  the  Not  re-Dame  Mountains  of  Lower  Canada. 
Farther  south  ihe  ground  rises  gradually  towards  the  centre  of  the  state,  and 
here  a  group  of  rounded  Silurian  crests,  with  a  mean  altitude  of  from  2,000  to 
over  3,000  feet,  stands  on  a  pedestal  about  650  feet  high,  which  is  scored  by 
lacustrine  depressions  filled  with  pure  fresh  water.  Mount  Katahdin  (Ktaadin), 
an  almost  completely  isolated  granite  peak,  5,201)  feet  high,  commands  a  superb 
prospect  of  the  surrounding  woodlands. 

Towards  the  sea  the  Silurian  rocks  which  formerly  overlaid  the  granitic  frame- 
work have  disappeared,  leaving  completely  exposed  the  original  crystalline 
formations  carved  into  rugged  cliffs  and  headlands.  A  few  eruptive  rocks  also 
skirt  the  seaboard,  forming  promontories  and  islands,  and  culminating  in  the 
island  of  Mount  Desert,  in  Green  Mountain,  1,522  feet  high. 

West  of  Maine  the  White  Mountains,  so  named  because  snow-clad  for  a 
great  part  of  the  year,  continue  the  main  system,  but  here  acquire  far  more  the 


72 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


uspo(;t  of  a  decided  mountain  range.  They  form  the  cuhninatiiig  m  iss  of  thn 
northern  Appalucliiuns,  and  thus  correspond  symmetrically  with  tlie  Dluck 
MountuiuH  at  the  other  extremity  of  this  orograpliic  system.  The  bold  crests  of 
the  Wliite  Mountains,  which  have  been  scaled  more  frequently  than  any  others  in 
the  United  States,  have  earned  for  them  the  names  of  men  illustrious  in  the  annals 
of  the  republic — Washington,  Lafayette,  Jelferson,  Madison,  Adams,  Monroe, 
Franklin,  and  the  whole  mass  even  takes  the  collective  title  of"  Presidential  Range." 

The  highest  peak,  to  which  has  been  reserved  the  name  of  the  "  Father  of  his 
Country,"  rises  in  altnost  solitary  grandeur  near  the  frontier  of  Maine.  With 
the  natural  tendency  of  all  peoples  to  exaggerate,  the  inhabitants  of  the  seaboard 
estimated  the  height  of  Mount  Washington  at  over  10,000  feet  in  the  layt  century; 
but  according  to  Pickering  its  altitude  is  exactly  (i,-iSS  feet.  One  of  it,?  rocky 
walls  has  a  vertical  height  of  several  hundred  yards,  and  its  base  is  scored  by 
deep  "notches"  or  ravines,  along  which  wind  the  tracks  leading  to  the  summit. 
One  of  them  has  even  been  followed  by  a  railway  which  has  already  crept  up  the 
precipitous  slopes  of  this  central  watch-tower  of  New  England.  From  the  top 
are  visible  the  long  line  of  lower  peaks,  and  the  Green  Mountai'.is,  flanking  tlie 
upper  Connecticut  valley.  North- east waids  the  extreme  horizon  is  bounded  by 
the  blue  crest  of  Katahdin,  while  south- eastwards  spread  the  sparkling  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

South  of  Mount  Washington  follow  the  uplands  skirting  the  long  valley  of  the 
Connecticut,  Avhere  are  distinguished  the  crests  of  Sunapee  (2,083  feet),  Monad- 
nock  (3,186),  and  Kearsage  (2,043),  isolated  peaks  at  one  time  forming  part  of  a 
connected  system,  whose  crests  have  been  partly  levelled  by  glacial  action,  and 
whose  valleys  have  been  filled  with  moraines.  In  the  interior  of  Massachusetts 
the  highest  summit  of  this  series  is  Mount  Waclmset  (2,108  feet). 

The  Connecticut  valley  was  formerly  crossed  by  a  ridge  of  tnip  rock,  whose 
surviving  fragments,  Tom  in  the  west  and  Holyoke  in  the  east,  have  received 
the  name  of  mountains,  although  scarcely  exceeding  1,200  feet  in  height. 
Ilolyoke  terminates  in  a  cluster  of  trap  columns,  which  command  one  of  the 
grandest  views  in  New  England, 

If  the  White  Mountains  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  prolongation  of  the  uplands 
culminating  in  Mount  Katahdin,  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont  may  even  with 
better  reason  be  considered  a  southern  continuation  of  the  Notre-Dame  range  of 
Lower  Canada.  As  such  they  belong  to  the  main  chain  of  the  Appalachian 
system,  whose  first  risings  begin  with  the  continent  itself  south  of  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence.  But  the  Green  Mountains  have  not  the  normal  direction  of  tho 
Appalachian  Mountains,  for  instead  of  running  north-east  and  south-west  they 
trend  rather  north  and  south.  They  are  also  far  inferior  in  elevation  to  the 
White  Mountains,  Mansfield,  their  chief  summit,  being  only  4,430  feet  high. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  they  develop  a  much  longer  continuous  range,  extending 
under  different  names  nearly  to  the  sea-coast.  To  this  southern  extension  of 
the  Green  Mountains  belong  the  crystalline  marble  heights  known  as  the  Berk- 
shire Hills,  which  traverse  the  county  of  that  name  in  Massachusetts. 


THE  ADIRONDACia. 


73 


Above  the  deep  valleys  whoro  the  licadwaters  of  tho  flousatonio  liuvo  their 
source  risoa  a  group  of  hills  culminating  in  Grruylock,  whose  twin-crested  white 
marble  peak  rises  to  a  height  of  ^.o^O  feet.  A  superb  view  of  lakes,  wood- 
lands and  rolling  plains  is  afforded  by  the  socalled  "  opes,"  that  is,  openings  or 
vistas  through  the  forest-clad  slopes  of  thcso  hills.  Here  have  their  origin  two 
parallel  ridges,  the  TToosac  on  tho  east,  and  tho  Taconic  (Tughkatiic)  on  the  west, 
both  equally  famous  for  their  charmitig  sylvan  sconcry. 

The  Hoosac  is  pierced  by  tho  longest  railway  tunnel  in  North  America  (8,;{G0 
yards).  Like  the  Taconic  it  is  formed  of  old  sediinentary  rocks  resting  on  an 
archaic  foundation  The  geological  problems  associited  with  the  "  Taconic 
system  "  have  given  rise  to  so  much  warm  and  even  angry  discussion  amongst 
naturalists  that  a  chart  representing  the  Taconic  of  the  state  of  New  York,  pre- 
pared by  Emmons,  and  3,000  copies  of  which  hud  been  struck  ofF,  rem  lined  unpub- 
lished for  30  years  It  had  been  hidden  by  some  unknown  persons  interested 
in  maintaining  opposite  views  on  the  succession  of  the  geological  series. 

The  Highlands,  bv  which  the  Taconic  chain  is  continued  south-westwards  and 
through  which  the  Hudson  has  cut  a  winding  gorge  on  its  seaw.trd  course,  merge 
farther  south  in  the  low  ridges  of  the  eastern  Appalachians  traversing  the  states 
of  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  Along  tho  eastern  base  of  these  ridges  luirrow 
lines  of  eruptive  rocks  of  Triassio  age  appear  alyove  the  surface  and  have  been 
developed  in  the  form  of  long  ramparts  overlooking  the  low  plains  of  tho  seacoast. 
Such  are  the  Palisades,  which  flank  the  Hudson  estuary  west  of  New  York, 
separating  it  from  the  marshy  plums  of  the  Passaic;  and  the  Orange  or  Watcluing 
Mountains  of  New  Jersev 

The  Adikoxdacks. 

The  triangular  space  formed  by  the  8t.  Lawrence,  Lake  Champlain,  and  the 
Mohawk  valley,  is  occupied  by  the  Adirondack  group,  which  afPects  the  form  of 
a  flattened  pyramid.  On  all  three  sides  the  slopes  rise  insensibly  towards  this 
mountam  mass,  whose  crests  rise  little  above  the  common  pedestal.  Mount  Murcy 
(Tahuwus),  the  culminating  point,  has  an  altitude  of  5.379  feet. 

As  in  the  uplands  of  the  state  of  Maine,  lakes  and  tarns  are  so  numerous 
amongst  the  Adirondacks  that  the  highlanders  are  acc^ijoined  to  equip  their 
canoes,  or  light  boats,  to  pass  from  valley  to  valley.  HMugers  are  surprised 
at  the  novel  spectacle  of  people  toiling  overland  with  this  curious  encumbrance 
of  boats  and  paddles ;  but  so  well  acquainted  are  the  canoeists  with  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  district  that  they  are  able  to  make  most  of  the  journey  by  water. 
On  reaching  the  extremity  of  a  flooded  lacustrine  valley,  they  have  only  to  cross 
some  intervening  isthmus  to  resiime  their  aquatic  journey. 

The  finest  scenery  is  found,  not  in  the  heart  of  the  mountain  mass,  but  on  tho 
periphery,  where  striking  contrasts  are  presented  between  the  plains  and  the 
escarpments.  Such  is  the  "  Gate  of  the  Adirondacks,"  a  superb  gorge  through 
which  the  Au  Sable,  so  named  from  the  fine  sand  carried  down  by  its  current, 
escapes  from  the  hills  to  reach  the  west  side  of  Lake  Champlain.  F'ew  ravines 
offer  a  more  romantic  aspect.     The  rocky  walls,  vertical  or  even  overhanging,  and 


I 


74 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


formed  of  rcjjfular  striitu,  some  projoctinf!;,  others  rctroatin^,  accordiuf?  to  their 
Htroiigdi  of  rc'sislimco  to  the  erosive  ugencies,  develop  vast  einpies  ut  every  abrupt 
turn  in  the  winding'  streuin,  while  siidden  openings  in  the  frowning  clilfs  reveal 
at  intervals  wide  vistas  over  the  gloomy  woodlands. 

Thcso  mugnitieent  forewt  trees  are  threatened  with  complete  destruction  by  the 
woodman's  axo.  Tliey  may,  however,  be  saved  by  the  fuet  that  the  farthest  head- 
waters of  the  Ifudsoa  have  their  rise  in  the  Adirondaek  hills.     Hence  it  baa  been 

Fig.  23. — AmnoNHArK  Mountains. 

Ho'iIp  I  :  1,800,110(1. 


Canal. 


.  30  Miles. 


proposed  to  enclose  the  whole  region  as  a  national  park  like  that  of  the  Yellow- 
stone Valley.  The  preservation  of  the  forests  would  have  the  farther  advantage 
of  regulating  and  controlling  the  discharge  of  the  running  waters. 

The  Catskii.i.s. 

Beyond  the  Mohawk,  in  the  angle  formed  by  its  confluence  with  the  Hudson, 
the  first  Appalachian  heights,  known  as  the  Helderberg  Hills,  are  of  very  moderate 
elevation  ;  but  farther  south  the  Catskills  assume  the  aspect  of  mountains.     These 


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liifrhlandH  ntill  boar  tho  niimu  givun  thorn  by  tlin  Diitcli  prrdcdoiiMar!*  of  tho 
I'lif^lish  BcitlfTH  in  tho  country.  Tho  ('iit«kill  rivor,  whicli  fiillM  iufct  tho  IIiidHdn 
at  the  oust  foot  of  tho  niountaiiis,  was  ao  named  from  tlio  nmnoidiiN  wihl  oatn 
which  at  that  tiiiu-  fiiMiuotitod  tlio  forostn  near  tho  river. 

Uoiiig  of  (lilliciih  accosM  and  dcuMily  ohithcd  with  tiirihor,  tln'M(>  iiiilniidH  woro 
h»npf  avoided  by  tho  ccdoniNtM  aloiijj;  the  banks  of  tho  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivorH 
Thoy  fij^ured  on  tho  nui])8  as  a  nhapoh'ss  nuim  without  any  ch'arly  doterniinod 
outlines;  only  from  thoir  poHitioii  ahing  tlio  main  uxIh  of  tho  Appulaoliiaiis  it  was 
soon  thiit  thoy  bcdongod  to  tho  j^rout  oastern  range  of  tho  United  Slates.  Hut 
Bin(!o  tlieir  oaicfid  exph)ration,  begun  in  iMdi  by  Arnohl  Uiiyot  an<l  liis  pupils, 
tho.r  true  form  lias  been  gradually  revealed,  and  uccurato  charts  of  tho  ( aitskills. 
with  sections  and  regular  protiloH,  havo  now  boon  inado. 

Tlio  osHcntial  point,  dourly  oHtublishod  by  Arnold  Giiyot,  is  that  tho  CatskilU 
arc  disposed  in  inverse  direction  to  tho  normal  trend  of  tho  Appulatdiian  ranges. 
While  tho  whole  system  und  most  of  its  sections  run  north-east  und  south-west, 
tho  Catskilis,  on  the  contrary,  are  dovoh)pod  in  tho  direction  from  north-wof''  to 
south-east,  j)arallol  with  tho  course  of  the  rivers  Oatskill,  Schoharie,  und  Esopns, 
rising  in  their  vulloys.  Nevertheless  the  curious  fact  is  well  cHtablinhod  that  tho 
throe  culminating  peaks — tho  iUack  Dome  (4,003  foot),  Hunter  Mountain  (t,0;}8), 
and  Slide  Mountain  (4,4i)5),  uro  disposed  north-oust  und  south-west  in  u  line  with 
tho  muin  Appalachian  axis,  ulthough  belonging  to  different  ridges. 

Viewed  as  a  whole,  tho  Cutskills,  which  are  much  more  elevated  tuiui  all  the 
other  uplands  in  the  triangular  spiice  limited  by  the  Hudson,  tho  Mohawk,  and 
the  Doluwuro,  rise  like  a  lofty  citadel  above  tho  surrounding  hills  und  plains. 
Tho  eastern  extremity  stands  out  boldly  in  distinct  promontories,  whoreus  the 
western  purts  of  tho  system  ure  graduuUy  effaced  benouth  tho  unduluting  strata 
of  the  plateaux.  The  three  purullol  chuins  are  sharply  limited  by  intervening 
watercourses.  Thus  we  have  in  tho  north  tho  ridgo  comprised  between  tho  river 
Catskill  and  tho  upper  Schoharie  ;  in  tho  centre  tho  Cutskills  proper  bounded  by 
the  same  upper  Schoharie  vulloy  on  one  side,  und  by  that  of  iho  ui)por  Esopus 
on  the  other  ;  lastly,  south  of  the  Esopus,  the  Shandakon  rangu. 

Besides  tho  gateways  opened  by  these  fluvial  valleys  into  the  heart  of  the 
mountains,  a  few  deep  gorges,  whence  foaming  torrents  tunil)Ie  over  cascades 
down  to  tho  lower  roaches,  give  access  to  the  higher  crests,  which  take  the  form 
of  regular  forest-clad  domes.  Theso  rocky  gorges  are  locally  known  as  "  Cloves," 
a  corruption  of  the  term  Kloof  given  to  them  by  the  early  Dutch  settlers. 

The   Al.LEGHANIKS. 

South-west  of  the  Catskills  the  Appalachian  system  seems  at  first  almost 
completely  interrupted,  but  the  ground  soon  begins  gradually  to  rise  in  a  series 
of  undulations  resembling  ocean  billows,  their  general  uniformity  unbroken  by 
any  conspicuous  eminence.  South  Mountain,  or  "  First  Belt,"  as  the  first  great 
stony  billow  is  apily  named,  develops  a  low  rolling  crest  which  reaches  altitudes  of 
about  1,000  foot,  though  it  is  worn  down  much  lower  between  the  Delaware  and 


K;*!* 


■ 


B 


T 


76 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


.Susquehunna  rivers.  Then  follows  the  broad  valley,  the  Kittatinny  valley 
of  New  Jersey,  the  Lebanon  and  the  Cumberland  valley  of  Pennsylvania,  but 
called  simply  "  The  Valley  "  through  Virginia,  which  constitutes  the  true  axis  of 
the  Appalachian    system,  being  disposed  in  the  normal  direction   from   north- 


Fig.  26.— TiiE  Gheat  She-vandoah  Valley. 

Bciilo  1  ;  825,000. 


6  Miles- 


east  to  south-west,  while  gradually  rising  from  160  in  the  north  to  more  than 
2,000  feet  in  southern  Virginia. 

On  the  north-west  rises  another  parallel  ridge,  the  second  great  chain  of  the 
Alleghanies,  which,  in  New  Jersey,  like  the  central  valley,  bears  the  name  of 
Kittatinny,  that  is,  the  "  Endless  Range,"  while  througb  Pennsylvania  it  is  called 
Bine  Mountain.  Higher  than  the  eastern  chain,  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania it  attains  in  its  upper  crests  an  elevation  of  from  1,300  to  1,500  feet,  grad- 
ually rising  to  upwards  of  2,500  feet  in  central  Virginia.  South  of  the  Potomac, 
however,  the  southern  prolongation  of  South  Mountain,  under  the  name  of  Blue 


ie'iuiiioBli»iiw.&ii»iuL>^<WBw<*.iiwi»wMh^ni*"WBiVii«*>ifliiWiirfiiiTiyijit/i»t<ii|iitutlii^^ 


'-ft.-,  -'■■■_ 


■•'^'s»*«**«««W*l«*WiftBli^«*#»^9«WWi 


;aW«^:ta-I«**[-«ii,-fi.^..P'*(rf.f*«:p.rr..^,rf-ta.fr.'n3W!^J?Erw-'.*^   " 


9 


THE  ALLEGHANIES. 


77 


i  than 


Ridge,  becomes  the  dominant  chain,  and  contains  several  peaks  about  4,000  feet 
high.  Despite  the  moderate  altitude  of  the  Wue  Mountain  of  Peuntiylvania,  it 
presents  a  somewhat  bold  aspect,  thanks  to  the  abrupt  slope  of  its  escarpments, 
to  the  precipitous  walls  here  and  there  breaking  the  uniformity  of  the  rolling 
heights,  and  to  the  forests,  or  at  least  brushwood,  still  clothing  the  rocks  and  by 
their  dark  tints  contrasting  with  the  more  delicate  verdure  of  the  alternating 
grassy  and  cultivated  tracts  on  the  surrounding  plains. 

Although  on  the  whole  extremely  regular,  this  second  great  ridge  of  the 
Alleghany  chains  is  broken  at  intervals  by  abrupt  breaches,  some,  the  so-called 
'•  wind  gaps,"  simple  surface  depressions  penetrating  to  no  great  depth  into  the 
rocky  crust,  others,  the  "  water  gaps,"  profound  chasms  through  which  the  streams 
wind  from  valley  to  valley.  But  the  wind  gaps  themselves  are  also  old  water  gaps 
excavated  at  a  remote  epoch,  when  the  work  of  erosion  was  in  a  less  advanced  state 
than  at  present.  Then  these  depressions  were  afterwards  abandoned  by  the  run- 
ning waters,  when  gaps  at  a  lower  level  offered  them  a  more  easy  seaward  issue. 

North-west  of  the  Blue  Mountain  occurs  a  series  of  many  parallel  chains  of  a 
nearly  uniform  height  of  about  1.600  feet,  separated  by  corresponding  valleys, 
which  are  themselves  again  divided  into  distinct  depressions  by  minor  intervening 
ridges.  Many  of  these  chains  are  arranged  en  echelon,  and  not  infrequently  the 
overlapping  ends  of  two  adjacent  chains  are  connected  by  an  intervening  range, 
thus  giving  a  very  peculiar  zigzag  course  to  the  crest  line  of  the  combined  moun- 
tain. In  other  instances  adjacent  chains  converge  and  coalesce  at  either  end, 
enclosing  one  of  the  numerous  canoe-shaped  valleys  which  form  a  characteristic 
topographical  feature  of  the  region. 

The  zone  of  parallel  chains  is  defined  and  walled  in  on  the  north-west  by  the 
precipitous  and  elevated  eastern  edge  of  the  Appalachian  plateau.  This  escarp- 
ment maiatains  a  general  elevation  of  from  2,000  to  2,500  feet,  and  from  it  the 
plateau  declines  gradually  to  the  north-west,  until  it  finally  merges  in  the  plains 
of  the  Mississippi  valley.  The  plateau  is  everywhere  deeply  and  intricately 
eroded  by  streams,  and  in  West  Virginia  it  is  cut  across  completely  by  the  valley 
of  the  Kanawha.  With  this  exception  it  presents  a  region  of  continuous  highland 
from  the  Mohawk-Hudson  valley  in  central  New  York  to  the  Tennessee  gorge 
near  the  boundary  of  Alabama. 

Transverse  geological  sections  of  this  portion  of  the  Appalachian  system,  from 
the  Blue  Ridge  to  the  Mississippi  slope,  while  differing  in  details  with  their  loca- 
tion, yet  resemble  each  other  closely  in  their  more  general  features  and  afford  a 
key  to  the  intricate  arrangement  yet  grandly  simple  structure  of  this  interesting 
system  of  mountains.  The  rocky  strata  of  the  whole  region  has  been  thrown  by 
subterranean  forces  in  the  remote  past  into  a  succession  of  great  waves  or  folds 
whose  longitudinal  axes  correspond  in  direction  with  the  main  axis  of  the  system, 
and  which  increase  gradually  frcn»  low  and  open  undulations  fn  the  north-western 
plateau  to  enormously  high  and  closely  compressed  folds  in  the  Blue  Ridge.  The 
erosion  of  countless  ages  has  truncated  these  rock  waves  and  has  removed  a  thick- 
ness of  half  a  mile  or  more  from  the  plateau,  but  of  as  much  as  five  miles  from 


78 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


some  parts  of  the  more  highly  plicated  strata  in  the  neighbonrhood  of  the  Bhie 
Ridge.  The  present  parallel  ranges  are  simply  the  protruding  strata  in  the  sides 
or  troughs  of  the  folds,  which,  by  reason  of  the  superior  hardness  of  the  rock  or 
of  the  greater  stability  afforded  by  a  synclinul  position,  have  been  better  able  to 
resi^it  the  elements  than  the  strata  of  softer  rocks  or  of  less  stable  anticlinal  posi- 
tion which  constitute  the  intervening  valleys.  Owing  to  the  greater  erosion  in  the 
south-east,  the  age  of  the  surface  rocks  increases  progressively  in  that  direction, 
60  that  in  traversing  the  region  one  crosses  in  succession  the  upturned  edges  of  the 
whole  series  of  paleozoic  strata,  from  the  more  recent  carboniferous  sandstones  of 
the  plateau  to  the  highly  metamorphic  sub- Cambrian  gneiss  of  the  Blue  Ridge. 

Besides  the  foldings,  which  give  the  ridges  as  a  whole  such  a  surprisingly 
symmetrical  form,  the  Alleghanies  show  in  their  inner  structure  the  traces  of 
other  movements  which  remained  concealed  in  the  depths  of  the  rock  until 
revealed  to  geologists  by  the  extensive  mining  operations  in  Pennsylvania. 
Such  are  the  sudden  dislocations  and  the  faults  which  in  some  places  have  caused 
formerly  continuous  strata  to  break  away  to  distances  of  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  yards  from  their  original  position. 

In  the  Pennsylvanian  section  of  their  ranges  the  Appalachians,  here  cut  into 
separate  blocks  by  the  two  forks  of  the  Susquehanna,  present  as  a  whole  a  certain 

Fig.  27.— Geneuaused  Teansveiisb  Sbction  of  the  Appalachian  Mouktains  in  Pe.nnsyltamia. 


s.c. 


Aas  OF  Strata  :  V.— Carboniferous.       IV,— Devonian.       III.— Silurian.       II.— Cambrian.       I.— Ancient  Oneiss. 
The  light  dotted  lines  indicate  the  strati  removed  by  erosion. 

convexity  turned  towards  the  north-west.  But  in  the  Virginias,  beyond  the  gaps 
traversed  by  the  Potomac,  the  Appalachian  system  sweeps  off  in  a  curve  which 
presents  its  convexity  to  the  south-east.  The  common  pedestal  here  stands  at  a 
higher  elevation  ;  the  long  intervening  depression,  which  forms  a  southern  exten- 
sion of  the  Kittatinny  Valley,  and  which  is  here  known  simply  as  The  Valley, 
standing  at  a  higher  mean  level,  and  maintaining  an  average  breadth  oi  from 
15  to  18  miles.  The  parallel  chains  are  also  more  elevated,  and  exceeding  3,000 
feet  in  their  highest  crests,  while  Stony  Man,  Hawk's  Bill,  Peaks  of  Otter,  and 
other  summits  of  Blue  Ridge  exceed  4,000  feet. 

The  whole  region  is  normally  disposed  in  longitudinal  belts  of  no  great  width. 
Such  are  on  the  Atlantic  slope  the  foot-hills  designated  by  the  French  term 
"  Piedmont,"  farther  west  the  Blue  Ridge,  then  the  Great  Valley,  beyond  which 
follow  still  other  ranges,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Cumberland  Mountains  form- 
ing slopes  which  drain  towards  the  Ohio  and  its  affluents.  The  most  abrupt 
of  the  escarpments,  densely  clad  with  dark  woodlands,  takes  the  name  of  Alleghany 
or  Front  Mountain.  In  certain  districts  as  many  as  twenty  successive  ridges  may 
be  counted  within  a  breadth  of  30  miles,  each  some  hundreds  of  yards  higher 
than  the  intervening  depressions.  But  in  West  Virginia  the  eastern  edge  of  the 
plateau  in  many  places  loses  much  of  its  usual  regularity.  :" 


'  I  Lij»mjiiiji<Ui 


i"i'f"fTtiiilVft^riiiinii'«i"i 


.Mmmmtmmm*''^^ 


t.%m^fliliHi^-,i-,,\l,  III  .Ml 


THE  ALLEGHANIES. 


79 


Tho  Bouihern  section  of  the  Appiilucbian  system  traversing  Tennessee  and 
North  Carolina  has  no  longer  the  regular  outlines  which  suggest  the  lines  of 
caterpillars  moving  in  procession,  or  of  troops  defiling  in  regiments  and  battalions. 
Several  ridges  converge  so  as  to  form  irregularly  outlined  masses ;  others  deviate 
from  the  normal  direction,  their  crests  running  north  and  south,  or  east  and  west ; 
some  even  stand  completely  isolated,  bounded  on  uU  sides  by  deep  valleys.  It  is 
here  that  the  Appalachian  system  presents  tho  greatest  diversity  of  contours,  here 
also  it  assumes  its  boldest  aspect  and  attains  its  highest  elevation. 

The  culminating  summits  spring  from  the  chain  lying  nearest  to  the  Atlantic, 
which  continues  to  bear  the  collective  name  of  Blue  Ridge,  but  which  in  reality 
consists  of  numerous  secondary  groups  and  chains  with  distinct  designations.  Such  is 
Roan  High  Knob  (6,313  feet),  which  farther  east  is  rivalled  by  the  plateau  of  Grassy 
Ridge.  Tha  Black  Mountains,  so  named  from  their  forests  of  Abies  nigra  and 
other  dark-leaved  conifers,  and  the  Smoky  and  the  Unaka  Mountains,  all  rise  to 
heights  of  over  6,500  feet.  This  is  some  hundred  and  thirty  feet  lower  than 
Mount  Guyot,  whose  name  commemorates  the  foremost  explorer  of  the  system ; 
Clingman's  dome  reaches  6,619  feet,  and  according  to  the  new  topographic  chart 
of  the  United  States,  these  altitudes  are  exceeded  by  Mitchell  J'eak  (0,711  feet), 
which  is  isolated  on  the  east  and  west  sides  by  broad  depression^?. 

All  these  uplands  are  wooded  to  the  top,  except  where  the  summits  exceed 
6,000  feet.  Such  apparently  bare  crests  are  locally  called  "  balds,"  a  term  by 
a  popular  etymology  corrupted  to  "  balls."  But  they  are  not  really  bald,  being 
covered  with  scrub,  ferns,  wild  gooseberries,  and  other  berry-growing  plants, 
and  higher  up  by  succulent  herbs,  yielding  excellent  pasturage. 

These  southern  Appalachian  groups,  unrivalled  for  their  picturesque  scenery 
and  varied  floras,  are  scarcely  known  compared  with  the  New  England  uplands, 
whict  are  both  less  elevated  and  less  rich  in  vegetable  species.  Their  apparent 
neglect  is,  however,  solely  due  to  the  still  somewhat  scanty  population  of  the 
southern  states,  the  attraction  exercised  by  romantic  sites  and  landscapes  depending 
in  a  large  measure  on  the  social  condition  of  the  neighbouring  lands. 

Beyond  the  Carolina  highlands  the  ranges  fall  rapidly  ;  nevertheless,  even  in 
Georgia  the  southern  prolongation  of  the  Appalachian  system  is  still  marked 
by  numerous  peaks,  exceeding  3,000  feet  in  height.  The  groups  of  the  Enota, 
Tray,  and  Blood  Mountains,  and  lastly,  Adam's  Knob,  are  respectively  4,798, 
4,404,  4,466,  and  3,588  feet  high.  The  numerous  headwaters  of  the  Coosa, 
main  branch  of  the  Alabama,  have  their  sources  in  these  different  groups,  and  the 
valley  of  this  river  forms  the  most  remarkable  physical  feature  in  the  Appala- 
chian system.  It  may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  southern  continuation  of  the 
main  axis,  the  Coosa  and  neighbouring  streams  flowing  between  escarpments 
which  in  many  places  assume  the  aspect  of  mountains.  On  both  sides  the 
parallel  slopes,  which  correspond  in  all  their  projecting  and  retreating  contour 
lines,  shoot  up  so  precipitously  that  they  might  be  taken  for  the  pedestals  of 
magnificent  peaks.  But  on  surmounting  the  upper  crest,  as  seen  from  below,  the 
traveller  finds  himself  on  an  almost  horizontal  plateau. 


k- .  U 


III 


:'i 


"-''WP'.",1^'-'" — --"•" 


80 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


From  the  summit  of  tlie  clmins  on  the  Tennessee-Carolimi  boundary  one  looks 
north-westward  across  the  broad  Valley  of  East  Tennessee,  sixty  miles  to  the  bold 
escarpment  of  the  Appalachian  tableland,  here  called  the  Cumberland  plateau, 
which  though  greatly  reduced  in  width,  still  maintains  an  average  elevation  of 
nearly  2,000  feet,  and  preserves  t^e  same  general  peculiarities  of  geological  age 
and  structure  which  characterise  it  in  Pennsylvania.  The  intervening  Valley  of 
East  Tennessee  is  a  continuation  of  the  Valley  of  Virginia  and  of  the  ao.'i«i  of 
parallel  ranges;  the  latter,  however,  have  here  subsided  into  ridges  which,  while 
maintaining  the  same  remarkable  parallelism,  seldom  attain  greater  altitudes  than 
1,:jOO  to  1,500  feet.  The  floor  of  the  valley  declines  south- west wardly  from 
about  1,000  feet  in  the  vicinity  of  Knoxville  to  about  650  feet  at  Chattanooga, 
where  the  Tennessee  River  enters  its  gorge  through  the  Cumberland  Plateau. 

The  true  southern  termination  of  the  Appalachians,  if  not  as  regards  the 
invisible  underlying  rocks,  at  least  in  respect  of  their  outcroppings,  is  the  point 
in  Central  Alabama  where  the  plateaux  of  secondary  formation  take  the  place  of 
the  uplands  formed  by  the  older  strata  that  constitute  tho  geological  structure  of 
the  whole  system  right  away  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 

All  the  eastern  zone  consists  of  granite  and  eozoic  and  paleozoic  formations  of 
great  age,  so  old  that  it  has  given  currency  to  tho  oft-repeated  saying  that  the  New 
World  is  in  reality  the  older  of  the  two ;  at  least  here  have  been  found  fossil 
remains  of  the  most  remote  epochs.  Many  geologists  think  they  have  detected  in 
gneiss  itself  a  species  of  foraminifer,  to  which  they  have  given  the  name  of  eozoon, 
"  dawn  of  life."  But  granting  that  there  may  here  be  a  delusion,  Braintree's  trilo- 
bite  (paradoxn/es  Ilarlaui),  discovered  in  the  rocks  in  the  outskirts  of  Boston,  would 
still  appear  to  be  the  ollcst  known  organism  of  the  whole  terrestrial  fauna. 

Farther  west  various  Appalachian  chains  consist  of  Silurian  and  Devonian 
strata,  while  all  the  western  section  of  the  system  belongs  to  the  carboniferous 
age?.  We  know  how  vitally  important  for  the  peopling  and  the  industrial  progress 
of  this  region  have  been  the  stores  of  fuel  deposited  amid  the  various  strata  of  the 
older  formations,  stores  all  the  more  valuable  that  rich  veins  of  excellent  iron  ores 
occur  in  continuous  zones  along  nearly  all  the  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  system. 

The  coalfields  found  east  of  the  mountains  in  small  elliptical  basins  in  Virginia 
and  North  Carolina  belong  to  the  Jurassic  epoch.  They  were  deposited  in  granite 
beds,  and  since  their  formation  they  have  been  subject  to  such  profound  disturb- 
ance that  mining  operations  are  here  attended  by  great  difficulty.  The  anthracite 
deposits  that  have  been  found  in  the  northern  Alieghanies  belong  to  a  very  dif- 
ferent epoch,  resting  on  paleozoic  rocks,  and  forming  quite  distinct  zones  Dis- 
posed along  the  ranges,  they  are  now  separated  from  each  other  by  vast  spaces 
where  coal  had  also  been  deposited,  though  all  traces  of  its  presence  have  since  disap- 
peared, owing  to  the  work  of  erosion  continued  throughout  long  geological  ages. 

The  anthracites  of  Pennsylvania  were  formerly  prolonged  north-eastwards  across 
the  States  of  New  York  and  Connecticut,  and  merged  in  the  formations  of  the 
same  class  still  persisting  in  Rhode  Island.  Perhaps  not  a  hundredth  part  of  the 
enormous  mass  of  anthracite  originally  accumulated  in  this  section  of  the  Appa- 


Wfa4«Knsw«(AnnF«cw!9^ 


■'-t«»aBBt»etiiit!iBtojiBaMi#y 


wimmmmt^ 


*         I  iiijii»niiiwrii>cti,«'jii'^yiijii  B" 


THE  ATiLEOnANIES. 


81 


jp- 


lachians  still  rernniriS.  But  west  of  the  liigblunds,  that  is  beyond  the  scene  of  the 
l^eologicul  events  by  which  the  Alleghanies  hiive  been  folded,  distorted  or  ground 
down,  ro^ular  strata  of  bituminous  coal  stretch  in  continuous  sheets  of  vast 
extent  throughout  West  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Alabama.  The  only  complete  breaks  occur  in  the  deep  valleys  of  the 
Kanawha  in  West  Virginia  and  of  the  Tennessee  River  below  Chattanooga. 

Gradual  transitions  in  the  composition  of  the  coal  take  place  in  the  direction 
from  east  to  west.  The  anthracites  of  the  eastern  districts  contain  only  from  two 
to  five  per  cent,  of  gas  and  burn  with  little  flame  or  smoke,  whereas  the  western 
bituminous  coal  contains  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  and  burns  with  a  bright  flame, 
giving  off  an  extremely  dense  black  smoke.  Hence  the  contrast  in  the  character 
of  the  factories  using  the  two  descriptions  of  fuel.  In  the  Susquehanna  valley 
the  atmosphere  remains  unpolluted ;  in  that  of  the  Monongahela  the  industrial 
centres  incessantly  viw it  clouds  of  black  smoke. 

Evidently  the  difference  in  the  two  kinds  of  coal  arises  from  their  geological 
history.  The  bituminous  coal^  having  remained  comparatively  undisturbed  in  the 
position  in  which  it  was  originally  deposited,  has  preserved  its  primitive  com- 
position intact.  The  eastern  beds,  on  the  contrary,  having  been  profoundly  dis- 
turbed, and  involved  in  closely  compressed  folds,  the  gas  has  been  squeezed  out 
and  the  coal  thus  transformed  to  anthracite.  Moreover,  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
mountains  contain  none  of  those  deep  wells  of  rock  oil,  nor  any  of  those  reservoirs 
of  gas,  which  characterise  the  subterranean  geology  of  the  Upper  Ohio  basin. 

IT. — Rivers  of  the  Atlantic  Slope. 

The  running  waters  which  descend  from  the  Appalachians  in  one  direction 
towards  the  Atlantic,  in  the  other  towards  the  Mississippi  and  the  great  lakes,  con- 
tinue in  a  humble  way  the  geological  work  of  trituration  anderosion  which  was  begun 
after  the  retreat  of  the  ice  cap  at  one  time  covering  the  northern  continent  as  far 
as  and  beyond  the  Hudson,  Geologists  have  long  been  aware  that  the  northern 
regions  of  the  United  States  were  formerly  covered,  not  once,  but  twice,  by  a  thick 
sheet  of  ice  ;  they  have,  moreover,  verified  the  fact  that  these  moving  crystalline 
masses  transported  huge  boulders  and  thrust  forward  enormous  frontal  moraines. 

On  the  Atlantic  seaboard  thi  whdle  of  New  England,  with  its  peninsulas 
and  islands,  belongs  to  this  zone,  and  judging  from  the  height  of  the  ice 
scratchings  observed  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  the  thickness  of  the  ice- 
cap formerly  spread  over  South  Connecticut  may  be  estimated  at  over  1,{)00,  per- 
haps at  even  2,300  feet.  The  refuse  brought  down  crossed  the  deep  valley  of 
the  Hudson,  and  after  traversing  New  Jersey  crossed  Pennsylvania  into  south- 
western New  York,  surmounting  the  parallel  chains  of  the  Alleghanies  and  over- 
flowing on  the  upper  strat-i  of  ^he  western  Susquehanna  valley.  Certain  granite 
boulders  now  found  in  Massachusetts  belong  to  the  New  Hampshire  mountains ; 
other  granite  blocks  landed  on  the  sandstone  formation  of  the  Pocono  plateau 
2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  must  have  been  detached  from 
the  Adirondacks  or  the  Notre-Dame  range  of  Lower  Canada,  In  the  upper  AUe- 
72 


''% 


pi*i 


,ir 


82 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


ghany  rivor  valley  at  an  elevation  of  about  1,900  feet  are  shown  other  boulders, 
whose  original  home  is  at  least  250  miles  away. 

The  period  of  transition  between  the  glaciers  and  regular  watercourses  is  still 
far  from  completed  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States.  South  of  the  St. 
John,  whose  upper  affluents  belong  to  the  Union,  and  of  the  St.  Croix,  which  forms 
the  north-east  frontier  towards  New  Brunswick,  these  watercourses  are  rather 
chains  of  lakes  connected  together  by  mere  emissaries  than  normal  rivers.  The 
lacustrine  period  which  followed  the  ice  age  still  continues  in  JNIaine,  where  every 
valley,  every  glon  has  its  lakes.  So  also  every  plateau,  every  hill-side  has  its 
flooded  depressions,  its  swamps  or  bogs,  half  dry  during  the  dry  season,  but  swollen 
during  the  rainy  and  foggy  weather  so  frequent  in  those  regions. 

A  landslip,  a  cliff  eroded  by  the  under- wash,  suffices  to  divert  the  affluents 
from  one  river  to  another,  and  frequently  the  waters  overflow  on  both  sides  at 
once  like  those  of  a  basin  in  ornamental  fountains.  All  these  lakes  ramify  in 
lateral  channels  through  the  valleys  winding  between  the  mountain  masses ;  but, 
as  a  rule,  they  are  disposed  in  the  direction  from  north-west  to  south-east,  follow- 
ing the  general  tilt  of  the  land,  and  their  outlets  descend  step  by  step,  that  is 
from  lake  to  lake,  at  right  angles  with  the  sea-coast. 

Of  all  the  watercourses  which  thus  flow  from  the  Height  of  Land,  the  most 
copious  are  the  Penobscot,  whose  headwaters  descend  from  the  slopes  of  Mount 
Katahdin,  and  the  Kennebec,  which  rises  in  Moosehead  Lake,  the  largest  basin  in 
Maine,  and  which  is  doubled  in  volume  by  the  junction  of  the  Androscoggin  just 
above  the  common  estuary.  Farther  south  follow  the  Saco  and  the  Merrimac, 
which  receive  their  first  supplies  from  the  White  Mountains. 

In  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Inland  the  maritime  slope  is  too  narrow  for  the 
development  of  large  streams ;  hence  they  assume  the  aspect  of  copious  rivers 
only  at  their  mouths  under  the  action  of  the  marine  tides.  But  west  of  the  White 
Mountains  a  large  breach  enables  the  waters  of  the  highlands  to  escape  southwards 
as  a  "  long  river ; "  such  would  appear  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  Indian  word 
Awonektakat,  or  Connecticut,  which,  however,  has  also  been  explained  as  the 
"  River  of  Pines." 

The  course  of  this  river  from  the  Canadian  frontier  to  its  mouth  in  Long  Island 
Sound  exceeds  that  of  all  other  New  England  streams.  Its  valley  is  far  more 
regular,  and  the  terraced  lakes  of  its  primitive  basin  have  nearly  all  been  drained  ; 
amongst  them  is  the  formerly  flooded  basin  above  the  Holyoke  defile.  But  the 
course  of  the  river  is  still  interrupted  at  intervals  by  falls  and  rapids  with  their 
fringe  of  manufacturing  towns.  A  similar  rigime  is  presented  by  the  Housatonic, 
another  river  which  falls  into  Long  Island  Sound  west  of  the  Connecticut.* 

*  Chief  rivers  of  New  England  Hccording  to  Gannett  in  the  Beports  of  the  Eleventh  Census' — 

Mean  Discharge. 


Length. 

Catchment  Bftsin. 

Ciibio  >eet. 

Ppnobscnt     . 

294  miles. 

8,934  t>q 

miles. 

10,000  per  second. 

Kennebec    . 
Androsco[;gin 

220     „      \ 
193     „      / 

10,102 

n 

11,000  „      „ 

Saco    . 

92     „ 

1,400 

*l 

1,950  „      „ 

Merrimao 

170     „ 

4.864 

tt 

5,.')00  „      „ 

Connecticut . 

400     „ 

U.2«9 

)f 

10,760  „      „ 

Houeatouiu  . 

.         154     „ 

1,933 

»I 

1,800  „      „ 

-4 

-'■'-'—"-- I' "  II  i''Tiiiiii1ilfiiaiiiiiiiiirwiMi'r>.ii 


'vU 


LAKE  GEORGE. 


63 


I  I  i  ,<l 


The  Hi'DsoN  Basin — Lakes  Geokoe  and  Chamtlain. 

The  Hudson,  which  flows  parullol  with  the  Connecticut,  is,  from  the  geologi- 
cal standpoint,  rather  the  remains  of  a  marine  channel  than  a  river.  Formerly  it 
formed  a  continuous  sheet  of  water  with  Lakes  George  and  Chanipluin,  being  con- 
nected through  these  magnificent  basins  with  the  St.  Lawrence  estuary.  The 
depression  traversed  by  the  Hudson,  flanked  on  one  side  by  the  Green  Mountains, 
on  the  other  by  the  Adirondacks,  is  itself  one  of  those  central  Appalachian  val- 
leys, such  as  the  long  troughs  through  which  flow  the  Shenandoah  and  the  Now 
River.  Lake  Champlain,  however,  instead  of  being  disposed  north-east  and 
south-west,  like  the  Appalachian  system  generally,  opens  southwards  and  com- 
municates with  the  sea  by  a  lateral  breach.  Like  so  many  other  features  in  the 
crust  of  the  globe,  the  continuous  depression  occupied  by  the  beds  of  Lake 
Champlain  and  the  Hudson  River  owes  its  origin  to  a  multiplicity  of  causes. 
This  depression  has  been  named  by  Guyot  the  Great  Appalachian  Valley.  The 
low  divide  in  it  between  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson  is  now  crossed  by  an 
artificial  canal  connecting  these  waterti. 

Lake  George,  the  ancient  Horicon,  or  "  Silver  Water,"  occupies  a  small  lateral 
depression,  parallel  with  the  southern  extremity  of  Champlain,  and  sending  its 
overflow  to  this  basin  through  the  Ticonderoga,  or  "  Roaring  "Water,"  M'hich 
tumbles  into  the  lake  over  a  terraced  cascade  some  34  feet  high.  Near  this  spot 
the  French  Ifad  erected  Fort  Carillon  (the  "  Chimes  " ),  so  named  from  the  music 
of  the  romantic  waterfall.  Carillon  was  the  most  important  stronghold  in  this 
district  so  long  contested  by  the  French  and  English. 

Lake  George  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  North-east  America.  Half  river,  half  lake, 
it  winds  between  monntains  and  hills,  unfolding  an  endless  \  ariety  of  lovely  vistas 
in  its  verdant  shores,  bold  headlands,  and  its  low  or  rocky  islets,  some  bare,  some 
wooded  or  carpeted  with  grassy  meads.  Its  pellucid  waters  have  a  depth  of  400 
feet  in  its  deepest  cavity,  and  to  their  crystalline  transparency  the  basin  is  said  to 
owe  its  French  name  of  Saint  Sacrement  (Lake  Sacrament),  the  water  having 
served  to  replenish  the  fonts  in  the  churches  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Lake  Champlain,  greatly  elongated,  like  Lake  George,  like  it  also  meanders 
through  its  narrow  basin,  now  broadening  out  into  circular  expanses,  now  con- 
tracting between  rocky  points  and  bluffs,  and  thus  presenting  on  a  larger  scale 
picturesque  views  analogous  to  those  of  the  Silver  Water.  About  four  times 
longer,  it  has  also  a  far  greater  mean  width,  while  its  extreme  depth  is  about  the 
same,  400  feet.  Discovered  in  1609  by  Samuel  Champlain,  its  northern  extremity 
still  forms  part  of  Canada,  and  its  outlet,  the  Sorel,  belongs  entirely  to  the  province 
of  Quebec. 

The  highest  source  of  the  Hudson  flows  from  the  foot  of  Mount  Marcy,  in 
the  heart  of  the  Adirondacks,  4,327  feet  above  sea-level,  and  the  lakelet  where  it 
has  its  rise  has  received  the  poetic  name  of  Tear  of  the  Clouds.  The  torrent 
rushes  over  a  series  of  cataracts,  its  current  sweeping  down  blue,  green,  and  gold, 
or  opaline  fragments  of  labradurites.     Hundreds  of  lakelets  send  thefr  waters  to 


%l\ 


mm 


81 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


thoiiiiiiii  Btreum,  which  soon  takes  tb'.'  nspcct  of  a  river  rolling  down  a  conaidor- 
ublo  volume.  Blocks  of  black  marble  obstruct  its  course  at  (jilen's  Falls,  whore  it 
plunges  in  a  superb  sheot  SO  feet  high  down  to  a  deep  gorge  whose  wooded  crags 
have  already  been  occupieil  by  human  habitations.  Beyond  this  point  follows  a 
succession  of  rapids,  after  which  the  Hudson  continues  to  fall  through  fresh  cas- 
cades from  terrace  to  terrace  down  to  its  confluence  with  the  Mohawk. 

This  spot,  about  midway  between  its  source  and  mouth,  or  150  miles  from 
both,  is  one  of  the  vital  points  in  the  geography  of  the  American  Continent.  The 
two  valleys  which  here  meet  at  right  angles,  one  disposed  in  the  direction  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  the  other  turned  towards  the  St.  Lawrence,  are  two  historical  high- 
ways of  such  a  marked  character  that  the  converging  point  could  not  fail  at  all 
times  to  possess  great  strategic  value,  even  when  the  country  was  inhabited  only 
bj'^  savages.  Hero  the  English  and  French,  and  later  the  American  forces  and 
the  royal  troops,  frequently  crossed  swords,  and  when  the  wars  were  succeeded 
by  the  era  of  peace,  the  cross  roads  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Hudson  con- 
tinued to  maintain  their  importance  by  securing  the  commercial  supremacy  of 
New  York. 

The  Mohawk,  which  joins  the  Hudson  at  right  angles,  and  imparts  to  it  its 
fluvial  character,  has  its  source  to  the  east  of  the  lacustrine  region  formerly  con- 
stituting the  domain  of  the  Six  Nations.  It  flows  at  first  through  a  gently  undu- 
lating plain  between  meadows  and  clumps  of  trees  to  its  junction  with  Canada 
Creek  {Kanahtn,  or  "Amber  Water"),  by  which  its  volume  is  doubled.  This 
stream,  which  descends  from  the  north,  is  famous  throughout  America  for  its 
romantic  cataracts,  known  as  Trenton  Falls,  where  the  current  plunges  over  five 
grand  cascades  and  swirling  rapids  a  total  height  of  200  feet  down  to  a  deep  ravine 
clothed  with  verdure.  The  falls  and  the  thousand  prospects  of  the  deep  chasm 
present  an  endless  diversity  of  scenery.  The  rocky  sides  of  the  gorge,  formed  of 
Silurian  limestone,  rise  like  walls  of  masonry  disposed  in  horizontal  layers,  vary- 
ing in  thickness  and  rent  by  fissures.  The  bed  of  the  ravine  is  as  if  paved 
with  blue-black  slabs,  which  have  been  polished  by  the  flood  waters,  and 
here  and  there  detached  by  the  nnderwash.  Trenton  Falls  is  a  classic  spot 
for  geologists,  thanks  to  its  wealth  in  fossils  belonging  to  the  dawn  of  life  on 
the  globe. 

East  of  Canada  Creek  the  Mohawk,  where  it  skirts  the  base  of  the  Adiron- 
dacka,  is  itself  precipitated  over  a  series  of  cascades,  which  are  now  utilised  by 
the  industrial  town  of  Little  Falls.  Lower  down  it  flows  in  a  tranquil  current 
between  grassy  banks  as  far  as  its  last  cataract,  that  of  Cohoes,  above  the  cluster 
of  shattered  islets  where  the  Mohawk  and  the  Hudson  merge  in  a  single  channel. 
But  the  Cohoes  Falls,  80  feet  high  and  1,000  wide,  no  longer  exist,  except  during 
the  floods  ;  at  other  times  the  neighbouring  factories  use  up  all  the  water  for 
their  machinery,  and  after  dividing  it  into  a  thousand  canals  return  the  polluted 
fluid  through  \\  ooden  or  iron  pipes  to  the  river  bed. 

The  united  sti-eams  form  the  Hudson  properly  so  called,  a  magnificent  water- 
course, which  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  "  American  Rhine."     The  title  is  fully 


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~'«^m^ier'»\.^i?&ie'3!8gi:ST'5*?aK??.'1^ 


THE  HUDSON. 


66 


merited,  loss  for  tho  poetry  of  local  lt«p;e!i(l  und  historic  momorics,  HlthouRh  even 
those  huvo  already  lent  their  ('hurrns  to  tho  luiidscupo,  thiin  for  tho  iiictiirt'.s(|iie 
bouuty  and  viiriod  chuructor  of  its  scenery  ;  in  tliis  respect  the  IfudMon  is  itlniost 
unrivulled.  In  the  bustle  of  its  commerciul  life  and  its  piiHsenj^er  trutlic,  it  also 
equals,  and  oven  surpasses,  tho  Rhino.  Lines  of  railway  skirt  it  on  both  sides, 
and  its  waters  aro  everywhere  ulivo  with  steamers,  tnj^s,  well  freighted  sailing 
vessels,  yachts,  and  other  pleasure  boats  ;  us  many  as  fifty  barges  aro  sometimes 
seen  following  in  tho  wake  of  a  single  tug. 

Tho  tides,  although  not  reaching  as  fur  as  the  Mohawk  confluence,  make  them- 
selves felt  to  within  a  short  distance  of  this  point,  at  least  by  stemming  tho  fiuviul 
current  und  diminishing  its  velocity.  Formerly  when  tho  means  of  tronsport  were 
less  developed  than  at  present,  sca-goiug  vessels  ascended  the  river  with  the  tide 
right  up  to  Hudson,  114  miles  from  the  sea.  Every  winter  tho  surface  above 
tho  tidal  reaches  is  completely  frozen  over,  and  one  of  tho  chief  local  industries 
is  the  housing  and  sale  of  the  ice.  Sledges  constructed  for  tho  purpose  and 
rigged  with  sails  glide  with  surprising  velocity  over  the  frozen  surface. 

The  Hudson  winds  round  tho  Catskill  headlands  without  developing  any 
rapids.  Al  the  point  where  it  pierces  the  chain  of  highlands  it  still  maintains 
an  unrufHod  surface;  but  above  tho  obstruction  it  expands  into  a  veritable  lake, 
und  then  the  contracted  current  flows  to  right  and  left,  through  a  series  of 
abrupt  windings.  The  spot  marks  the  site  of  the  rocky  barrier  wliich  formerly 
diimmed  up  the  Hudson  waters,  deflecting  them  through  Lake  Champluin  north- 
wards to  the  St.  Lawrence.  Immediately  above  and  below  these  eroded  ramparts 
tho  stream  has  a  niean  width  of  about  1,100  yards,  but  in  its  passage  through  the 
highlands  it  is  contracted  to  half  that  width.  In  other  respects  tho  HudMon  still 
resembles  the  Canadian  watercourses,  in  its  transitional  state  between  a  chain  of 
lakes  and  rapids  and  a  fully  developed  river.  In  the  irregularity  of  its  shores 
carved  into  creeks  and  inlets,  it  has  retained  somewhat  the  aopect  of  a  fjord,  and 
in  many  places  the  banks  have  not  yet  been  completely  formed.  The  more 
regular  contour  lines  acquired  by  the  river  are  of  an  artificial  character,  being 
due  to  lateral  railway  embankments. 

The  spacious  Tappan  Sea,  as  it  is  called,  which  is  developed  below  the  high- 
lands, is  in  reality  an  elongated  lake,  disposed  in  several  secondary  basins  by  bold 
rocky  headlands.  Lower  down,  after  resuming  its  fluvial  aspect,  the  Hudson 
washes  the  base  of  the  Palisades,  a  long  line  of  trap  cliffs,  so  called  either  from 
some  old  fortified  works  of  the  Dutch  settlers,  or  from  their  peculiar  columnul 
formation.  These  cliffs,  which  rise  from  300  to  600  feet  above  the  stream,  extend 
for  a  distance  of  14  or  15  miles  along  the  New  Jersey  side,  to  a  point  several 
miles  above  New  York  city.  The  pillars  are  at  intervals  distinct  enough  to 
form  veritable  colonnades,  though  their  height  has  been  reduced  to  one-half  by 
landslips  now  covered  with  herbage. 

Below  the  Palisades  the  Hudson,  here  called  the  North  River,  because  it  lies 
north  of  the  Delaware,  formerly  known  as  the  South  River,  expands  at  once  into 
New  York  Bay.     One  of  its  lateral  channels  diverges  from  the  main  Gtream  east- 


Hi: 


80 


THE  UNITKI)  STATKS. 


wukIh  to  tho  Ku8t  Uivor,  aiiolht>r  spction  of  llio  liurhour,  beyontl  which  it  nnnifi(m 
flir(»iiji;h  Hell  Onto  towanlM  I.oiij?  iHlaud  Sound.  ThuH  the  lIudMon  lu'coinc*  com- 
plottdy  inoiKod  in  tho  ImyH  imd  HtniitH  of  the  ostuary.* 

Tho  Nuhiiiiinn«(  prolnnf^ution  of  the  lludmm  viilh-y,  a  phmomonon  nmilogous 
to  tlial  NO  eli-arly  obMorvod  at  tho  "  (ioiif  "  of  Capo  Hrolou  fa.inj?  (ho  ohl  n>outh 
of  the  Adoiir  in  tho  Huy  of  lliscuy,  extonds  beyond  thu  e8tuaiy  to  the  Atlantic. 

Thk  Dki.awark. 

In  thoir  general  aspect  tlie  Dolawaio  and  iho  other  rivern  piercing  the 
Appuhichians  farther  south  presunt  a  marked  contraHt  to  the  Connecticut  and 
IFudHon.  These  two  watercourses  descend  due  south  between  the  groups  of 
uphmds,  whereas  tho  Dchiwaro,  dispoxod  in  the  direction  from  north-west  to 
soutli-oast,  flows  seaward  in  u  succession  of  abrupt  windings  through  longi- 
tudinal valleys,  and  through  transverse  sections  of  the  mountuins.  Tlie  farthest 
sources  of  tho  Delaware  have  their  rise  in  tho  western  glens  of  tho  Catskilln,  and 
flow  flrst  south-west  across  elevated  hilly  plains  in  the  direction  of  the  Susque- 
hanna ;  but  before  reaching  that  river  its  course  is  deflected  south-eastwards 
through  a  deep  gorge  in  tho  plateau,  and  separates  the  States  of  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania.  At  the  northern  corner  of  Now  Jersey  tho  river  leaves  its  gorge 
and  bends  sharply  to  tho  south-west  to  follow  the  brond  valley  between  the  Pocono 
plateau  and  Kittatinny  Mountain.  Suddenly  a  narrow  fissure  appears  in  tho  rocky 
walls  of  Kittatinny  between  the  magnificent  Tammany  cliffs  on  tho  north  and  the 
more  gently  sloping  Minsi  on  the  south  ;  here  the  Delaware  plunges  into  a  rocky 
gorge  about  two  miles  long  between  precipices  from  1,000  to  1,800  feet  high, 
beyond  which  it  again  bonus  round  at  a  sharp  angle.  This  gorge,  most  famous  of 
all  the  water  gaps,  has  become  one  of  the  most  frequented  summer  resorts. 

The  Luhigh,  chief  aftluent  of  the  river,  and  known  also  as  tho  west  fork  of  the 
Delaware,  presents  on  a  smaller  scale  all  the  salient  features  of  the  main  stream.  Like 
it  its  course  winds  in  abrupt  bends,  and  pierces  the  Kittatinny  hills  through  the 
Lehigh  Gap,  beyond  which,  impinging  on  the  opposite  heights,  it  is  deflected 
north-east  to  its  junction  with  the  Delaware  at  Easton.  Then  the  united  stream, 
penetrating  through  another  series  of  gaps,  pierces  the  broad  low  swell  of  South 
Mountain.  Near  Trenton  some  rapids  are  developed  at  the  head  of  tide  water, 
below  which  the  river  bends  round  to  the  south-west,  here  traversing  the  low- 
lying  coastlands  over  a  course  which  was  at  one  time  perhaps  a  marine  beach, 
forming  a  continuation  of  the  Long  Island  Sound  coast  between  New  York  and 
New  Haven. 

In  this  part  of  its  course  the  Delaware  is  joined  just  below  Philadelphia  by 
the  Schuylkill,  that  is,  the  "hidden  river,"  so  named  by  the  early  Dutch  navi- 
gators because  its  mouth  is  marked  by  a  cluster  of  islets.  Farther  down  the 
Delaware  gradually  expands  in  an  estuary  sweeping  in  a  long  bend  round  to  tho 
bay,  which    resumes  the   normal    south-easterly  direction.      The  main  stream  is 

•  Approximate  length  (if  the  Hudson 310  miles. 

Area  of  the  catchment  basin I3,3G6  square  mileH. 

M'jan  discharge 16,000  oubic  feet  per  recond. 


K?J!KSSfi^S2s&3!irff5Kr«rr 


TIIK  SILSQUMHANXA. 


87 


of 


anceNNi))l(<  to  Moa-f^oin};^   vPMiielii  as  fur  us    I'liiliulflpliia,   uiid  tu  Ht«am(<rH  of  light, 
druiiglit  UM  far  ua  Tri'iiton.'*' 

The  Si  sgi  khanna, 

TluH  ii  a  longrr  river,  and  drainn  u  larger  area  tlian  tlio  Iit'lawmo, 
rising  further  north  and  reaching  tbo  nvu  farther  mmth,  and  taking  a 
widor  sweep  westwards,  though  roughly  paralhd  in  its  varioUH  moanderingM  with 
that  watoreourse.  NeverthelcBs  it  in  of  less  oeononiie  value,  both  beeuuRe  it  lien 
farther  from  New  York  und  I'ljludelphiu,  ,)ie  great  eonnnerciul  centreH  of  the 
north-oaHt,  and  alao  bccuUfM^  it  does  iuft  full  directly  into  the  eea  nor  into  an 
cHtuary  facing  the  great  liuea  of  marine  navigation.  It  debouchcH  at  the  head 
of  the  narrow  undHinuou.s  Chosapeuko  lluy,  which  8trolcl|f"9  thonco  Bouthwards  for 
over  175  miles,  thus  diverging  from  the  main  Atlantic  trade  routes.  It  is  also 
loss  navigable,  as  indicated  by  its  Lenapo  name,  which  is  said  to  mean  "  broad 
and  flat."  In  fact,  throughout  muirly  the  whole  of  its  middle  and  lower  course 
it  spreads  out  in  a  bed  over  1,000  yards  wide,  fordublo  at  intervals,  studded  with 
rocks  and  obstructed  by  aquatic  vegetation,  which  scarcely  affords  pussuge  to  rafts 
and  light  craft ;  houce  it  has  been  tbund  necessary  to  canalise  its  bunks. 

Rising  in  the  Cutskills  and  the  heights  skirting  the  Mohawk,  the  Husquo- 
hannu  flows  first  south-westwards,  receiving  the  Chenango  from  the  north  and 
the  Chemung  from  the  north-west ;  then  it  bends  abruptly  round  to  the  south-east, 
and  cuts  a  deep  gorge  through  the  heart  of  the  Appalachian  plateau.  It  emerges 
in  the  beautiful  canoe-shaped  Wyoming  Valley,  which  it  traverses  in  a  south- 
westerly direction,  passing  Wilkes-Barre,  the  centre  of  the  northern  anthracite 
basin.  Near  the  south-western  extremity  of  the  valley  the  river  pierces  the  moun- 
tain wall  to  the  right,  and  resumes  a  south-westerly  direction  as  far  as  its  junction 
with  the  western  fork  of  the  Susquehanna.  This  branch  on  its  part  rises  far  back 
on  the  plateau  in  northern  Pennsylvania,  which  it  traverses  in  a  steep  and  narrow 
defile  in  a  general  south-easterly  course.  At  Lock  Haven  it  enters  the  zone  of 
parallel  ridges  and  valleys,  and  is  deflected  to  the  north-east  by  Buld  Eagle  ^foun- 
tain, along  the  base  of  which  it  flows  to  the  termination  of  the  range  beyond 
Williamsport,  where  it  bends  abruptly  to  the  south,  and  after  piercing  several 
mountain  ranges  in  a  series  of  water  gaps,  joins  the  east  fork. 

After  the  confluence  of  the  two  forks  the  main  stream  is  joined  by  the 
Juniata,  the  "  fair  and  blue,"  whose  charming  scenery  ha6  been  described  by 
many  writers.  Like  the  other  branches  of  the  Susquehanna,  the  Juniata  forces 
the  ramparts  of  the  Alleghanies  through  a  succession  of  romantic  gorges.  Having 
a  shorter  course  than  the  two  upper  forks  of  the  Susquehanna,  the  Juniata  pierces 
the  several  parallel  ranges  in  a  much  more  narrow  space,  and  consequently  offers 
a  greater  wealth  of  striking  contrasts. 

On  the  lowland  plains  the  Susquehanna,  broad  as  a  marine  inlet,  flows  directly 
towards  the  northern  extremity  of  Chesiipeake  Bay,  of  which  it,  so  to  say,  forms  a 

*  Total  length  of  the  Delaware 310  miles. 

Area  of  itH  basin      .         .         .         ,        .         ....        12,012  square  milo.s. 
Mean  Jiiiohai-yo 13,U00  cubic  feet  per  second. 


'■  m 


miW^ 


->,:.'rfMtKS*rt*--.-^(it-. 


I « 'lj"Mt  HJ|l^l)|lH}pjH,l|yy,  ny|, J,  ,-.^. 


88 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


landward  continuation.  Formerly  the  railway  connecting  Philadelphia  with 
Washington  was  interrupted  by  the  wide  fluvial  bed,  and  steam  ferries  had  to 
transport  the  trains  from  one  bank  to  tlie  other.  Now  the  channel,  half  river 
half  marine  inlet,  is  bridged  by  two  parallel  viaducts,  whence  the  traveller 
surveys  the  broad  waters  with  their  low  wooded  shores.  The  rocky  walls  of  the 
Susquehanna  present  the  whole  series  of  geological  formations  of  the  Appalachian 

Fig.  28. — Harper's  Febbt  Gobof 

Renlfl  1  ;  180.0(V». 


CaiuU. 


3  Miles. 


system,  from  the  carboniferous  strata  of  the  west  and  the  Silurian  rocks  of  the 
central  axis  to  the  granites  of  the  eastern  ridges.* 

The  Potomac. 

Like  the  Susquehanna,  the  Potomac  falls  into  the  almost  closed  basin  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  which  presents  the  aspect  of  a  great  inland  sea.  The  Potomac 
also  rises  in  the  Alleghanies  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  plateau,  and  escapes  towards 
the  Atlantic  through  narrow  gorges  successively  piercing  the  several  ridges. 

Above  its  last  gorge  the  Potomac  is  joined  from  the  south  by  the  Shenandoah, 
another  considerable  river,  which  waters  the  northern  portion  of  the  valley  of 
Virginia.     Above  the  bluff  at  Harper's  Ferry,  which  separates  the  Potomac  from 

•  Total  lengfth  of  the  Susquehanna 400  miles. 

Areaof  its  basin 27,656  sq.  miles. 

Mean  discharge 28,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 


mtamautm 


mn 


I  ■,_;  ,  — :,'^^     "'£^^^'  '    "'■  ■""'".'' 


*iit.'j;.«^MftJM>»., 


3^ 


i 


f 


-4- 


^mi: 


*f^'pf^)^y;.^'^&'M;;K|■^^!'^m^>^^  If 


I'l  iiij'i^' 


:'1U'.1''I",1I" 


■■■-  ^  ■^v:;'A:rv^ 


RIVERS  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES. 


the  Shenandoah,  the  ledges  of  eroded  rockb  are  exposed  in  both  beds  during  low 
water.*  But  at  this  point  there  are  no  falls,  though  other  rupids  occur  farther 
down,  the  last  being  at  the  head  of  tide  water,  a  little  above  Washington  and  the 
long  fluvial  estuary. 

The  James  and  other  Southern  Rivers  flowing  to  tfie  Atlantic. 

All  the  other  watercourses  converging  on  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  Rappahannock, 
Mattapony,  Paraunkey  or  York,  and  the  James,  with  its  tributary,  the  Appomatox, 
also  terminate  their  fluvidl  course,  properly  so  culled,  with  cascades  or  rapids  at  the 
poiut  where  the  granitic  fbrmations  are  conterminous  with  the  tertiar)'^  plains  of 
the  seaboard,  and  they  all  reach  the  sea  through  broad,  winding  tidal  estuaries. 
(Jf  these  rivers  the  James  alone  rises  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains  beyond  the  Blue 
Ridge  ;  its  affluents  also  have  their  source  in  parallel  valleys,  and  join  it  by  sharp 
bends  at  its  passage  through  the  gorges.  Cedar  Creek,  one  of  the  smallest  of 
these  affluents,  passes  under  the  famous  Natural  Bridge  of  Virginia,  probably  the 
lurgest  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  rising  over  200  feet  above  the  torrent,  with  a  span 
of  nbout  80  feet.  In  the  elevated  valley,  where  rise  the  farthest  headwaters  of  the 
James,  the  Appalachian  system  seems  interrupted ;  the  James  basin  belonging  to 
the  Atlantic  slope  is  here  separated  by  a  scarcely  perceptible  sill  from  that  of  the 
New  River,  which  flows  through  the  Kanawha  and  Ohio  to  the  Mississippi. 

All  the  streams  descending  from  the  Appalachians  and  their  southern  prolon- 
gations into  the  Carolines  and  Georgia  resemble  each  other  in  the  direction  of  their 
course  and  general  fluvial  character.  The  Roanoke,  Cape  Fear  River,  Great 
Pedee,  Santee,  Savannah,  Altamaha,  and  the  minor  watercourses  of  the  same  slope, 
How  normally  seawards,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  direction  from  north-west  to  south- 
east according  to  the  general  incline  of  the  land.  All  have  pure  water  and  fine 
cascades  in  their  upper  course,  all  wind  sluggishly  through  the  level  coastlands, 
and  are  here  lined  with  swamps,  divided  into  secondary  channels,  or  also 
obstructed  at  their  mouth  by  low  archipelagoes  and  strips  of  sand. 

Among  the  numerous  cataracts  of  these  rirers,  the  grandest  are  those  of 
Tallulah,  in  Cherokee  the  "  Formidable,"  which  form  three  successive  falls  inter- 
rupting the  course  of  an  affluent  of  the  Savannah  at  the  issue  of  a  mountain  gorge. 

At  the  south-east  angle  of  the  Appalachian  system  the  running  waters 
descending  from  the  upland  valleys  radiate  like  the  ribs  of  a  fan  towards  the  south- 
east, the  south  and  the  south-west,  the  first  in  the  direction  of  the  Atlantic,  all  the 
others  to  the  basin  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  rivers  of  Florida,  which  flow  in 
the  angular  space  between  both  coasts,  have  a  different  regime,  and,  apart  from  a  few 
small  streams^  should  rather  be  regarded  as  channels  of  oceanic  origin. 

Thk  Atlantic  Seaboard — Glaciation — Cape  Con. 

The  shores  of  the  Atlantic  present  a  certain  correspondence  with  the  river 
ba»ins,  which  sei.  1  down  to  the  coast  the  excess  of  their  rainfall  and  the  sedimen- 


III 


•  Total  lorgth  of  the  Potomac 
Area  of  its  basin 
Menu  discharge 


300  miles. 

14  479  sq.  mil««. 

10,600  cubic  feet  (ler  second. 


00 


THE  UNITEJ)  STATJiS. 


v.. 


tary  matter  waslied  from  the  uplands.  Still  obstructed  at  a  recent  gcologioal 
epoch  by  the  glaciers  radiating  from  the  Cuniulian  highlands,  the  estuaries 
through  which  the  rivers  of  Maine  reach  the  sea  have  preserved  their  primitive 
structure,  their  clilTs,  rocky  headlands,  granite  islands  and  archipelagoes  striated  by 
the  ice  streams.  These  crystalline  masses,  which  filled  the  straits  and  sounds 
connecting  tlio  coast  islands  with  the  mainland,  served  to  maintain  the  original 
form  of  the  coast-line,  which  was  again  revealed  when  they  melted  away.  Since 
then  this  coast-line  has  been  little  modified  by  the  shingle,  the  sandy  beaches  or 
muddy  beds  deposited  during  contemporary  ages. 

But  a  little  distance   inland  the  pre-glacial  relief  of  the  ground  has  been 
greatly    modified  by   the    serpentine   crests  of   the    kamcs,    or   long  irregularly 
stratified  ridges  of  clay,  sands  and  gravels  deposited  by  the  glaciers  in  tho  direction 
Fi^.  29.— Sourn  Front  of  thk  Old  New  England  Glaciers. 

Scale  1  :  4,500,000. 


l)«rectiou  of  the  old  glaoicn. 


Seaward  front  of  the  moraines. 


60  Mile*. 


of  their  movement,  and  again  disturbed  or  redisturbed  by  the  running  waters. 
These  sinuous  banks  or  ramparts,  rising  as  much  us  60  ov  70  feet  above  the 
surrounding  plains,  have  been  formed  in  the  same  way  as  the  eskers  (escara)  of 
Ireland  and  the  d.sar  of  Scandinavia,  and  like  them  are  in  many  places  merged 
in  the  lateral  or  frontal  moraines. 

Other  deposits  left  by  the  glaciers  as  they  gradually  retreated  have  in  New 
England  received  the  name  of  (Irurnlins ;  they  are  slightly  elevated  but  steep 
hills,  which  uniformly  affect  the  lenticular  (doubly-convex)  shape,  and  which 
follow  each  other  in  parallel  lines,  developing  their  long  axis  in  the  direction 
formerly  taken  by  the  ice  streams.  All  the  verdant  hills  rising  to  tho  south  of 
Boston  are  so  many  drumlins  or  knolls  of  glacial  origin. 

Lastly,  innumerable  little  lakes  or  tarns,  known  in  the  north-eastern  status  as 


mmmmi^ 


M. 


.■iS^^ 


CAPE  COD. 


91 


Kettle-holes,  mark  the  lino  follow(!d  by  the  glaciers.  These  depressions,  some  still 
Hooded,  others  dried  up  or  tilled  with  peat,  probably  owe  their  existence  to  ice- 
sheets  covered  with  moraines. 

Soiith  of  the  rocky  coast  of  Maine  the  low-lying  shores  of  New  England 
appear  to  have  undergone  considerable  cluiiige  from  the  action  of  ice.  The 
islands  lying  beyond  Cape  Cod  were  certainly  situated  in  front  of  the  ice-cap, 
and  according  to  AVright  the  great  frontal  moraine  extended  from  the  western 


Fig.  30.— "Peow"  of  Cape  Cod. 
Scale  1  :  ZOO.OIX). 


West    oP    Greenwich 


Depths. 


^ 


Sands  exposed 
at  low  water. 


Oto6 
Fathoms. 
o 
Lighthouse. 


6  to  15 
Fathoms. 


16  to  25 
Fathoms. 

Lifeboat  station. 


25  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


6  MUes. 


extremity  of  Long  Island  all  the  way  to  Nantucket  Island.  When  this  outer 
moraine  was  abandoned  by  the  retreating  ico,  another  parallel  with  it  was 
developed,  stretching  from  the  south  side  of  Long  Island  as  far  as  the  peninsula 
of  Cape  Cod.  A  rocky  bed  serving  as  a  submarine  support  indicated  the  direction 
taken  by  the  frontal  moraines.  The  drift  left  by  them  was  afterwards  attacked  by 
the  oceanic  currents  during  the  period  of  general  subsidence  of  the  land,  and  the 
form  of  these  masses  of  still  unconsolidated  refuse   was  again  modified  by   the 


I  ' 


92 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


conflicting  waves,  which,  umid  the  endless  diversity  of  their  movements,  neverthe- 
less follow  a  certain  general  rhythm. 

Amongst  all  the  peninsular  annexes  to  the  north-east  coast  none  present 
more  remarkable  contour  lines  than  Cape  Cod,  the  Nauset  of  the  extinct 
aborigines.  Projecting  at  a  right  angle  with  the  mainland,  then  bending 
round  to  the  north-west,  like  the  prow  of  a  gondola,  it  encloses  within  its 
low-lying  strand  an  inlet  25  miles  broad  between  the  opposite  shores. 

In  its  general  outline  it  presents  exactly  the  appearance  of  a  marine  eddy 
that  hud  been  suddenly  solidified  ;  nor  can  there  be  any  doubt  that  it  really 
owes  its  shape  to  the  movement  of  the  currents,  which  meet  at  this  point  and 
turn  upon  themselves  in  long  regular  curves.  The  lakelets  still  persisting  within 
the  curvatures  of  the  littoral  cordons  are  old  sheets  of  salt  water,  which  have  been 
gradually  enclosed  by  the  accumulating  sands,  and  which  have  been  slowly  changed 
to  freshwater  ponds  by  the  rains  and  running  waters. 

The  conspicuous  projection  of  the  peninsula  beyond  the  normal  line  of  the 
mainland,  its  eccentric  form  and  its  dangerous  approach,  combined  to  make  Cape 
Cod  the  most  striking  feature  of  these  waters  in  the  eyes  of  the  early  navigators, 
lloiico  many  writers  have  with  Rafn  identified  this  headland  with  the  Kjalarnoes 
(Keel-ness,  Prow-head),  on  which  the  Norwegian  navigator,  Thorwald,  landed, 

the  point  of  land  being  so  named  from  its  resemblance  to  the  prow  of  a  Scan- 
dinavian vessel. 

The  island  of  ^lartlia's  Vineyard,  which,  till  the  year  1050,  was  called  Mar- 
tin's Vineyard,  from  the  Christian  name  of  its  discoverer,  Martin  Pring,  would, 
according  to  the  same  historiaiis,  reeall  the  ancient  Vinland,  as  if  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  great  Wineland,  as  the  neighbouring  coast  had  been  named  by 
the  Norse  pioneers.  Like  the  Cape  Cod  peninsula  and  the  adjacent  Nantucket 
Island,  it  is  a  moraine  at  once  of  glacial  and  marine  origin.  The  denuded  up- 
lands supplied  the  materials,  which  were  re-arranged  by  the  waves. 

Nantucket  especially  shows  the  action  of  the  currents  by  its  shape.  Its  south 
side,  disposed  in  a  line  with  Long  Island,  indicates  the  edge  of  the  continental 
pedestal  on  which  New  England  rests  ;  but  the  shore  line  turns  at  a  sharp 
angle  from  south  to  north,  in  the  direction  followed  by  Cape  Cod. 

Nev/  York,  New  Jeksey,  axd  Delaware  Cdastlaxds. 

The  long  southern  shore  of  Long  Island,  which  extends  for  a  distance  of 
120  miles  between  the  Bay  of  New  York  and  Montauk  Point,  and  is  even 
further  prolonged  by  Block  Island,  is  entirely  of  marine  origin.  From  one 
extremity  to  the  other  the  outer  strip  of  sands,  affecting  the  form  of  the  string 
of  a  fiddle-stick,  masks  the  irregularity  of  the  inner  coastline,  which  is  carved 
into  creeks  and  inlets  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  dating  from  the  secondary  epoch, 
which  constitute  the  backbone  of  the  island. 

South  of  New  York  Bay  a  peninsular  region  of  masBive  outline  is  clearl' 
defined  by  the  sea-shore  and  the  course  of  the  Delaware  below  Trenton. 
Although  the  neck  of   this  peninsula  is  not  composed  of   recent  alluvia,  and 


mr^ 


NEW  YORK  SEABOARD. 


98 


<jt« 


Fig.  31.— Sandy  Hook. 
Scale  1  :  -JOU.UUO. 


although  it  presents  stratified  rocks  deposited  during  secondary  times,  it  has  but 

a  slight   elevation  above   sea-level ;    the    watershed  between  South  Amboy  and 

Trenton  is  scarcely  perceptible.     On  the  seaward  side  the  peninsula,  which  com 

prises    South    New    Jersey, 

presents  a  stretch  of  sands 

of    the    same    formation    as 

those  of   Long  Island,   and 

almost  exactly  of  the  same 

length. 

Thus  the  great  port  of 
entry  of  America,  that  is  to 
suy.  New  York  Bay,  is  ap- 
proached from  the  Atlantic 
side  through  a  vestibule  of 
singularly  symmetrical 
form  ;  only  the  New  Jersey 
spit,  more  sinuous  than  that 
of  New  York,  and  more  in- 
dented by  inlets,  enables  the 
Hooded  depressions  of  the 
interior  to  communicate  with 
the  sea.  The  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  strip  of  sands 
is  the  far-famed  Sandy  Hook, 
which  projects  six  miles 
seaward,  and  on  which  stand 
a  lifeboat  station,  defensive 
works,  a  semaphore,  and  a 
lighthouse. 

South  of  Sandy  Hook  the 
coastline  is  fringed  at  first 
by  no  sandbanks  ;  but  far- 
ther on  the  cordon  again 
develops  itself  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  true  conti- 
nental shore-line,  enclosing 
extensive  sheets  of  salt  water 
and  debatable  marshy  tracts,  forming  part 
droughts  and  part  of  the  sea  during  the  rains. 

Great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  level  of  the  land,  as  is  attested  by  the 
submerged  forests,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cape  May,  southern  head- 
land of  the  peninsula  commanding  the  entrance  to  Delaware  Bay.  Here  are 
found  extensive  morasses  filled  with  a  thick  mud,  in  which  large  trees  of  the 
white  cypress  {Cupressua  thyoides)  are  buried  to  a  depth  of  over  10  feet. 


74' 5'         West  oF  Greenwich 


Oto9i 

Fathoma. 


Depths. 


2Jto6 
Fathoms. 


6  FflUioms 
and  npwaids. 


Lighthouse. 


Lifeboat  station. 
__  3  MUes. 


of    the    land    during    protracted 


''  !■ 


m 


94 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


li 


.!■' 


'M 


Thoso  buried  forests  seen'  to  indicate  a  subsidence  of  the  land,  while  on  the 
other  Imnd  oyster  banks  standing  several  feot- above  sea-level  show  that  move- 
ments in  tho  opposite  direction  have  also  taken  place. 

The  peninsula  between  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Bays  resembles  that  of  New 
Jersey  ;  only  it  is  of  less  massive  form,  and  more  elongated,  while  its  tapering 
serrated  extremity  develops  a  more  graceful  curve  southwards.  The  seaward 
coasts  of  both  are  disposed  in  the  same  direction,  parallel  with  the  Appalachians, 
and  along  the  brink  of  the  depression  over  which  flows  the  Gulf  Stream. 

The  peninsula  separated  by  Chesapeake  Bay  from  the  rest  of  the  mainland 
has  a  total  length  of  170  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  over  GO  miles  in  tho  central 
part.  But  it  narrows  greatly  towards  tho  neck,  so  that  at  this  point  there 
is  a  distance  of  only  ten  miles  from  estuary  to  estuary,  while  the  intervening 
tract  is  very  low.  Thus  it  was  found  easy  to  connect  Delaware  and  Susque- 
hanna basins,  betweeu  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore,  by  a  canal  ten  feet  deep. 

CiiKSAPKAKE  Bay. 

(Jhesapeake  Bay  has  no  rival  amongst  the  inland  seas  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  the  port  of  entry  for  all  the  central  parts  of  the  Appalachians,  the  common 
outlet  of  numerous  river  basins,  such  as  the  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  Rappahannock 
and  James,  tho  outer  harbour  of  Baltimore  and  Washington,  of  Kichmond  and 
Norfolk.  Over  New  York  Bay  it  has  the  immense  advantage  that  it  is  accessible 
to  vessels  of  the  heaviest  draught,  even  at  low  water,  although  its  mean  depth 
scarcely  exceeds  30  feet ;  even  the  central  channel  is  in  many  places  not  more  than 
50  feet  deep.  The  tides  from  the  high  sea  penetrate  into  all  the  converging 
estuaries,  and  the  hydrographic  system  is,  in  appearance,  the  same  as  in  the 
Atlantic  waters.  But  the  short  chopping  waves,  unexposed  to  the  full  fury  of  the 
ocean  gales,  are  powerless  to  modify  tho  outlines  of  the  surrounding  shores,  as 
those  on  the  seaward  side  of  the  peninsula  are  modified  by  the  Atlantic  billows. 
The  sandy  cordon  fringing  the  outer  coast-line  corresponds  to  no  similar  formation 
round  the  margin  of  the  bay.  Here  the  beach  is  deeply  indented  by  creeks  and 
inlets,  which  have  themselves  numerous  secondary  ramifications,  all  alike  destitute 
of  straight  or  slightly  curved  fringing  sands.  These  inlets  may  be  obstructed  by 
mudbanks  and  islets ;  but  the  approaches  are  quite  free  from  the  cordons  of  sand 
elsewhere  indicated  by  long  lines  of  surf  endangering  the  entrance. 

Thus  the  estuaries  preserve  the  thousand  indentations  of  their  shores,  and  the 
mud  brought  by  the  currents  and  mingled  with  the  countless  organisms  swarm- 
ing in  the  water  are  the  chief  geological  agencies  in  mpdifying  their  outline. 

The  Southern  Coastlands — The  Dism-vl  Swamp. 

At  a  former  geological  epoch  the  inland  sea,  of  which  Chesapeake  Bay  formed 
part,  extended  southwards  beyond  the  James  River  estuary.  Here  it  is  still 
represented  by  extensive  marshy  tracts,  the  largest  of  which  has  been  aptly 
named  the  Dismal  Swamp.  This  truly  depressing  region  presents  a  frightful 
appearance,  with  its  great  pines,  junipers,  bald  cypresses,  and  black  gums,  whose 


..    iiii'W' 


iim^'m 


THE  DISMAT.  SWAMP. 


96 


ploOTiiy  shade  falls  heavily  on  the  flurrouiuling  bluok  lunrla,  and  its  uvrnuos  of 
stdgnunt  waters  rcHeeting  u  glimnior  of  the  dull  light  ditfiiscd  amid  muddy  islets 
und  masses  of  decaying  vegetation.  The  whole  scene  vividly  recalls  Aloore's 
lines : — 

"  Away  to  the  DiHmal  Swamp  he  spoedi), 

II in  path  wuB  ruK,j;ed  und  gore, 
Through  tangled  jiinipor,  ^jeda  uf  reods, 
Through  many  a  fon,  where  the  serpent  feeds, 

And  man  aevor  irod  before ! " 

The  Great  or  Dismal  Swamp,  properly  so  called,  covering  a  space  of  some 
600  square  miles  about  the  Virginian  and  North  Carolina  frontiers,  stands  at 
the  base  of  an  old  coast  terrace,  and  about  20  feet  below  the  western  plains, 
whence  it  receives  numerous  sluggish  rivulets,  whose  waters  are  absorbed  in  the 
peaty  soil.  Swollen  by  these  waters,  which  filter  through  its  spongy  muss,  the 
swamp  rises  gradually  towards  the  centre,  and  its  height  above  the  margin  is 
estimated  at  from  10  to  12  or  14  feet.  In  this  central  and  more  elevated  part  are 
collected  the  waters,  which  here  form  a  blackish  lake  some  14  feet  deep.  On  the 
southern,  western,  and  northern  margins  the  waters  ooze  through  the  tangle  of 
marshy  vegetation  into  narrow  winding  channels.  The  Dismal  Swamp  marks 
the  southern  limit  of  the  bog  musses  {Sphagiiei),  which  are  found  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  in  the  marshes  farther  north.  Here  is  the  northernmost  considerable 
development  of  the  common  cane  (Anoido),  which,  with  the  wild  grape  and  the 
green  briar  (Smi/ajr)  and,  in  certain  sections,  the  very  peculiar  mangrove  and  the 
dwarfed  palmetto,  form  the  characteristic  swamp  vegetation  throughout  the  south. 

South  of  Cape  Henry  the  North  Carolina  se  iboard  presents  to  the  Atlantic 
surf  an  almost  unbroken  line  of  sands,  which  is  distinguished  from  similar  banks 
elsewhere  by  its  enormous  length,  and  by  its  three  sharp  points.  Capes  Ilatteras, 
Lookout  and  Fear,  projecting  like  spearheads  seawards.  These  three  headlands, 
fringed  by  much-dreaded  submarine  sandbanks,  indicate  the  points  where  whirl- 
pools are  formed  by  the  conflicting  currents.  The  shore-line  itself  has  been 
determined  by  the  action  of  the  waters,  which  have  given  it  that  decidedly 
easterly  ti'end,  differing  in  direction  from  the  other  physical  features  of  the 
country,  the  Appalachian  ranges  and  the  marine  escarpment  of  the  continental 
pedestal.  Here  the  sandbanks  have  enclosed  two  considerable  marine  gulfs, 
Albemarle  and  Pamlico  Sounds,  nearly  as  large  as  Chesapeake  Bay.'  But  these 
inland  seas  are  almost  abandoned  by  shipping,  to  whicli  they  are  scarcely  acces- 
sible. They  communicate  with  the  Atlantic  only  through  low  and  shifting 
"  inlets,"  or  channels,  obstructed  by  islets  and  mudbanks ;  these  basins  are  also 
surrounded  by  marshy  or  sandy  plains,  destitute  of  any  large  centres  of  population. 

Along  South  Carolina  the  coast-line  is  disposed  in  arcs  of  a  circle,  resembling 
the  gracefully  curved  cordon^  which  are  limited  by  the  three  capes  of  North. 
Carolina.  But  in  the  southern  state  these  arcs  are  already  attached  to  the  main- 
land, or  at  least  enclose  inlets  which  are  but  of  small  extent,  and  which  are 
transformed  by  numerous  islets  into  a  labyrinth  of  channels  and  backwaters. 
Such  is,  south  of  Charleston,  the  group  of  the  Hunting  or  Port   Royal  Islands, 


•^v 


«.!-; 


08 


TUK  UNITKU  STATES. 


which,  in  tho  comnicrciul  world  ore  tiotod  for  the  excellence  of  the  "  Sou  Islund  " 
or  long  Hfaple  cotton  grown  in  this  district. 

Tin;  Pkninsui.a  of  Fi.ouida. — Corai.mnk  Formations. 
South  of  this  point  tho  coast-lino  chungos  ita  direction,   developing  a  long 
gentle  curve  to  tho  south.     Here  termiuutcs   the  section  of  tho  seaboard  which 

Fijf.  3U— North  Caromx*  SANiinANKS. 

Hcalu  1  :   l,HiK).(«iO. 


^ 


ncpths. 


Oto2j 
Fathoina. 


Fallioms. 


10  (o  1,000 
Fathoms. 


1.000  Fathom  R 
and  upwards. 


O  I.iphtliouso. 


,  86  Miles. 


belongs  geologically  to  the  North  American  mainland.  I'he  parallelism  between 
the  shore-line  and  the  main  axis  of  the  Appalachian  system  entirely  ceases,  and  in 
its  general  trend,  as  well  as  in  the  character  of  its  rocks,  climate,  and  natural  pro- 
ductions, Florida,  like  the  neighbouring  Bahamas,  is  a  detached  fragment  of  the 
West  Indian  world,   connected  physically  with  the  United  States  only  by  the 


■  -m" 


^-^     * 


THE  PENINRULA  OP  FLORIDA. 


97 


uplu'iivftl  of  the  Iftiid  ivt  itH  neck.  Hero  ft  band  of  tertiary  l<'i  aion,  ,«>netrniiiig 
Boinc  (liHtance  into  tlic  pcninHula,  forms  the  connectinj?  link.  T  •■  mmux  aJtltm  ;  of 
Florida  in  scarcely  1(K)  feet,  and  the  railway  running  from  C'edn  Key*  to  1  nan- 
diiia  travursoH  the  waterwhed  of  the  conncctinj^  zone  at  an  cluvai     n  of  210  i    -l. 

The  pcniuHula  of  Florida,  which  prononts  a  more  elongated  form  than  tliuf  ol 
the  Me.\ican  Yucatan,  is  of  analogous  orij^in  in  its  southern  section  ;  hero  tli»' 
recent  action  of  the  sea  is  even  nioro  evident.  Consisting  of  calcareous  rocks  of 
coralline  origin  and  of  sunds  depoaitod  by  the  waters  with  triturated  shells,  the 
land  has  been  gradually  formed  since  pliocene  times,  and  its  genesis  may  bo 
followed  in  the  general  trend  of  its  rocky  heights  and  the  direction  of  its  rivers. 

In  this  respect  the  depression  occupied  by  the  Saint  John  river  offers  an  in- 
structive study.  The  valley  is  developed  parallel  to  the  Atlantic  coast  with 
such  a  slight  incline  that  the  watercourse,  or  rather  the  string  of  lakes  and 
gullets  following  from  south  to  north,  has  a  fall  of  only  nine  feet  in  a  total 
distance  of  250  miles.  Evidently  this  inland  channel  was  formerly  a  marine 
strait  separating  a  fringing  coralline  reef  from  the  mainland.  The  strait  silted 
up  in  the  south,  and  the  consequence  was  that  the  fresh  water  discharged  by 
the  clouds  and  springs  into  the  channel  replaced  the  salt  water,  and  while  seeking 
a  seaward  outlet  gradually  transformed  the  strait  to  a  river. 

Here  we  have  a  phenomenon  analogous  to  that  which  gave  rise  to  the  rio  or 
inner  channel  which  skirts  the  north  coast  of  Yucatan  ;  only  the  two  waterways 
differ  in  their  respective  degrees  of  geological  evolution.  Should  nothing  come 
to  interfere  with  the  process  now  going  on,  the  new  shore-line  which  is  being 
developed  in  front  of  the  Yucatan  mainland  will,  in  its  turn,  become  soldered 
together  in  a  continuous  rampart ;  then  becoming  closed  at  one  of  its  extremities, 
it  will  compel  the  marine  channel  to  change,  like  that  of  the  Saint  John,  to  a 
fluvial  watercourse,  already,  as  if  by  anticipation,  locally  called  a  rio  (river). 

In  the  southern  part  of  Florida,  which  at  Cupe  Sable  projects  like  a  fishing- 
hook,  the  coral  reefs  successively  built  up  around  the  peninsula  have  retained 
m  the  interior  numerous  swamps,  lagoons,  and  lakes  of  considerable  extent, 
hut  incessantly  shifting  their  margins  with  the  seasons  and  years,  according  to 
the  abundance  of  the  rainfall  and  continuance  of  the  droughts.  Okeechobee, 
largest  of  these  lakes,  has  a  mean  estimated  area  of  1,200  square  miles,  and  is 
continued  southwards  by  a  labyrinth  of  shallows  known  as  the  Everglades. 

This  watery  domain  is  large  enough  to  completely  interrupt  the  communica- 
tions between  the  two  sections  of  the  peninsula  bordering  eastwards  on  the  ocean, 
westwards  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Dense  forests  flourish  on  the  dry  rising 
ground  amid  the  flooded  depressions,  while  all  the  creeks  are  overgrown  with 
sedge.  The  shallowness  of  the  lakes  and  streams  renders  them  unnavig&ble  ex- 
cept for  skiffs,  and  even  in  the  vicinity  of  the  few  groups  of  habitations  scarcely 
any  fishing  boats  are  seen.  The  deejiest  cavities  of  Lake  Okeechobee  have  at 
most  18  or  14  feet ;  hence  in  stormy  weather  the  waters  are  disturbed  down  to 
their  muddy  bed.  Thus  is  explained  the  scarcity  of  fish,  and  the  absence  even  of 
crustaceans,  the  agitated  waters  preventing  the  spawn  and  fry  from  coming  to 
78  ,  • 


i 


'^:W!?^s^^'' 


._,   ...a 


UH 


TUB  UNITED  STATEH. 


nmfurify.     AlIij?ator«,  howpvor,  infost  the  dinnnols,  Hlipltrrod  from   the  wind  by 
the  roudH  and  othor  u(|uatic  pluiitn. 

Towards  Koy  Kiseayno  u  fow  corul  reefs  f<iriiiiiig  tlit!  ontor  hiirricr  rlw  mom 
than  24  ft'Pt  ubovo  rou-IovoI,  which  Rccms  to  itidioatn  u  jjfonoral  uphuuvut  of  the 
touHt.  Tho  margin  thus  formed  prevonts  tho  normal  flt)w  of  the  rain  water,  and 
in  this  way  have  bi-en  created  tho  hikes  and  HwamjJB  of  the  interior.     Tn  several 

Fi«.   33.—  PKSINBItlA    OF    Fr.ORID.i. 

Baal*  1  : 7,OUO,()on. 


Depths. 


OtoIO 
Fathoms. 


lU  tr.  1()0 
Fathoms. 


100  FntlioTiiB 
Hn<l  upwiirdK. 


I'U  MUes. 


places  the  fissures  and  caverns  of  the  calcareous  rocks  have  enabled  the  pent-up 
waters  to  escape,  and  seafarers  are  acquainted  with  some  copious  springs  of  fresh 
water  which  well  up  from  the  bed  of  the  seo  along  the  Florida  coasts.  Occasion- 
ally, after  heavy  rains,  the  turbid  yellowish  water  of  these  springs  discolours  the 
sea  for  a  great  distance,  and  is  very  destructive  to  the  marine  fauna.  One  of 
these  wells,  four  miles  south  of  Saint  Augustine,  and  within  a  mile  of  the  shore, 


:l^ 


(OUALI.INE  FOUMATHiNS.-TIIE  KKY8. 


Ul) 


■prondH  it«  warm  wutorROVcr  u  Hpaco  noarly  22,000  nqtinro  foot  in  cxtont;  ordinary 
HuuiKliii^H  huvo  fuilod  to  roiiob  tho  bott<iin  of  this  npriii^. 

In  tho  interior  of  the  poniiiaula  tho  hiciiMtiino  wutorH  stund  Honio  jiirdH  nbovo 
«ou-lovol ;  honco  it  would  ho  cusy  to  drum  thoia  to  nuhiinm  (^hunnul,  luid  this  work 
hiiH  already  l)eon  partly  aeoompliHliod  by  un  iigriculttiral  and  canal  company. 

At  proHont  thf  coral  buildcrH  nro  not  at  work  round  tho  wholo  pi'riphory  of 
the  Kloridian  pt-ninsula.  Till  recently  it  w.ih  Hupposi-d  that  tho  polypi  bt'j;an 
their  operutioiiH  towards  Key  Hiacayno  at  tho  south-eaMt  corner  of  the  peninNuhi ; 
but  the  gcolojjiHt,  Shaler,  baa  discovered  recent  coralline  structures  nmch  farther 
north,  as  far  ns  and  beyond  Jupiter  inlet.  At  any  rate  ono  species  was  still 
flourishing  will. in  a  recent  period  its  f.ir  north  as  Cupo  Cafiaveral,  and  even  under 
the  latitude  of  ^ioKquiio  Inlet,  below  tho  neck  of  the  peninsula. 

In  tho  Kvorglades  may  be  distinctly  recognised  tho  ranges  of  coralline  /iiim- 
mod'H  which  wero  successively  formed  in  the  yeasty  marine  waters,  and  whu  L 
wore  afterwards  cut  off  from  tho  sea  by  fresh  reefs  rising  above  the  e'."faco.  The 
long  line  of  keys  (^cai/mj,  which  begins  near  Cape  Florida  and  developes  a  vast 
curve  to  and  beyond  tho  meridian  of  Havana  for  a  total  length  of  about  2itt 
and  a  moan  width  of  l/i  miles,  is  an  aggregate  of  coral  .structures  which  had  the 
same  origin  as  those  of  the  Everglades,  and  wbich  will  ono  day  continue  that  geo- 
logical system  seawards. 

All  these  keys  are  very  low  islets,  with  an  average  height  of  eight  or  ten  feet 
above  sea-level;  even  the  highest,  such  as  those  of  Key  West,  are  not  ni<ire  than 
18  or  20  feet  high,  and  all  alike,  however  elevated,  become  partly  submerged 
during  the  boisterous  weather.  The  Florida,  Tortugas.  Marquesas,  '*nd  all  the 
keys,  have  their  more  precipitous  sides  turned  towards  the  Gulf  St  oam,  while 
they  are  continued  northwards,  that  is,  away  from  the  tepid  waters,  by  shallows 
which  become  gradually  covered  with  sedimentary  deposits.  Here  and  there 
the  soil  is  already  deep  enough  to  enable  the  mangroves  to  take  root.  Long 
before  a  now  islet  rises  flush  with  the  surface,  these  plants,  mounted  on  their 
framework  of  aerial  roots,  expand  like  green  hangings,  or  become  grouped  in 
continuous  forests.  Seaweeds,  driftwood,  flotsam  of  all  kinds  accumulate  amid 
the  tangle  of  roots  and  stems,  and  thus  the  island  gradually  shows  its  muddy 
surface  or  sandy  inlets  above  the  green  mangrove  bushes.  Sometimes  the  vege- 
tation is  absent,  and  then  the  presence  of  the  hidden  reefs  is  rovealed  by  a  sandy 
mound  rising  solitary  amid  the  marine  waters.* 

Farther  seawards,  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  upheaved  chains  of  keys,  other 
more  recent  coral  islets  still  in  process  of  formation  are  here  cud  there  indicated 
by  reefs  already  rising  above  the  surface.  This  advanced  barrier  of  submarine 
rocks  constitutes  a  great  danger  to  navigation,  and  here  thousands  of  vessels  have 
already  been  wrecked.  On  the  other  hand  hydrographic  exploration  hos  shown  that 
numerous  channels,  deep  enough  for  the  largest  ships,  interrupt  the  belt  of  reefs, 
and  that  the  still  submerged  coralline  masses  are  separated  from  the  visible  keys  by 
n  long  basin  of  smooth  water,  with  an  average  depth  of  from   16  to  over  30 

*  L.  Agatbiz,  American  Jtsociatioii,  Cincinnati,  1852. 


{W"^' 


ir^ 


100 


THE  UN  [TED  STATES. 


I  ' 


;.| 


feet.     Ii    well  explored  and  carefully  buoyed,  this   passage   might  become  an 
easy  moans  of  communication  between  Cupe  Florida  and  Key  West. 

Thus  barrier  succeeds  barrier  in  the  construction  of  the  Floridian  edifice.  But 
it  might  bo  asked  why  the  keys  have  been  upraised  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  this 
peninsular  form  to  the  new  lands  ?  The  gradual  enlargement  of  the  peninsula  in 
the  direction  from  the  north  to  south  is  explained  by  the  first  nucleus  of  rocks 
arounil  which  were  grouped  the  colonies  of  coral-builders.  But  in  this  operation 
account  must  also  be  taken  of  the  action  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  sweeping  by 
the  shores  of  Cuba  discharges  westwards,  that  is  to  the  Florida  wafers,  the  sedi- 
mentary matter  which  -it  carries  along.  All  this  refuse  deposited  by  the  current 
in  smooth  water  serves  to  buiid  up  the  pedestal  of  the  peninsula. 

The  Gulf  Stream. 

At  its  exit  fror.i  Florida  Passage  the  Gulf  Stream  has  a  volume  of  tepid 
-.vater  which  was  most  diversely  estimated  by  the  first  hydrographers  who 
studied  its  general  features.  But  if  it  cannot  be  measured,  the  quantity  may  at 
least  be  somewhat  more  accurately  determined,  for  the  depth  and  other  dimensions 
of  the  Strait  are  well  known,  while  the  velocity  of  its  current  has  been  frequently 
studied  at  all  hours  of  the  ebb  and  flow,  and  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The 
liquid  mass  discharged  by  the  Gulf  Stream  into  the  Atlantic  lies  between  the 
extremes  of  28  and  86  cubic  miles  per  annum,  which  is  certainly  a  very  small 
fraction  of  the  waters  setting  north-eastwards,  towards  the  coasts  of  West  Europe. 
The  Gulf  Stream  was  formerly  supposed  to  flow  in  a  sort  of  valley  parallel  with  the 
coast  of  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  and  it  was  assumed  that  it  ramified  into  parallel 
currents,  separated  from  each  other  by  belts  of  cold  water  corresponding  to  so 
many  distinct  submarine  ricigcs.  But  the  researches  made  by  the  United  States 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  have  shown  that  these  assumed  inequalities  have  no 
existence,  and  that  the  bed  of  the  Gulf  Stream  is  formed  by  a  plateau  about  400 
fathoms  deep,  slightly  inclined  towards  the  outer  scarp,  which  suddenly  plunges 
eastwards  into  abysses  of  1,000  or  1,500  fathoms.  Hence  the  stream  is  here  still 
confined  to  the  continental  pedestal,  and  its  force  is  evidently  felt  right  to  the 
bottom  on  this  plateau,  which  it  has  thoroughly  scoured  of  all  mud  and  other  refuse. 

The  temperatures  recorded  by  the  thermometer  also  show  that  the  whole 
plateau  is  entirely  occupied  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  for  here  the  warmth  of  the 
tepid  waters  decreases  vertically  exactly  at  the  same  rate  as  farther  south  between 
Florida  and  the  Bahamas.  It  falls  from  about  8^°  F.,  the  extreme  at  the 
surface,  to  45°  on  the  marine  bed,  whereas  beyond  Capo  ITatteras,  where  the 
waters  uf  the  Polar  current  are  met,  the  mercury  at  the  same  depth  falls  to  39^  F. 

From  the  general  relief  of  the  Floridian  peninsula  the  geologist,  Shaler,  has 
inferred  that  within  a  comparatively  recent  epoch  the  current  may  have  set  in 
another  direction.  The  southern  coralline  region,  composed  entirely  of  organic 
remains,  was  nearly  quite  level,  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  being  measured  by 
inches.  On  tbe  other  baud,  the  northern  section  of  the  peninsula  as  far  aa  the 
parallel  of  St.  Augustine  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  tertiary  strata  covered 
with  sands,  which  have  been  distributed  over  the  slopes  by  the  northern  currents. 


~m  rfoi. 


Jimm 


'■0: 


ifiwii'';:' 


m. 


CLIMATE  OP  THE  ATLANTIC  SLOPE. 


101 


n 


But  the  central  peninsular  region  presents  quite  a  different  aspect,  the  surface 
being  broken  by  numerous  sandy  knolls  and  ridges  in  some  places  rising  to  a 
height  of  300  feet,  while  the  intervening  depressions  are  studded  with  lakes, 
lagoons,  ponds  and  morasses.     Such  flooded  basins  are  reckoned  by  thousands. 

The  resemblance  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  regions  naturally  suggests 

a  correspondence  in  the  geological  phenomena ;    hence  the  inference  that  the>;e 

Floridian  hillocks  were  also  deposited  by  the  marine  currents  of  which  the  flooded 

basins  are  all  that  now  survives.      Florida  had  not  yet  risen  above  the  suifaco 

'    of   the  sea  when   these  eminences  were  formed ;   an  open  passage  still  flowed 

S  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic,  along  the  present  neck  of  the  pen- 

%  insula,  and  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  is  now  confined  to  the  nar^ow  gateway  of  Bahama 

Passage,  expanded  through  a  broad  strait  eastwards.     Thus  the  present  mouth  of 

the  Saint  John  River  would  seem  to  indicate  the  old  outlet  of  the  marine  waters, 

111. — Climate,  Flora,  Fauna  op  thk  Appalachians  and  Atlantic  Slope. 

Along  the  seaboard  the  normal  temperature  decreases  with  tolerable  regularity 
from  north  to  south,  and  in  this  respect  the  greatest  anomalies  are  found  in  the 
northern  zone,  between  New  York  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  a  region  whose  coast- 
lands  are  greatly  diversified,  carved  into  bays  and  inlets,  and  bristling  with  rocky 
headlands.  On  the  uplands  of  the  Appalachian  system  the  climatic  conditions 
naturally  vary  with  the  altitude ;  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  these  uplands  have  a 
scarcely  appreciable  influence  on  the  climate  of  the  plains  lying  at  their  base. 
At  equal  altitudes  the  daily  and  annual  temperatures  correspond  on  the  eastern 
and  western  slopes ;  the  rainfall  is  here  also  somewhat  uriiforraly  distributed. 

The  cause  of  this  uniformity  must  be  sought  in  the  general  trend  of  the  oro- 
graphic system,  which  is  parallel  with  the  normal  set  of  the  marine  and  atmo- 
spheric currents.  The  prevailing  winds,  as  well  as  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the 
polar  current,  move  in  the  directions  from  north-east  to  south-west,  or  from  south- 
west to  north-east.  The  parallel  chains  of  the  AUeghanies,  being  developed  in 
an  analogous  direction,  like  the  piers  of  a  bridge  in  midstream,  produce  no 
disturbing  effect  on  the  general  movement  of  the  winds ;  a  certain  climatic 
equilibrium  is  established  in  the  same  way  on  the  landward  and  seaward  slopes. 

In  apparent  contradiction  to  this  broad  statement,  the  greatest  summer  heats 
on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United  States  are  not  always  those  which  prevail 
in  Florida,  that  is,  in  the  extreme  south.  Exceptional  temperatures  are,  on  the 
contrary,  all  the  more  intense  the  farther  we  advance  northwards,  and  here  the 
sultry  summer  heats  seem  all  the  more  oppressive  that  during  the  same  season  the 
daily  range  of  the  thermometer  is  greater.  Thus  in  the  islet  of  Key  West,  off 
the  southern  extremity  of  Florida,  the  temperature  varies  but  slightly  from  winter 
to  summer,  from  day  to  night,  and  from  hour  to  hour,  whereas  it  oscillates  between 
extremes  two  or  three  times  wider  apart  in  Charleston,  Philadelphia  and  Boston. 

One  of  the  causes  that  most  contribute  to  intensify  the  summer  heacs  through- 
out the  Atlantic  zone  of  the  United  States  is  the  greater  prevalence  of  southern 
and  south-western  winds  during  that  season.     In  winter,  also,  the  cold  is  often 


-tl'T.. 


102 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


greatly  increased  by  the  winds  blowing  from  the  north-west.  Farmers  often 
buffer  from  spring  frosts  caused  by  the  same  winds.  Even  in  Georgia  orange- 
trees  freeze  in  the  open  air,  and  this  plant  cannot  be  safely  cultivated  farther 
north  than  South  Florida.  The  mean  temperature  of  Savannah  corresponds  to 
that  of  Cadiz ;  but  in  South  Spain  the  cotton  shrub  lives  through  the  winter, 
whereas  in  the  southern  states  of  the  Union  it  is  killed  o£P  every  year  by  the  cold.* 

Although  the  moisture  is  precipitated  irregularly,  each  season  has  its  days  of 
wet  weather  and  even  of  downpouis  :  such  days  are  more  numerous  in  winter  and 
during  the  early  spring  than  at  other  times.  Nevertheless,  the  most  copious  rains 
usually  occur  in  the  summer  months.  In  winter  the  precipitation  takes  the  form 
of  snow  in  the  New  England  states,  and  especially  in  Maine,  where  it  lies  hard  on 
the  ground  at  times  to  a  depth  of  six  or  seven  feet. 

In  general  the  rainfall  may  be  said  to  be  in  direct  ratio  to  the  annual  tempera- 
ture, and  is  consequently  heavier  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern  states.  It 
culminates  in  the  interior  of  Florida,  where  it  exceeds  60  inches;  and  by  its 
abundance  indicites  the  vicinity  of  the  torrid  zone. 

In  the  upland  regions  of  New  England  the  mountains  by  which  the  moist 
winds  from  the  east,  that  is,  from  the  ocean,  are  intercepted,  condense  the  atmo- 
spheric vapours,  and  are  thus  frequently  wrapped  in  fogs.  The  Green  and  the 
White  Mountains,  with  the  Adirondacks,  are  the  great  cloud-makers,  and  for 
weeks  tog-ether  their  summits  remain  veiled  in  mists. 

The  conditions  are  different  on  the  Alleghanies  of  Pennsylvania  and  the 
highlands  of  the  Carolinas,  that  is,  throughout  the  section  of  the  Appalachian 
system  which  is  disposed  regularly  from  north-east  to  south-west.  In  these 
regions  the  annual  rainfall  diminishes  gradually,  describing  around  the  Appala- 
chians extremely  elongated  concentric  curves.  While  in  New  England,  as  in  most 
mountainous  regions,  the  rainfall  increases  with  the  altitude  up  to  a  certain 
height,  the  opposite  phenomenon  is  observed  in  the  Alleghanies.  This  is  doubt- 
less due  to  the  same  causes  to  which  is  attributed  the  uniformity  of  climate  on 
both  slopes.  The  ridges  being  disposed  in  such  a  way  as  to  present  no  obstacle 
to  the  play  of  the  winds,  the  aerial  currents  move  parallel  with  the  mountain 
ranges  without  impinging  on  them ;  hence  the  precipitation  is  deposited  in  the 
lower  strata  of  the  atmosphere.  Thus  the  Appalachians  scarcely  affect  the 
equilibrium  of  the  climate,  either  as  regards  the  rainfall  or  the  temperature. 

The  meridian  of  the  lines  of  magnetic  declination,  that  is  to  say,  the 
"  agonic  line,"  t  or  line  of  no  variation,  passes  obliquely  across  the  Alleghanies. 
Since  the  epoch  when  accurate  studies  began  to  be  mide  on  the  movements  of 
terrestrial  magnetism,  the  exact  coincidence  between  the  magnetic  and  the  true 

*  llange  of  the  summer  temperature  at  various  points  alonfr  the  Atlantic  seaboard : — 

Summer  Temperature. 


Latitude. 

Maxims, 

Minima. 

Rangn. 

Key  West    . 

24°  34* 

89"  F. 

75°.  4  F. 

13°.6  F 

Charleston   . 

32°  4(' 

89°.6 

69°.6 

20° 

Philadelphia 

39'  67' 

94° 

67°.  2 

36'.8 

Boston 

42°  21' 

98° 

o8°.5 

39°.5 

t  Literally  in  Gieek  "  angle-less,"  forming  no  angle  with  the  geogrupbical  meridian. 


:tei 


APPALACHIAN  FLORA. 


108 


north  pole  has  always  been  observed  to  occur  in  this  range.  But  the  agonic  line 
itself  is  being  gradually  deflected  westwards.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century  it 
passed  near  Ilarrisburg  and  Baltimore,  now  it  is  approaching  Charleston. 

Ar  ALACHiAN  Flora. 
The  Atlantic  coastlands  and  highlands,  with  the  shores  of  Luke   Superior, 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  parts  of  the  Columbia  basin,  were  formerly  one  of 

Fig.  34. — Successive  Displacements  of  the  Aoonic  Line. 
So»le  1 :  17.000.nnn, 


the  great  forest  regions  of  the  United  States.  The  wealth  of  large  and  leafy  trees 
coincided  with  the  abundance  of  humidity  in  the  air  and  soil.  Hence  there  are 
neither  steppes  nor  prairies  like  those  of  the  Far  West  in  the  Appalachians  and 
on  their  eastern  slopes.    The  land  is  everywhere  suflBciently  watered  to  support  a 


mmm 


mm 


104 


TUB  UNITED  STATES. 


rich  forest  vegetation,  and  trees  are  absent  only  on  the  bare  rocks  and  in  the  super- 
suturated  murshlunds.      Here  they  are  replaced  by  the  bog- mosses  and  reeds. 

On  the  whole,  the  Appalachian  flora,  for?niug  a  southern  continuation  of  the 
Canadian,  which  itself  greatly  resembles  the  Scandinavian,  presents  a  general 
physiognomy  little  different  from  that  of  Western  Europe.  The  floral  zones 
follow  from  north  to  south  in  accordance  with  the  varying  temperature.  Thus 
the  New  England  region  differs  little  in  its  vegetable  forms  from  the  maritime 
provinces  of  the  Dominion.  A  gradual  transition  takes  place  between  Maine  and 
the  Lower  Hudson  valley,  between  the  Adirondacks  and  the  Mohawk  and  Alleghany 
Valleys.  The  latter  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Ohio,  is  regarded  as  approximately 
the  boundary  between  two  forest  zones,  whose  forms  intermingling  about  the 
parting  line,  give  a  charming  variety  to  the  surrounding  landscapes.  The  two 
zones  in  question  are  those  of  Pennsylvania  and  of  the  conterminous  Mississippi 
slope.  On  one  side,  that  is,  on  the  uplands  of  the  Appalachian  system,  conifers 
are  the  prevailing  species,  and  formerly  the  dominant  tree  was  the  Piims  strobiis 
(Weymouth  pine),  which  has  now  been  extensively  cleared  by  the  woodman's  axe. 

On  the  coastlands  of  both  Carolinas,  the  sandy  tracts  which  here  alternate 
with  the  marshlands,  and  which,  like  them,  were  at  one  time  a  marine  bed,  are 
clothed  with  vast  pine  forests,  resembling  those  of  the  French  Landes.  But  in 
this  region  the  Pinus  barrens  is  already  found  associated  with  the  "cypresses," 
magnificent  trees,  characteristic  of  the  marshy  tracts  from  the  Carolinas  to 
Texas.  These  trees  {Ciipresms  disticha)  differ  little  from  the  gigantic  alniehtietes 
of  the  Mexican  plateau.  They  shoot  up  with  a  straight,  slender  stem,  bulging 
out  at  the  base  like  the  bulb  of  an  onion,  and  they  rest  on  the  hard  and  solid 
supports  which  branch  off  from  the  upper  part  of  the  root  to  get  a  firmer  footing 
in  the  slimy  soil.  In  the  pools  of  water  which  wash  the  enflated  base  of  the 
trunk,  little  cones  in  the  form  of  daggers  v\sq  above  the  surface  of  the  muddy 
water.  These  "  knees,"  from  which  the  negroes  use  to  make  hives,  are  so  many 
breathing  organs,  which  proceed  from  the  submerged  roots ;  but  for  them  the 
tree  would  perish,  communication  being  interrupted  between  the  main  roots  and 
the  atmosphere.  The  top  of  the  cypress  expands  in  little  branchlets  clothed  with 
pale  green  foliage,  from  which  hang  the  long  grey  fibres  of  the  "  Spanish  beard  " 
{Tillandria  asneoides),  the  characteristic  feature  of  these  forests. 

In  the  cypress  swamps,  that  have  been  invaded  by  the  floods  and  killed  by 
the  submergence  of  the  "  knees,"  nothing  now  remains  except  greyish  stems, 
and  here  and  there  withered  tranches,  looking  like  gibbets,  from  which  wave 
those  streaming  lichens  which  resemble  the  scalps  of  exterminated  aborigines. 
The  Sabdl  Palmetto  (Palmetto  palm)  is  also  seen  in  the  forests  of  the  South 
Carolina  and  Georgian  coastlands. 

Farther  south  the  transition  to  the  tropical  flora  is  effected  in  the  Floridian 
forests,  where  the  mahogany  flourishes  as  in  San  Domingo,  while  the  surrounding 
keys  are  fringed  with  mangroves  like  the  Brazilian  shores. 

The  United  States  woodlands  present  a  far  greater  variety  of  species  than 
those  of  Europe.     From  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Russian  steppes  there  occur  only  one 


irnn 


106 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Europe,  either  retards  or  stimulates  more  vigorously  the  development  of  the 
colouring  pigments.  The  woodlands,  and  especially  the  oaks  and  maples,  seem 
to  be  entirely  clothed  with  u  mantle  of  bright  flowers,  and  if  a  still  green  or  an 
evergreen  tree  obtrudes  itself  in  the  midst  of  the  surrounding  purple  or  golden 
foliage,  it  is  festooned  by  bignonias  or  wild  vinos,  which  from  its  topmost 
branches  fling  their  gay-coloured  wreaths  and  garlands  iu  endless  profusion. 

Appalachian  Fauna. 

The  large  animal  species  have  almost  disappeared  from  the  eastern 
regions  of  the  Union.  The  northern  parts  of  New  England  alone  still  shelter 
in  their  deep  solitudes  the  three  Laurentian  members  of  the  deer  family,  the 
wapiti,  or  Cei'vns  CunadiensiH,  the  moose,  or  orignal  (Cervm  alces),  and  the  caribou, 
or  American  woodland  reindeer  (Rangi/er  caribou).  Elsewhere  in  the  Appala- 
chian zone  tha  only  large-sized  wild  beasts  that  still  survive,  and  these  only  in 
the  more  remote  districts,  are  the  cougar  (panther)  and  the  bear. 

A  remarkable  species  met  neither  north  nor  east  of  the  Hudson  is  the  Virginian 
opossum  {Didelphis  Virginiana),  the  only  local  representative  of  the  marsupial  family, 
which  is  now  chiefly  confined  to  the  Australian  continent.  The  Conurns  Carotinensis, 
a  species  of  parrot  formerly  common  in  Carolina  and  the  Central  States,  has 
retreated  farther  south,  and  is  now  seen  only  in  Georgia  and  Florida.  The  latter 
state,  which  in  its  flora  is  hulf  West  Indian,  belongs  in  its  fauna  also  to  some 
slight  extent  to  the  Mexican  and  West  Indian  zone.  Thus  the  white  crane,  a 
bird  tall  as  a  man,  which  was  thought  to  be  conHned  to  the  Mexican  coastlands, 
also  inhabits  those  of  Florida. 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  Atlantic  zone  of  the  United  States  possesses  a  large 
number  of  rodents ;  it  is  also  very  rich  in  fluvial  fishes  and  molluscs.  But  there 
is  no  species  of  reptile  and  only  one  amphibian  exclusively  confined  to  ihis  region. 
North  American  naturalists  have  verified  the  fact  that  the  mice,  squirrels,  mar- 
mots, hares,  and  other  species  of  rodents  inhabiting  the  wooded  tracts  are  occa- 
sionally subject  to  parasitic  diseases,  from  which  only  a  small  number  of  the  race 
escapes.  But  on  the  other  hand  the  rodents  multiply  in  favourable  years  to  such 
an  extent  as,  so  to  say,  to  cover  the  whole  land.  At  such  times  the  squirrels  of 
New  England  and  the  Adirondack  uplands  may  be  seen  migrating  in  prodigious 
numbers  south-westwards,  traversing  the  Appalachian  forest  regions  as  far  as  the 
wooded  districts  of  East  Tennessee.  The  exodus  begins  towards  the 'middle  of 
the  month  of  August,  and  goes  on  continuously  to  the  end  of  December. 


w>^' 


...M>i^''-iiy^pBtm4v^  *i'-i36*'/^iiiili>jti#'<'*'iip»M''    yp'»fflf*IT*#*g  "I  '^y^^--^**— — — '*  I  I  y^'  I 


CHAPTER  IV. 

STATES  AND  TOWNS  OP  THE  ATLANTIC  SLOPE. 

1. — Maine. 

HE  state  which  forms  the  north-east  extremity  of  the  Union, 
projecting  northwards  between  Canada,  properly  so-called,  and 
New  Brunswick,  belongs  territorially  to  the  group  of  colonial 
provinces  which  wrested  their  independence  from  Great  Britain  ; 
but  at  that  time  it  did  not  form  a  separate  state,  being  dependent 
on  Massachusetts,  to  which  it  had  been  assigned  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Maine,  so  named  officially  in  the  reign  of  Charles  1.,  doubtless 
because  it  had  already  been  so  designated  by  its  first  French  settlers,  did 
not  take  rank  amongst  the  states  till  the  year  1820.  In  point  of  extent  it 
comprises  more  than  half  of  the  whole  region  of  New  England ;  but  the  surface 
of  the  land,  standing  at  a  mean  altitude  of  600  feet,  is  in  great  part  occupied  by 
mountains,  moraines,  lacustrine  plateaux,  and  kames.  These  rough  lands  were 
of  little  use  except  as  fishing  and  hunting  grounds  and  for  the  produce  of  the 
forests  ;  nevertheless,  some  tracts  have  already  been  brought  under  cultivation. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  century  the  population  of  Maine  has  increased  very 
slowly.  During  the  decade  of  the  Civil  War  it  even  diminished,  partly  through 
emigration,  partly  through  losses  on  the  battlefield.  During  the  fifty  years  from 
1840  to  1890  the  whole  of  the  population  has  increased  by  less  than  one-fourth. 
There  would  certainly  have  been  a  falling  off  had  the  French-Canadians  not 
compensated  for  the  loss  by  resorting  as  artisans  to  the  industrial  towns,  and 
as  farmers  to  the  districts  bordering  on  the  Dominion. 

Besides  the  Franco-Cane  dians  there  are  very  few  foreigners  in  the  state. 
The  only  aborigines  are  a  few  Passamaquoddy  and  Etchemin  families  dwelling 
on  the  banks  of  the  Saint  Croix  River  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Calais.  The 
"  Maine  law,"  adopted  in  several  other  states,  shires,  and  towns,  absolutely 
iuterdictb  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  of  all  kinds  on  sanitary  and  moral  grounds. 

Maine,  the  surface  of  which  was  formerly  covered  by  a  vast  forest  (whence 
the  expressions  "  Lumber  State"  and  "  Pine  Tree  State  "),  was  at  one  time  the 
most  important  for  its  shipbuilding  industry.  But  most  of  the  dockyards  have 
been  closed  since  iron  and  steel  have  so  largely  replaced  wood  in  the  construction 


108 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


of  tho  sholls  of  veasc'lM.  Muino,  liowevcr,  is  surpassed  only  by  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Oregon,  and  Wushington  for  tlie  lumber  trudc  generally.  Its  fishing  iind 
commerciul  shipping  is  second  only  to  that  of  New  York,  although  its  general 
trade  remains  far  inferior  to  that  of  tho  largo  states  on  tho  seaboard. 

Thanks  to  its  indented  shores,  protected  by  chains  of   fringing  islands  and 
islets,  Maine  surpasses  all  other  states  of  the  Union  in  the  number  of  its  spucious, 

Fig.  30.     Kauk8  ok  Mainr  avd  Nuw  IlAursiiiRK. 

Hcnle  t  .  4,0i)0,0no. 


46' 


^WsZ^/  tkxB^y^-^ 


West   or   Greenwich 


60  Miles. 


deep,  and  well-sheltered  harbours ;  but  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  being  blocked 
by  ice  for  some  months,  or  at  least  for  several  weeks,  in  the  year. 

All  the  towns  in  the  interior  resemble  one  another.  Constructed  almost  exclu- 
sively of  wood,  as  is  natural  in  a  forest  region,  and  generally  surrounded  by 
huge  piles  of  logs,  planks  and  other  lumber,  they  stand  usually  on  the  margin 
of  some  torrent,  whose  falls  set  in  motion  the  wheels  of  numerous  saw-mills  and 
other  factories.  Calais,  northernmost  of  these  towns,  lios  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Saint  Croix,  over  against  the  Canadian  settlement  of  Saint  Stephens,  with 
which  in  fact  it  forms  a  single  town. 


MAINE. 


109 


i?rtw//o;*,  although  lying  on  the  PcnobHcot  river  sunioCiO  miles  from  the  Atlantic, 
18  a  seaport  much  frequented  by  North-American  skippers.  Its  trade  in  sawed 
timber  is  the  largest  in  the  state.  Sea-going  vessels  ascend  us  far  us  the  bridges, 
above  which  the  Konduskeag  tributary  of  the  Penobscot  supplies  the  motive  power 
employed  in  the  saw-mills,  foundries,  and  machine  factories  of  Bangor;  in  1890 
the  river  truilic  reached  considerably  over  two  million  tons. 

Fig.  37.— Maink. 
Soale  1 1  8,aoo,(XK) 


60  Milei. 


Augusta,  capital  of  the  state,  and  one  of  the  prettiest  little  places  in  New 
England,  stands  on  the  Kennebec  42  milas  from  its  mouth,  and  is  another  con- 
►iderable  centre  of  the  lumber  trade.  It  consists  of  one  business  street  with 
continuous  rows  of  houses,  and  a  number  of  villas  scattered  amid  the  woodlands 
along  the  banks  of  the  winding  stream  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  neighbouring 
hills.  The  highest  eminence,  rising  clear  above  the  surrounding  vegetation,  is 
crowned  by  the  white  walls  of  the  "  State  House  "  or  capitol. 


■•u 


1  , 


III 


no 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Leu'hton,  on  the  Andro»co(?gin,  one  of  the  largest  placen  in  Maine,  and  nn 
important  industrial  centre,  forms  with  Auburn,  on  tho  oppoeito  side  of  the 
river,  an  aggregate  rivalling  J'ortliind  in  the  number  of  its  inhabitants.  Bath, 
which  commands  the  converging  valleys  of  tho  Androscoggin  and  Kennebec, 
enjoys  tho  advantage  of  a  spacious  harbour  often  almost  free  from  ice  throughout 
the  winter.  It  was  formerly  noted  fc  its  stoutly-built  coasters  and  fishing- 
smacks ;  but  in  recent  years  it  is  gradually  being  transformed  from  a  ship- 
building to  a  manufacturing  centre.  The  neighbouring  little  town  of  lirnnmick 
has  become  famous  for  the  Congregational  Uowdoin  College,  whose  founder 
bequeathed  to  tho  establishment  a  fine  collection  of  paintings. 

Portland,  the  chief  city  and  true  capital  of  Maine,  occupies  a  grand  posilion 

Fig.    38.— PORTIAVD. 
Seals  1  :  IIO.OUO 


^ 


Sands  exposed  at 
low  water. 


0to2^ 
Fathonu 


Depths. 


2}toS 

Fathoms. 

,  a  Mile!>. 


5  Fathoms 
and  upwards 


on  a  terraced  peninsula,  between  two  creeks  in  the  deep  and  well-sheltered  Casco 
Bay,  the  finest  natural  haven  possessed  by  the  North  American  Union  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard.  South-east  of  the  city  th?  schistous  cliffs  plunging  sheer  into 
the  water  enclose  a  broad  space  rarely  blocked  by  ice,  and  accessible  to  vessels 
drawing  20  feet.  Beyond  the  harbour  properly  so  called,  the  roadstead,  well 
protected  by  numerous  islands  and  defended  by  three  fortresses,  is  deep  enough 
to  accommodate  ships  with  a  draught  of  over  !33  feet. 

Portland  is  one  of  the  stations  of  the  Canadian  ocean  steamers  during  the 
winter  months,  when  the  St.  Lawrence  is  obstructed  by  ice.  But  its  chief  trade 
is  with  the  West  Indies  and   South  America.     Like  the  neighbouring  port  of 


■■t^'"  Zjiij&m^ii. 


(In 


MAINE. 


Ill 


Fnlmouth  it  olso  forwartis  millions  of  live  lobsters  to  England  every  yeur.  North 
of  lioston,  Portland  is  the  chief  seat,  not  only  of  trudu  and  induHtry,  but  also  of 
letters  and  the  arts,  its  inhabitants  tuko  pride  in  adorning  their  city  with  fine 
monuments,  statues,  avenues,  parks,  and  gardens.  The  surrounding  clitrs  termi- 
nate above  the  sea  in  the  headland  of  Munjoy's  Hill,  which  the  citizens  have  had 

Vi\f.  30.— Parallbl  Ihlamdb  axd  Pkninhular  North- Eart  or  Poutland. 

Bcttlti  1  :  2a),U0U. 


70-I0- 


_JjA^e8t_oF__2reenwiclT_ 


69'.j?- 


OtoB 
Fathomi. 


Depths. 


8  to  20 
Fathoms. 


20  FathomR 
and  upwards. 

.  e  MUes. 


the  good  taste  to  leave  intact  with  its  crown  of  erratic  boulders.  Longfellow  was 
a  native  of  Portland. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  state  the  two  towns  Bkldeford  and  Saco  face  each 
other  on  the  opposite  banks  of  the  Saco  below  its  falls,  and  correspond  to  Calais, 
Bangor,  and  Lewiston  in  the  north,  being  like  them  busy  industrial  centres  and 
seaports  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade. 

Maine  also  possesses  numerous  temporary  towns,  or  watering  places,  visited 
during  the  summer  season  by  large  numbers  of  people  from  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Washington.     The  lacustrine  regions  and  the  northern  forests  are 


119 


TI!K  IMTKI)  STATF^a. 


uriiDiifj^Ht  tlio  inoNt  fri'i|ii*>iiUMl  rfHorts  ;  but  without  going  ho  fur  ulu'ld,  HtniiigorH 
may  tiiid  iiiuriy  cliurinitig  r<>trt<utii  at  the  wry  gulon  of  th<.  o.int  town*.  Home 
idi'tt  tiiuy  b«  fornuHl  of  tho  oikIIobr  variety  of  Hcciicry,  mid  of  tho  oaso  with  which 
it  may  ho  visi»«><l  by  HtcanicrH  or  Hailing  craft,  from  ilio  panoramic  vitnv  of  tho 
lovely  CuHco  Archipelago,  with  thu  Hurruundiiig  rumpurU  of  wooded  dills,  pro- 

Fijif.  40.     VViiiTK  MouNTAiNa. 
BokU  I  :  UUO.UW. 


'^-""^Zc^yy^v^.^r- 


,  6  Milei. 


jecting  seawards  in  the  form  of  long  parallel  headlands.     The  great  island  of 
Monnt  Desert,  on  the  north  side,  is  the  largest  and  the  best-known  to  bathers. 

2. — New  IlAMPsniRE. 

Kew  Hampshire,  which  still  bears  the  name  of  an  English  county,  reaches 
the  sea  only  at  its  south-east  extremity.  To  a  much  larger  extent  than  IVIaine  it  is 
covered  with  mountains,  to  which  it  owes  its  familiar  name  of  the  Granite  State. 
Mount  Washington,  culminatirig  point  of  New  England,  lies  within  its  borders,  and 
on  the  west  side  it  is  separated  by  the  Connecticut  River  from  Vermont,  another 


.*M 


NKW  IIAMrsiIinR-  VERMONT. 


113 


mountuiiiouH  region  of  irroguliir  qundrilutcrul  form,  liinited  iiortliwardH  by  tho 
Dumiiiiun  of  Camulu  und  HDullivvard.t  by  MaNHiu;liuHi<tt(i. 

Vust  forodtH  Htilt  olotlio  tho  Hlopos  of  tho  inountiiinN,  and  hiTo  flourishes  tho 
spociuH  of  iniiplo  which  Hiqiplion  tho  lioston  iniirkrt  with  nmplo  Hu^ar.  Or^atiiNod 
U8  u  8ep;iruto  colony  so  recently  us  ITU,  Now  HainpMhiro,  one  of  tlio  thirteen 
orif^inal  Htatcs,  has  remained  one  of  thu  Hmallost  in  Ntiperlicial  area  and  popula- 
tion. About  one-tenth  of  the  population  consiMts  of  Krench  (Janadians,  j!;rouped 
ia  tho  induHtriul  towns,  or  replacing  thu  Anglo- Ameriuuns,  on  tlio  ubaudoncd 
furmstcuds. 

As  in  Maine,  tho  centres  of  population  havo  mostly  sprung  up  in  tho  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  falls,  whence  water-power  could  bo  obtained,  and  along  tho  lines 
of  river  navigation.  Thus  Duirr  was  founded  at  tho  foot  of  tho  falls,  on  the 
Cocheco  aflluent  of  the  PIscataqua,  juid  Purtsinoulh,  tho  only  seaport  in  the  state, 
took  its  rise  on  tho  south  bank  of  tho  river,  which  horo  e.xpands  into  a  broad, 
deep  and  well-sholtored  ostuary.  liut  although  easily  uccossible  to  largo  vessels, 
Portsmouth,  lying  between  Portland  and  Boston,  is  far  outstripped  in  commercial 
development  by  those  two  great  seaports;  its  coasting  trade  scarcely  exceeds  a 
yearly  movement  of  about  200,000  tons.  The  govcrnmont  possesses  a  dockyard 
opposite  the  town  on  tho  KitLery  peninsula  within  tho  Maine  frontier.  Ports- 
mouth and  Dover,  both  founded  in  WZ'-i,  are  tho  oldest  places  in  tho  state. 

Concord  (the  Indian  Pemcook),  present  capital  of  New  Hampshire,  is  a  manu- 
facturing town  lying  on  both  banks  of  the  Morrimac,  and  noted  for  its  coach  and 
spinning  factories  and  quarries.  Other  industrial  towns  follow  farther  down,  at 
all  the  falls  and  rapids  of  the  river.  Such  is  Manc/iester,  which  though  scarcely 
justifying  the  name  given  it  by  its  ambitious  residents,  has  nevertheless  become 
the  first  city  in  the  state,  the  centre  of  a  groat  variety  of  industries,  such  as 
cotton,  muslin,  and  cloth  weaving,  locomotive  building,  and  machinery  works. 

In  the  interior  of  the  state  the  large  hotels  and  the  groups  of  villas,  scattered 
over  the  upland?,  and  farther  north  towards  tho  Canadian  frontier,  often  contain 
in  summer  a  shifting  population  far  larger  than  that  of  the  towns  on  the  lowlands 
and  along  the  sea-co&st.  The  natives  of  these  uplands  have  scarcely  a  more  profit- 
able occupation  than  that  of  receiving  and  providing  for  their  summer  visitors. 
Still  they  also  pursue  a  few  local  industries ;  in  the  cabins  near  Dijcrille  Notch  is 
prepared  one- fourth  of  all  the  potato  starch  proiluced  in  tho  United  States. 

3. — Vehmoxt. 

The  State  of  Vermont,  which  preserves  its  old  French  name,  resembles  New 
Ht-mpshire  in  its  quadrilateral  form,  limited  by  geometrical  lines,  except  on  the 
east  side  where  the  frontier  coincides  with  the  course  of  the  Connecticut  river, 
and  on  the  north-west  where  it  is  separated  from  New  York  by  Lake  Champlain. 
Vermont  is  not  one  of  the  thirteen  original  states,  as  it  was  not  constituted  till 
the  year  1791,  after  long  discussions.  The  highland  population,  occupying  parts 
of  the  conterminous  states  of  New  York  and  New  Hampshire,  had  maintained 
their  autonomy  as  an  independent  littie  commonwealth,  and  were  accepted  into 


114 


TIIE  UNITED  STATES. 


the  Federal  Union  on  their  own  terms.     The  Green  Mountains,  traversing  the 
slate  from  north  to  south,  divide  it  into  two  nearly  equal  parts. 

Although  ahounding  in  falls  and  rapids,  which  afford  an  enormous  water- 
power,  Vermont  has  developed  but  little  industrial  life.  It  is  above  all  an  agri- 
cultural region,  partly  pastoral,  partly  under  tillage  ;  its  sheep  yield  a  very  fine 
wool,  and  from  its  quarries  are  extracted  magnificent  building  materials  largely 
used  in  New  York  and  Boston.  The  crude  cultivation  of  the  ground  has  at  last 
exhausted  the  best  lands,  and  the  rural  population  has  had  to  emigrate  in  large 
numbers  in  quest  of  other  farmsteads  in  the  unreclaimed  regions  of  the  Far 
West. 

HaviriT  no  seaward  frontage,  Vermont  has  no  foreign  trade  except  with 
Canada,  carried  on  chiefly  through  the  highway  of  Lake  Champlain,  on  which 
navigation  is  very  active.  Owing  to  these  circumstances  the  population  of 
Vermont  has  increased  less  rapidly  than  that  of  any  other  of  the  eastern  states; 
during  the  last  twenty  years  it  has  even  remained  at  a  standstill.  There  would 
have  been  a  serious  falling  off,  had  not  the  Canadians,  and  especially  those  of 
French  speech,  filled  the  place  of  the  emigrants  as  factory  hands,  day  labourers 
and  buyers  of  small  holdings. 

Vermont  has  no  large  towns.  Moutpclirr,  the  capital,  enjoys  no  advantages 
beyond  its  somewhat  central  position  in  the  state  in  a  fertile  upland  valley 
watered  by  the  Winooski  affluent  of  Lake  Champlain.  Burlington,  which  has  the 
largest  population  (15,000),  stands  on  the  very  margin  of  the  lake,  and  from  its 
terraces  is  unfolded  a  vast  prospect  of  islands,  straits,  inlets,  and  wooded  banks 
stretching  away  to  the  north  and  south,  and  dominated  by  the  Adirondack 
uplands. 

Burlington  is  the  centre  of  the  lake  traffic,  especially  for  the  import 
lumber  trade  with  Canada.  Saint  Albans,  lying  farther  north  and  a  few  miles  from 
the  lake,  forwards  dairy  produce  to  the  surrounding  markets.  Rutland  commands 
the  passes  to  the  south  of  the  chief  group  of  the  Green  Hills,  where  highly- 
prized  marbles  are  quarried.  Liistly  Belloivs  Falls,  a  busy  place  on  the  banks  of 
the  Connecticut,  here  obstructed  by  cascades  and  rapids,  is  one  of  the  more 
important  centres  of  the  state. 

4. — Massachusetts. 


Massachusetts  (^Mos-  Wachusdt)  was  so  named,  siy  etymologists,  from  the 
Wachusett  peninsula  on  whic;h  Boston  was  founded,  and  which  from  its  form  was 
called  Mos,  or  "  Arrow-head."  From  the  station  the  name  passed  to  an  Indian 
tribe,  then  to  the  white  colony  collectively,  and  so  to  the  state.  But  by  others 
the  word  has  been  interpreted  in  the  sense  of  "  Hilly  Land."  The  official  title 
by  which  Massachusetts  is  distinguished  from  all  the  states  qualifies  it  as  the 
"  Commonwealth"  in  a  pre-eminent  sense. 

Another  name  by  which  it  is  familiarly  known  to  all  Americans  is  "  Bay 
State."     During  the  early  days  of  the  colonisation,  the  inhabitants  lived  chiefly 


...ib-- 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


115 


j)in  the 
|rm  was 
Indian 

others 
Hal  title 

as  the 

"Bay 

chiefly 


hy  fishing  and  trade  ;  hence  they  depended  for  their  supplies  en  the  "  Bay,"  and 
the  national  emhlom  was  the  cod.  The  people  themselves  also  call  their  territory 
"  Old  Bay  State,"  and  with  a  somewhat  fonder  touch,  the  "  Mother  State."  The 
term  is  well  justified,  for  here  was  first  raised  the  cry  of  independence ;  from  here 
also  went  forth  the  Abolitionist  propaganda,  which  never  rested  till  it  had 
destroyed  the  institution  of  slavery,  while  maintaining  the  federal  union  between 
the  northern  and  southern  republican  communities. 

In  many  other  respects  also,  Massachusetts  is  the  "  Mother  State."  Relatively 
to  its  size,  it  has  contributed  more  than  the  other  original  states  to  the  peopling  of 
the  western  lands.  It  has  also  taken  a  larger  share  in  the  development  of  in- 
dustrial processes  and  discoveries.  Lastly,  education  has  made  greater  progress 
than  elsewhere  in  the  Union,  and  Massachusetts'  female  teachers  especially  have 
found  employment  in  every  part  of  the  republic.  Of  14,245  Americans  classed 
as  "celebrities"  in  Appleton's  Cyclopadia  of  American  Biography,  2,080,  or 
rather  less  than  a  fifth,  wore  natives  of  Massachusetts. 

The  "  Old  Bay  State,"  small  in  extent  since  the  loss  of  Maine,  forms  a  narrow 
parallelogram  of  geometrical  outline  between  the  Taconic  hills  and  the  sea.  But 
it  projects  on  the  Atlantic  side  in  such  a  way  as  to  embrace  the  whole  coast  from 
the  Merrimac  estuary  to  Nantucket  Island  and  the  approaches  to  Narragansett 
Bay.  From  decade  to  decade  it  also  slightly  increases  in  extent,  thanks  to  the 
drainage  operations,  by  which  a  zone  of  saline  lagoons  fringing  the  coast  is  being 
gradually  reclaimed  and  brought  under  cultivation. 

But  however  small  in  extent,  relatively  to  other  states,  the  territory  of 
Massachusetts  is,  with  the  district  of  Columbia  and  Khode  Island,  the  most 
densely-peopled  part  of  the  whole  Union.  Its  density  per  square  mile,  far 
superior  to  that  of  France,  is  only  slightly  exceeded  by  that  of  the  British 
Isles.  Nevertheless,  during  the  last  few  decades,  the  population  has  grown 
less  rapidly  by  the  natural  increase  of  births  over  deaths  than  by  foreign  immi- 
gration, especially  from  Ireland  and  French  Canada.  The  inhabitants,  who  are 
fond  of  calling  themselves  the  children  of  the  "  Pilgrim  Fathers,"  now  really 
form  a  very  mixed  community.  The  tendency  of  the  rural  populations  to 
gravitate  towards  the  manufacturing  centres  has  been  attended  by  a  corresponding 
decay  of  agriculture.  In  1890  a  special  commission  reported  that  1,461  farms, 
comprising  a  total  extent  of  about  130,000  acres,  had  been  abandoned. 

The  Merrimac,  penetrating  from  New  Hampshire  into  the  northern  part  of 
the  state,  traverses  a  densely-peopled  district ;  factories  are  grouped  round  all  its 
rapids,  and  Lowell,  one  of  these  busy  centres,  disposes  of  an  enormous  water- 
power,  representing  about  20,000  horse-power,  derived  from  the  falls  of  the 
Merrimac,  and  of  its  tributary  the  Concord.  Spinning,  weaving,  aud  dyeing 
are  the  chief  industries ;  but  every  branch  of  manufactures  is  represented  in 
Lowell,  which  contains  the  most  important  group  of  factories  in  Massachusetts. 

There  was  a  time  when  this  place  was  vaunted  as  the  paradise  of  M'orknien, 
and  especially  of  working  women.  When  the  factory  system  was  first  intro- 
duced into  North  America  travellers  celebrated  in  an  idyllic  style  the  pleasure  of 


-T-r-TT,-- 


I 
I 


116 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


work  in  the  Lowell  mills ;  but  its  spinning  factories  now  resemble  those  of  other 
lands.  In  the  early  period  the  artisans  of  both  sexes  were  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  directors  of  companies,  who  supplied  them  with  board  and  lodging,  required 
them  to  observe  the  Sabbath  strictly,  and  forbade  them  to  frequent  the  theatres 
or  any  places  of  amusement.  Nevertheless,  the  happiness  of  these  privileged 
factory  girls  cannot  have  been  complete,  for  the  spinning  mills  have  been  almost 
entirely  abandoned  by  native  Americans,  who  are  now  replaced  in  the  •'  Paradise 
Lost "  by  Irish  and  especially  Canadian  women  of  French  speech. 

It  is  much  the  same  at  Lawrence,  which  stands  ten  miles  lower  down  on  both 
banks  of  the  Merrimac.  Here  the  river  has  been  raised  by  means  of  a  strong 
dam,  and  water-power  has  thus  been  obtained  to  drive  the  machinery  of  numeious 
spinning  mills,  foundries,  and  other  workshops.  Haverhill,  which  follows 
Lawrence  in  the  same  valley,  stands  at  the  converging  point  of  two  industrial 
provinces,  Lowell  for  cottons  and  Lynn  for  the  boot  and  shoe  business.  These 
industries  are  also  shared  in  by  Newburyport,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Merrimac, 
which  has  lost  most  of  its  fishing  and  coasting  trade.  The  harbour  is  inaccessible 
at  low  water  to  vessels  drawing  more  than  nine  or  ten  feet. 

Newburyport  in  fact  has  been  eclipsed  by  Gloucester,  which  occupies  a  sheltered 
position  on  the  south  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Cape  Ann,  2^  miles  north  of 
Boston.  Soon  after  its  foundation,  in  1624,  Gloucester  became  the  most  flourish- 
ing seaport  in  the  colony  ;  this  rank  it  still  holds  so  far  as  regards  the  herring 
and  mackerel  fisheries,  while  it  yields  only  to  Boston  in  the  extent  of  its  mercan- 
tile marine  (35,000  tons  register). 

On  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  nearly  midway  between  Gloucester  and  Boston, 
stands  the  historic  town  of  Salem,  which  occupies  a  position  at  the  neck  of  the 
Marblehead  promontory,  sheltering  it  from  the  south  and  east  winds.  Founded 
in  1626,  on  the  site  of  the  Indian  village  of  Naumkeag  ("  Eel-pond  "),  Salem 
ranks  as  the  mother  colony  of  north  Massachusetts,  and  to  some  settlers  from  this 
place  Boston  itself  owed  its  origin  four  years  later.  This  ancient  stronghold  of  the 
Puritans,  now  chiefly  engaged,  like  Lynn,  in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes, 
formed  with  Marblehead,  during  the  last  century,  the  chief  centre  of  the  foreign 
trade  for  the  whole  of  New  England.  It  enjoyed  a  practical  monopoly  of  all  the 
exchanges  of  the  Republic  with  the  extreme  east,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
was  yearly  doubled  by  over  fifty  vessels  forming  part  of  its  commercial  navy. 
An  eastern  museum  full  of  curious  objects  from  India  and  China  recalls  this 
glorious  period  in  the  local  history. 

Salem  ranks  high  amongst  the  cities  of  the  Union  for  the  number  of  its 
illustrious  citizens,  amongst  others  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  and  the  historian 
Prescott.  Its  dependency,  Marblehead,  has,  like  it,  lost  its  trade,  and  its  harbour, 
a  trysting  place  for  yachtsmen,  has  now  been  deserted  by  trading  vessels. 

Salem  is  followed  south-westwards  by  Lynn,  another  trading  and  industrial 
town,  which  stands  at  the  neck  of  the  Marblehead  promontory.  This  place  takes 
its  name  from  the  English  town  of  Lynn  Regis,  whence  came  its  first  pastor 
in  the  year  1C29.      No  other  town  is  occupied  more   extensively  with  leather 


j'-.iif^ 


m 


i.ite;'>i<jj)ijt»'i 


'H'ii.','Wiiw'r>'i>'"'«i'  -I  I 


1 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


117 


work,  and  especially  the  manufucture  of  women's  and  children's  shoes,  employ- 
ing nearly  two  hundred  factories  in  this  department.  The  smell  of  leather  is 
diffused  beyond  the  town  over  the  surrounding  plains,  and  in  the  harbour  i» 
mingled  w>th  that  of  fish.  Moat  of  the  work  is  now  done  by  machinery, 
which  almost  entirely  dispenses  with  manual  labour,  except  such  as  can  be 
performed  by  women  and  children  in  the  finishing  workshops.      The   industry 


Fig.  41.— SxtEif  AND  Lynn. 
Pcalo  t ;  ifiO.ooo. 


Depthi 


Bands  exposed  at 
low  water. 


0to2) 
Fathoms. 


2)  to  6 
Fatbomi. 


&to20 
Fathoms. 


JO  Fatlionin 
aud  upwards. 


,  S  Miles. 


istor 
ther 


dates  from  the  last  century,  and  the  annual  product  has  increased  from  80,000 
pairs  of  boots  and  shoes  in  1767  to  26  millions  in  1890. 

Boston,  named  from  the  Lincolnshire  Boston,  formerly  Botolph's  Town,  is  at 
once  the  capital  of  the  Rtate,  its  largest  city,  and  the  metropolis  of  New  Engltmd. 


?^miW'^^-\smm^sit^MyiSv\^>iisim-m^wrHSM!!>>'»!''^ 


m 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Tt  consists  ill  reality  of  several  xirban  groups  separated  from  one  another  by 
arms  of  the  sea.  The  first  settlement  began  iu  1023  with  the  log  hut  of  a 
pioneer,  who  "  wanted  neither  bishops  nor  Puritan  brethren  for  masters."  Hence 
the  arrival  of  these  "  brethren "  drove  him  farther  afield,  while  Boston  grew 
to  a  little  hamlet  built  on  a  peninsula,  which  was  connected  south-westwards 
with  the  mainland  by  a  spit  of  sand  almost  flush  with  the  surface. 

Fig.  42.— BoBTOK. 
Soale  1 :  lOU.OOO. 


Si  Fathoms 
and  upwarda. 


The  original  peninsular  quarter,  the  Shawmut,  or  "  Sweet  Waters "  of  the 
Indians,  is  officially  known  by  the  name  of  Triinountaiii,  or  familiarly  Tremont. 
But  of  the  three  hills  whence  the  central  nucleus  of  Boston  took  this  poetic 
designation,  one  only  now  remains,  the  Beacon  Hill,  140  feet  high,  crowned  by 
the  glittering  dome  of  the  State  House.  The  Shawmut  peninsula  occupied  a 
space  of  HOO  acres,  which  has  since  been  more  than  doubled  by  reclaiming  and 


'.^i»mmm^mmmm!^.mmmm!mkiii.*.4*i.^i!miim^im 


Pffi. 


m»(!>"''ij"'i ' 


i* 


MASSACHUSETTS— BOSTOX. 


119 


raising  the  level  of  the  land  about  its  sandy  neck,  and  thus  creating  a  platform  on 
which  a  great  part  of  modern  Doston  now  stands.  Whenever  the  city  requires 
new  sites  for  its  buildings,  squares,  or  gardens,  it  obtains  them  in  the  same  way 
by  encroaching  westwards  on  the  shallow  waters  of  the  Charles  River  estuary. 

Similar  operations  have  been  carried  out  on  the  other  sides  of  the  bay,  whi<!h 
as  outlined  by  the  high  beaches,  the  gravels  and  cliffs  of  the  original  shore,  Wf.s 
nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  present  bay.  Marshy  tracts,  flooded  to  a  depth  of  a 
few  inches  at  high  water,  continually  advanced  beyond  the  shore-line  seawards, 
and  these  swampy  grounds  are  now  in  their  turn  disappearing. 

The  Beacon  Ilill  peninsula  with  all  these  added  spaces  is  connected  with  tho 
mainland  at  the  point  where  formerlj'  stood  the  separate  municipality  of  Itoxbury. 
But  this  place,  as  well  as  Dorchenter  and  some  other  coast  towns  and  villages,  has 
been  absorbed  in  the  ever-growing  metropolis.  North  of  Boston  the  old  city  of 
C/iailcstoH'ii,  which  formerly  was  also  an  independent  urban  community,  is  similarly 
unnexed  to  the  central  municipality,  and  although  its  hill,  now  covered  with 
houses,  remains  separated  from  the  main  quarter  by  a  marine  inlet,  this  channel 
is  crossed  by  so  many  piers,  viaducts,  and  railways  that  it  almost  entirely 
disappears.  The  whole  surface  might  easily  be  covered  over  by  a  broad 
platform  connecting  together  the  various  bridges  running  in  different  directions. 

West  of  the  bay  other  centres  of  population  have  also  become  quarters  of 
Bo'ston,  whereas /y;  oo/i//He  and  the  large  suburb  of  Cambridge  continue  to  be 
administered  by  separate  municipalities,  although  Cambridge  at  least  really  forms 
part  of  the  "  Modern  Athens,"  and  is  even  its  intellectual  centre.  On  the  north 
side  of  the  bay  Boston  overtlowa  in  all  directions  with  new  suburban  districts  ; 
eastwards  and  south-eastwards  also  two  islands,  now  connected  with  the  main- 
land, have  been  covered  by  the  extensive  suburbs  of  East  and  Southi  Boston. 
In  fact  there  is  scarcely  one  of  the  fifty  rocks  and  islets  of  all  sizes  scattered 
over  the  roadstead  that  is  not  a  direct  dependency  of  the  capital  through  their 
lighthouses,  lightships,  fortifications,  hospitals,  or  other  public  establishments. 

This  rapid  growth  of  the  metropolis  of  Massachusetts  on  a  seaboard  partly 
marshy  and  studded  with  islands  produces  continual  modifications  in  the  plan  of 
the  city,  so  that  charts  even  of  recent  dates  present  some  striking  contrasts.  The 
present  city  is  thirty  or  forty  times  more  extensive  than  the  original  islet.  It 
would  even  be  still  larger  were  all  the  groups  to  be  included  which  have  sprung 
up  in  connection  with  the  capital  in  the  surrounding  district.  Within  a  circum- 
ference of  twelve  miles  round  Beacon  Hill,  is  comprised  a  territory  which  contains 
over  a  third  of  the  population  of  the  state  ;  for  this  territory  the  census  of  18t)0  re- 
turned 872,482  souls,  or  nearly  two-fifths  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Massachusetts. 

On  this  basis  Boston  is  consequently  the  fourth  city  of  the  United  States  ;  but 
although  inferior  in  actual  population  to  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  to  Philadelphia 
and  Chicago,  it  surpasses  them  in  its  general  influence  on  the  moral  tone  of 
society,  In  political  enterprise,  literary  and  artistic  activity.  Its  citizens  have 
given  it  the  name  of  the  Uub,  and  even  the  Hub  of  the  Universe,  as  if  it  w^ere  tho 
pivot  on  which  everything  turned  ;  Cambridge  on  its  part  is  the  Hub  of  the  Hub. 


m 


■■"■.^■*?-'-?;:  v>^?I('^2''~  ■ 


^tp:^n^^:f:m9B^^mdm?s^T:r''\ 


'if.  ILL    .«.■■.  lUtl 


120 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


From  whatever  quarier  Boston  is  approached,  tho  visitor  porcoivcs  the  golden 
dome  of  the  Stuto  House  cmwiiing  the  stiiniiiit  of  the  islet  where  the  settlement 
was  founded,  and  affording  tho  most  commanding  view  of  tho  surrounding 
panorami  of  towns  and  wooded  slopes,  of  the  spacious  bay  studded  with  archi- 
])ehigo('s  and  islets,  and  ulive  with  shipping.  The  Common,  an  open  space  of 
about  tifty  acres,  occupies  tho  hill  surmounted  by  the  State  House.  This  is  almost 
S'jcrcd  ground,  the  spot  on  which  has  been,  to  u  large  extent,  evolved  the  political 
and  social  history  of  New  England.  In  the  early  period  it  was  the  scene  of 
sanguinary  spectacles,  such  as  the  butchery  of  as  many  as  thirty  Indian  captives 
in  a  single  day ;  hero  also,  during  the  witchcraft  craze,  several  victims  were 
sacrificed  to  popular  superstition.  And  here  also  was  prepared  the  revolt  against 
the  mother  country,  and  round  about  or  in  the  vicinity  of  this  pro-eminent  historic 
site,  the  Bostonians  have  erected  tho  City  Hall  and  the  other  chief  monuments  and 
statues  which  commemorate  the  great  events  of  their  history.  Not  far  off  stands 
the  American  "  Cradle  of  Liberty,"  Faneuil  Hall,  so  named  from  its  founder, 
a  French  Huguenot,  which  perpetuates  the  memory  of  the  popular  gatherings  and 
of  the  stirring  uddro'^sea  here  delivered  by  the  great  orators  and  champions  of  the 
rights  of  man.  Another  famous  monument  is  the  obelisk  on  Bunker  Hill,* 
crowning  the  highest  ground  in  Charlestown,  and  recalling  the  valiant  resistance 
opposed  by  tho  first  raw  recruits  of  the  "  rebels  "  to  the  troops  of  Great  Britain. 

The  centre  of  tho  growing  metropolis  can  never  be  displaced,  for  the  very 
conformation  of  the  surrounding  land  maintains  it  in  the  original  Shawmut 
peninsula.  But,  like  the  City  of  London,  this  centre  is  acquiring  more  and  more 
tlie  character  of  an  exchange,  the  focus  of  business  for  all  the  neighbouring  urban 
groups.  The  buildings  that  have  here  risen  in  imposing  style  from  the  ashes  of 
tho  tremendous  conflagration  of  187^,  comprise  almost  exclusively  business 
offices  occupied  only  for  a  few  hours  during  the  day.  Hence  a  prodigious  flow 
of  i)opulati(m  in  tho  morning,  followed  by  a  corresponding  ebb  in  the  evening. 
Til  no  city  are  pedestrians  and  vehicles  of  all  sorts  crowded  together  in  larger 
numbers  in  a  narrower  space,  and  as  many  as  sixteen  hundred  public  conveyances 
l)ass  certain  spots  in  a  single  day.  Thus  the  project  of  piercing  the  hill  in  all 
directions  becomes  daily  more  urgont ;  in  no  other  way  can  relief  be  afforded  to 
the  congested  traffic. 

Since  tho  year  18G9  the  city  of  Boston  possesses  a  high  school  with  tho  title  of 
university.  But  the  university  which  is  the  pride  of  Massachusetts  lies,  not  in  the 
metropolis  itself,  but  in  the  city  of  Cambridge  beyond  tho  Charles  River.  This 
flourishing  academy  of  the  arts  and  sciences  bears  the  name  of  Harvard,  in  memory 
of  a  benefactor,  who  bequeathed  to  it  his  library  and  a  sum  of  money  in  the  year 
1638.  A  very  fine  but  fanciful  statue  of  the  donor  stands  on  a  piece  of  ground 
within  tho  college  precincts.  The  recent  progress  of  this  school  of  learning  has 
been  marvellous.  Harvard  is  now  a  town  within  a  town,  comprising  lecture- 
rooms,  amphitheatres,  laboratories;  the  two  splendid  museums  of  zoology  (Agassiz) 


•  An  Anjjlinised  form  of  tho  French -CanaJian  Boncanr ;  henoe  Bunker  Tlil',  not  Bunker's  Hill,  as 
it  is  often  written. 


»l«<il!iiili>.»itip>|l  llil  ii 


BOSxON. 


121 


to 


uiid  urcLa;ol();»y  (Pnabody)  ;  imlutiiil  residences  for  tlio  stuff  and  sfudonts ;  a 
ri'ft'ctory,  one  ot  the  finest  striieturos  in  the  United  States,  raised  to  tlu>  memory 
of  the  uhmmi  who  fell  during  the  War  of  SecesMon  ;  gardens,  park,  and  grounds 
for  gymnastic  exercises ;  a  college  for  about  two  hundred  female  students. 

The  astronomical  observatory  attached  to  the  university  is  one  of  the  richest 
and  best  directed,  and  already  supplies  scientific  observers  to  other  estublishments 
in  the  New  World  as  far  distant  ua  Arequipa  '"n  South   Peru.      A  remarkable 

Fi«.  43.— BosTOX  IlAnnotTR. 
Heale  1  :  ."XXi.OOO. 


7I"5' 


•        West   oF  Greenwich 


70"50' 


Depthi. 


^ 


0  to  'ii 
FaUioui*. 


9HoB 
Fathonu. 


6  to  20 
Fathom*. 


20  Falhnms 
and  upward!. 


.  6  Miljs. 


botanic  garden  is  also  one  of  the  numerous  foundations,  and  the  unrversity 
possesses,  if  not  the  largest,  certainly  the  most  select  and  the  best  consulted, 
library  in  the  United  States.  In  1890  it  contained  nearly  376,000  volumes  and 
300,000  pamphlets.  In  the  same  year  the  capita,  of  the  university  exceeded 
^7,120,000,  and  the  revenues  from  all  sources  ^2,805,000,  while  the  professional 
staff  numbered  186  and  the  students  1,341. 

The   directors  of  this  great  institution  scarcely  make  an  appeal  to  the  public 
that  is  not  at  once  responded  to  by  donations  or  bequests  from  former  students  or 


122 


TIIK   UNITED  8TATE8. 


frit'iulH.  Ui'tico  tlio  k'pfacies  of  tho  oriijiiml  iK'nt^factor  are  trifling  coiuimn'd  to 
tlio  j)rL'sont  ri'rtoiuri'8  of  tiio  collogo,  wliioji  wtis  at  HrHt  a  i)urcly  theolugicai  8c'  ool, 
but  now  t'nihnices  all  tlio  faciiltit'H. 

lU'sidcs  its  two  iiniverrtitios,  I'oston  poRneascH  a  municipal  library  vi-ry  niuoli 
largi'r  than  that  of  Harvard,*  a  jjicturo  gallery,  whii'h  would  be  rciuarkable  rven 
in  Europe,  a  natural  liiHtory  niuseuni,  and  a  group  of  adniiral)ly  organised  techni- 
cal schools.  With  all  theMs  literary  aiul  scientific  advantagoH,  Boston  and  Cam- 
bridge are  naturally  the  most  attractive  jjlaces  of  residence  in  the  states  for  men 
of  science  ami  letters.  Franklin  was  a  native  of  Boston,  as  were  also  Emerifon, 
Wendell  IMiillips,  Sumner,  I'arkmun,  and  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

Tlie  vast  harbour  of  Boston,  which  despite  all  the  enroachmcnts  of  tho  city  still 
covers  an  area  of  75  squaro  miles,  has  over  New  York  the  great  advantage 
of  lying  neurer  to  Europe.  Hence,  although  it  is  not  situated  in  the  estuary  of 
tt  magnitieent  fluviid  artery,  such  as  that  of  the  Hudson,  it  remains  none  the  let 
one  of  the  great  centres  of  internatiomil  trade.  Th(>  unnual  movement  of  tho 
shijjping  fretjuenting  its  port  exceeds  three  million  tons,  and  tho  value  of  the 
foreign  exchanges,  relatively  slight  compared  with  the  vast  traflic  "arried  on  with 
other  cities  of  the  United  States,  represents  over  ^100,000,000.  Great  Britain 
takes  by  far  the  largest  share  in  these  exchanges,  and  four- fifths  of  the  European 
tonnage  entering  the  harbour  fly  the  British  flag.  The  section  of  the  harbour  in 
the  Mystic  estuary  north  of  Charlestown  has  been  reserved  by  the  Federal 
Government  for  dockyards  and  as  a  naval  port. 

Cheki'a,  which  lies  just  beyond  the  north  side  of  the  bay,  is  one  of  those  towns 
in  the  outskirts  of  Boston  that  have  preserved  their  municipal  independence. 
Nevertheless  this  place,  which  stretches  north  eastwards  to  the  Atlantic  shore  on 
the  north  side  of  the  neighbouring  peninsula,  and  which  is  separated  from  the 
capital  only  by  the  Mystic  River  estuary,  is  practically  a  suburb  of  Boston. 

Farther  east  every  creek,  every  height  in  the  rocky  Nahant  peninsula  is 
occupied  by  charming  villa  residences.  Northwards  also  Boston  is  continued  by  the 
suburb  of  JJaHvn  through  a  sandy  lacustrine  district  traversed  by  numerous 
railways.  North-westwards  follow  the  two  historical  towns  of  Lexington  and  Con- 
cord, the  scenes  of  the  first  engagements  between  the  British  and  Americans  in  the 
War  of  Independence.     Thoreau,  Emerson  and  Hawthorne  all  resided  at  Concord. 

Near  the  village  of  Waiertown,  west  of  Cambridge  and  of  the  shady  groves  of 
Mount  Auburn  cemetery,  a  modern  tower  marks  the  spot  where,  according  to 
Horsford,  the  Norse  navigators  founded  their  first  settlement  in  the  New  World. 
Hero,  this  writer  thinks,  stood  Cabot's  famous  Norumbega,  that  is  Norbega  or 
Norway,  the  old  buildings  of  which  are  represented  by  some  crumbling  walls. 
But  Horsford's  views  have  been  rejected  by  most  archajologists. 

Farther  on,  at  the  point  where  the  Charles  River  breaks  into  cascades,  stands 

the  suburb  of    Walthum,    a  very   industrious  quarter  occupied  specially  in  the 

manufacture  of  watches,  of  which  as  many  as  1,500,000  are  annually  produced  in 

this  place.  South-eastwards  the  towns  of  Nnvton,  Brighton,  Broohliuc,  and  Roxbury 

*  Boston  library  (1890),  640,000  volumes,  300,000  pamphlets. 


1^  i 


BOSTON.  —PLYMOUTH. 


1S8 


arc  (lottod  ov«t  an  extensive  (listrlct  (HvorHified  with  woodluiidn,  hills,  gr.iHsy 
plainHund  lukoM.  Hero  are  the  cJiiuf  ri'servoirH  which  aupitly  Hoatdii  mid  (Juinbiid^o 
with  water;  oiio  uf  these  reaorvuirs  uluno,  that  of  CheHtnut  Kill,  contuiuH 
J).>0  million  gallons  of  water.  In  wi.i'^er  the  frozen  lake  cut  up  hy  a  Hort  of  ice 
plough,  yiidd  thouaundsof  tons  of  ice  tv  tlio  trado  of  Hostun. 

Towards  iho  south-east  (^tiinri/,  on  U»e  Hhor»>«  of  the  bay  ut  the  foot  of  an  over- 
hanging granite  bluff,  is  noted  us  thi  place  where  the  first  railway  in  the  United 
States  was  built,  not  as  a  passenger  li  ae,  but  in  connoetiou  with  the  noighbouring 

Fig.  44.— Pi.TMOi'Tii   »Ni>  DirxBUHY. 
Hoiile  1 :  l7ii,U(M. 


Lrptlu. 


Snii'li  expnmd 
at  low  water. 


Tatbonu. 


8j  to  10 
Fathoma. 


10  Fnthoma 
aod  upwards. 


3  Mile*. 


quarries  of  magnificent  granite,  now  exported  to  every  part  of  the  Union.  Quincy 
was  the  birthplace  of  John  Hancock,  of  John  Adams,  second  president,  and  of  his 
son,  John  Quincy  Adams.  Ilingham,  a  little  watering  place  a  little  farther  south  on 
the  same  coast,  possesses  the  oldest  church  in  New  England,  dating  from  1081. 

On  the  coast  stretching  south-east  from  Boston,  and  sheltered  from  the 
Atlantic  seas  by  the  peninsula  of  Cape  Cou,  stands  the  famous  city  of  Tlymouth, 
where  begun  the  colonisation  of  New  England  in  the  year  1020.  But  this 
mother  colony  has  lagged  far  behind  many  more  modern  places  peopled  by  her 
children.     It  has  only  a  small  and  shallow  harbour  frequented  by  some  coasting 


124 


THE  UNITFJ)  STATKH, 


I  ' 


V08h(Ih  iinil  tiNhiiig  sinackH.  "  Old  Colony  "  hud  no  nutiiriil  roHourcen,  and  nothing 
in  pntducod  horu  except  cordiige  ond  niiiU.  Ncverthi'loHH  Plymouth  ut  tnicfH  visitorM 
for  its  hiMoric  aHxociationM.  An  eminonoo  rising  uhovo  tho  hfdiwH  in  crowned 
with  a  coIosNul  Htatiio  of  "Faith."  Sonio curious  ohjocts  dating  from  tho  tir«t 
yi'urs  of  tho  colonisation  uro  carofuliy  presorvod  in  Pilgrim  Hall,  and  Plymouth 
Kock  stands  on  the  sandy  beach  whore  tho  pilgrims  landed  from  the  Maijjlower  on 
December '-ilsf,  1020.     A  detached  portion  of  "  Forefather's  Uock,"  as  it  is  also 

Pig.  48.— Capk  Cod. 

1 1 1  i,fMio,ooa 


^^Mm»ki\^  m\.  w-j'  4WWj*--"J' 


•ig' 


West   oF  Greenwich 


69'30' 


Depths. 


OtolO 
Futboma. 


to  to  25 

Fathoms. 


MtoSO 
Fathoms. 


60  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


O  Lighthouse. 


,  30  Miles. 


called,  has  been  removed  to  the  front  of  Pilgrim  Hall,  where  it  is  protected  by  an 
iron  railing  from  relic  hunters. 

Ditximri/,  a  little  north  of  Plymouth,  recalls  the  spot  where  the  dux  or 
''  leader  "  of  the  Puritans  resided.  It  is  now  better  known  as  the  American 
terminus  of  the  French  transatlantic  cable,  which  was  laid  between  Brest,  Saint 
Pierre-Jiliguelon  (Newfoundland)  and  Duxbury  in  the  year  18G9. 

The  narrow  peninsula  consisting  of  glacial  drift  and  terminating  in  the 
long  hooked  headland  of   Cape   Cod,  has   no   centres  of   population  except  a 


i,-. 


^    ^ 


MAUTUAS  VINEYAUI). 


195 


fow  little  fiMliing  poi'tB,  Huch  U8  Unrmtablc  und  Proiintrloini,  ojifi;iigoil  OMpocially 
in  tho  cod  und  iniickond  tiNherioH.  T1h>hc  plucos  uro  inhubitcd  hy  u  during  und 
nkilt'ul  riu!o  of  Huiloi-M,  who  uro  constantly  warring  with  tho  boistcrouH  deinonts  in 
purMuit  of  their  dangerous  trudr,  or  ua  lifibout-incn  rofcuing  tho  crows  nnd 
puHHongorHof  vcusels  wrecked  on  those  exposed  sandH.  The  Hliifling  diumfl,  driving 
hoforo  the  dry  north-WMt  wintiH  at  Uaco  I'oint,  are  ulreudy  threatening 
I'rovincotown,  wbicli  has  u  hard  struggle  to  protect  itself  against  tho  invasion. 
Jtutwcun  Itu/zurd's  und  Cape  Cod  buys  a  deep  ship  cunul  is  being  construcled, 

Fig.  40.— MABTItVa   ViNBTABD. 
i  t  «W,OQO. 


0to6 
Fathomi. 


Ueptha. 


6  to  10 
Fathoms. 

O  Lighthouse. 


10  Fathomi 
aod  upwards. 


.er. 


which  will  enable  vetsels  tc  ply  directly  between  New  York  atid  Boston.  The 
coasters  engaged  in  the?e  waters  make  soru  40,000  yearly  trips  between  the 
two  great  seaports,  and  when  opened  the  c.nial  will  save  them  a  dtitour  of  over 
90  miles,  in  the  dangerous  vicinity  of  Cape  Cod.  The  highest  point  of  the 
cutting  is  only  G2  feet  above  s^a-level. 

The  two  islands  of  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Nantucket,  which  He  in  the  open 
Atlantic,  south  of  Cape  Cod  peninsula,  and  which  are  often  modified  by  tho  fuvy 
of  the  waves,  liave  also  their  little  tisliing  hamlets,  which  at  a  former  epoch  were 


n 


jtte^j 


l'M>* 


ill 


126 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


even  famous.  Before  the  War  of  Independence  Nantucket  owned  140  vessels, 
manned  by  2,'200  hands,  all  engaged  in  the  whale  fishery.  To  a  great  extent 
ruined  by  the  war,  the  inhabitants  had  regained  their  former  prosperity,  when  the 
profits  of  the  whalers  were  again  seriously  affected  by  the  development  of  the  oil 
wells,  combined  with  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  cetaceans. 

From  that  time  the  population  of  Nantucket  and  of  its  neighbour,  Martha's 
Vinevard,  began  steadily  to  diminish,  the  white  inhabitants  disappearing,  as  all 


FE. ,'     ( 


11 


Fig.  47.— Fall  Riveb. 
Scale  1  1  60  UOO. 


7rir 


West    oF    Greenwich 


71*  9' 


Deptua. 


Oto?| 
Fathoms. 


2i  Fiithoraa 
and  upwards. 


,  2,200  Yards. 


but  a  few  still  surviving  half-breeds  of  the  gentle  Indian  aborigine  had  disappeared 
before  them.  The  two  islands,  however,  are  recovering  some  of  their  importance 
as  watering  places  and  summer  resorts. 

The  former  commercial  enterprise  of  the  islands  has  passed  to  the  opposite 
mainland,  where  the  harbour  of  New  Bedford,  well  sheltered  by  the  fringing 
islands,  is  accessible  to  the  largest  vessels.  Vineyard  Haven  is  still  a  harbour  of 
refuge,  while  New  Bedford,  the  Acushnat  of  the  Indians,  remains  the  most  active 
whaling  port  in  the  world.  It  has,  however,  greatly  declined  in  this  respect  since 
the  middle  of  the  century,  when  jointly  with  the  town  of  Fairhaven,  facing  it  on 
the  opposite    side  of  an  estuary,  it  equipped  over   300  vessels  for  the  whale 


. -^I'-'---  I       .„„ 


nn^^^iiSiiM^' 


•WJaw^itiJi^^W  "  '  ■  1 1'l!  m^  ■ 


WORCESTER. 


127 


fisheries,  and  when  it  gave  employment  to  as  many  as  10,000  seamen.     In   1890 
the  whalers  had  been  reduced  to  ti'2,  with  a  total  burden  of  less  than  13,000  tons. 
Despite  its  losses  as  a  fishing  station,  New  Bedford  is  rapidly  increasing  as  a 
manufacturing  centre.     It  is  engaged  especially  in  cotton  weaving,  an  industry 
which  it  shares  with  its 

Fig.  48.— IIOLTOKE   GOEOE. 
Scale  1  ;  200,(XK). 


neighbour  Fall  Iticcr, 
situated  a  little  to  the 
north-west  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Taunton 
River.  The  estuary  gives 
access  to  the  largest  ves- 
sels, and  the  town  derives 
abundant  hydraulic 
power  from  the  cataracts 
of  the  Watuppa  Pond 
emissary,  which  at  pre- 
sent disappears  under- 
ground. 

^'^est  of  Boston  the 
city  of  Worcester,  birth- 
place of  George  Ban- 
croft, ranks  in  size  and 
importance  next  to  the 
metropolis  itself.  For 
this  position  it  is  in- 
debted to  its  situation  in 
the  centre  of  the  state  at 
the  converging  point  of 
the  main  lines  of  railway. 
Often  selected  as  a  con- 
venient meeting-place  for 
political  conferences  and 
conventions,  Worcester 
has  earned  for  itself  the 
proud  title  of  "Heart 
of  the  Commonwealth." 
It  lies  near  a  waterpart- 
ing  where  the  Black- 
stone  River,  after  collecting  its  various  headstreams,  flows  south-west  towards 
Providence. 

The  Connecticut  River,  which  traverses  Massachusetts  from  north  to  south, 
is  flanked  by  populous  and  industrial  towns.  Norihampion,  the  Nonotack  of  the 
Indians,  stands  near  the  right  bank  of  the  river  above  the  Holyoke  gorge,  in  a 
charming  valley  where  tobacco  is  grown.     Here  was  born  Jonathan  Edwards,  the 


72*35' 


Jr^enwich 


8  MUea. 


.,y!My9|l»|it''l!i<*'''''', 


Jk^- -^,;J 


Mi 


i 


i  i 


128 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


most  famous  Calvinistic  divine  of  New  England.  Lower  down,  the  large  city  of 
Iluhjoke  lies  within  a  bend  of  the  Connecticut,  by  which  it  is  encircled  on  three 
sides.  Its  numerous  paper  and  other  factories,  extending  over  a  space  of  more 
than  three  miles,  give  employment  to  some  20,000  hands,  of  whom  over  5,000  are 
natives  of  Canada.  Here  are  numufactured  most  of  the  envelopes  and  postal  cards 
issued  by  the  Federal  Government.  All  the  workshops  derive  enormous  water 
power  from  a  fall  of  over  30  feet  effected  by  damming  the  current  higher  up. 

Farther  down  other  falls,  together  with  the  rapids  of  a  little  affluent,  set  in 
motion  the  wheel  gear  of  the  mills  at  Cliicopre.  Beyond  this  place  follows  the 
city  of  Springfield,  where  the  United  States*  Government  has  its  military  arsenal, 
armourj',  and  chief  manufactory  of  firearms  on  Armory  Hill. 

One  spot,  however,  in  the  Connecticut  Valley  has  hitherto  escaped  the  inva- 
sion of  factorit'S  and  the  proletariate  classes.  This  is  the  quiet  little  rural  town 
of  Amherst,  which,  with  its  school  of  agriculture,  and  its  art,  natural  history  and 
archaeological  collections,  occupies  a  secluded  glen  north-east  of  Northampton. 

West  of  the  Connecticut  the  hilly  region  about  the  sources  of  the  Iloosic  and 
and  ITousatonic  is  less  densely  peopled,  and  its  towns,  such  as  North  Adntm, 
Pitfsfiehl,  and  Slockbrhlge  are  less  busy  industrial  centres.  But  they  are  visited 
by  summer  pleasure  seekers,  and  the  surrounding  districts  are  occupied  by  villas 
and  rural  retreats.  The  neighbouring  thermal  waters  of  New  Lebanon  Sprhign, 
which  have  their  rise  in  the  state  of  New  York,  are  much  frequented,  thanks 
jnainly  to  the  vicinity  of  the  famous  community  of  Shakers,  founded  in  the  year 
1795  by  the  "prophetess"  Ann  Lee.  The  town  of  North  Adams,  north  of  the 
Greylock  Peak,  stands  at  the  issue  of  the  Hoosac  tunnel  on  the  chief  highway  of 
communication  between  Boston  and  the  Hudson  valley.  The  construction  of 
this  underground  passage,  which  is  nearly  five  miles  long,  took  twenty-four  j'ears, 
with  an  expenditure  of  about  ^20,000,000. 

5. — Rhode  Island. 

Rhode  Island,  "  Little  Rhody,"  the  smallest  state  in  the  American  Union, 
represents  no  more  than  the  two  hundred  and  thirteenth  part  of  Texas,  the  largest. 
But  in  density  of  population  and  the  relative  value  of  its  products,  it  takes  the 
first  rank.  Belonging  to  the  same  physical  region  as  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut, on  its  north  and  west  frontiers,  it  presents  the  same  general  aspect,  and 
yields  the  same  produfo  everywhere,  except  in  the  south-east  corner. 

Here  the  seaboard  is  deeply  indented  by  Narragansett  Bay,  which  is  studded 
with  numerous  islands;  one  of  these,  the  Indian  Aqu  Ineck  ("Floating  on 
the  Water  "  ),  received  from  the  English  settlers  the  nuuie  of  Rhode  Island, 
from  the  island  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Mi  r,  and  this  name  was  afterwards  extended 
to  the  state. 

All  the  towns  of  Rhode  Island  are  manufacturing  centres.  In  this  densely- 
peopled  territory  the  land  is  too  valuable  to  be  utilised  by  the  rudimentary  system 
of  tillage  practised  in  most  other  states  of  the  Union,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
inhabitants  are  occupied  with  gardening,  or  more  especially  with  manufactures. 


the 


PROVIDENCE, 


129 


The  Bluckstone,  a  small  ]\ru8sachu8ett8  stream  poiietralinginto  the  eastern  part 
of  tne  state,  also  supplies  driving  power  to  the  workshops  of  Woodnucket  FoIIh, 
■and  farther  on  to  those  of  other  towns  and  villages  as  far  as  Pawtucket  and 
Pi'omlence,  one  of  the  two  capitals  of  the  state.  At  Pawtucket,  which  has  already 
been  almost  absorbed  in  its   ever-growing  neighbour,  was  established  the  first 

Fig.  49. — Pbovidencb. 
SoUe  1  :  110,000. 


Depths. 


FathomB. 


2J  Fathom* 
and  apward*. 

.  3  Miles. 


cotton-mill  in  the  United  States  in  the  year  1700  ;  for  half  a  century  it  enjoyed 
the  industrial  supremacy,  and  even  still  possesses  the  most  important  spinning 
factory  in  the  whole  Union.  No  watercourse,  not  even  the  Merrimac,  is  turned 
to  better  account  as  a  motive  power  than  the  Blackstone,  whose  specialties  are 
cottons  and  woollens.  This  narrow  valley  is  inhabited  by  about  lialf  a  million 
75 


^1 


i 


!    I  I 


lit 


180 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Mi 


Anglo-Americans,  Irit'h,  Franco-Canadians,  artd  Swedes.  Here  it  hua  a  fall  of 
nearly  fifty  feet,  and  from  this  point  its  lower  course  retains  its  old  Indian  name 
of  Pawtucket,  whence  the  town  has  been  designated. 

Providence,  which  even  without  its  suburbs  contains  over  one-fhird  of 
the  whole  population  of  Rhode  Island,  and  more  than  half  if  the  environs  be 
included,  was  originally  founded  by  exiles.  Roger  Williams  and  five  associates), 
having  incurred  the  wrath  of  the  stern  Massachusetts'  Puritans,  for  their  unor- 
thodox interpretation  of  Holy  Writ,  sought  a  refuge  amongst  the  Narragansett 
Indians,  and  in  the  year  1636  formed  a  settleircnt  at  the  point  where  the  Black- 
stone  expands  into  a  broad  estuary  at  the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay.  Thanks  to 
its  favourable  position  at  the  head  of  the  deep-sea  navigation,  and  also  to  its  liberal 
constitution,  granting  absolute  freedom  of  worship  to  all  ciiizens,  the  new  colony 
soon  attracted  fresh  settlers,  and  spread  rapidly. 

Unlike  most  American  cities.  Providence  is  not  laid  out  with  the  regularity 
of  a  chess-board.  The  early  country  roads  and  tracks  have  become  the  chief 
thoroughfares,  and  still  bear  the  names  of  the  cardinal  virtues  given  to  them  by 
the  pious  founders  of  the  settlement.  It  is  now  proposed  to  drain  and  fill  up  the 
"  cove,"  or  central  basin  of  the  harbour,  round  which  the  city  has  been  developed, 
but  which  has  almost  become  an  open  sewer. 

This  important  industrial  centre  produces  a  great  variety  of  wares — textiles, 
yarns,  machinery,  utensils  of  all  kinds,  and  fine  jewellery — and  possesses  choice 
art  collections  and  libraries.  It  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  wealthiest  city  in 
the  United  States,  regard  being  had  to  the  population.  Brown  University,  its 
chief  educational  establishment,  is  excelled  in  New  England  only  by  Harvard 
(Cambridge),  and  Yale  (New  Haver).  The  inhabitants  of  Providence  have  also 
their  sacred  rock,  though  perhaps  less  authentic  than  that  of  Plymouth,  indica- 
ting the  spot  where  the  founder  of  the  colony  is  supposed  to  have  stood  when  he 
was  welcomed  by  the  local  Narragansett  chief,  with  the  words,  "  What  cheer  ?  " 
The  expression  is  now  employed  in  a  patriotic  sense  as  a  password  to  attest  the 
excellence  of  everything  appertaining  to  Rhode  Island. 

Newport,  the  second  capital,  occupies  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island  from 
which  the  state  takes  its  name,  and  which  is  now  connected  by  a  stone  bridge  with 
the  mainland.  Newport  consists  in  reality  of  two  towns,  the  old  quarter  occupied 
with  trade  and  fishing,  and  the  new  city  consisting  exclusively  of  villas  and  private 
residences.  Before  the  revolution  it  had  a  considerable  trade,  far  exceeding  that  of 
New  York.  At  present  it  is  reduced  to  little  more  than  a  coasting  tratfic,  and  the 
numerous  steamers  frequenting  the  harbour  carry  far  more  holiday-makers  than 
traders.  The  local  regattas  often  attract  hundreds  of  yachts  from  New  York. 
The  old  town,  defended  by  Fort  Adams,  hud  formerly  great  strategic  importance 
as  commanding  the  entrance  both  toNarragansett  Bay  and  to  t  ng  Island  Sound. 
Here  is  still  a  United  States  arsenal  and  a  torpedo  school.  The  new  quarter, 
though  with  a  smaller  population,  covers  a  far  greater  area,  extending  along  the 
eastern  and  southern  edge  of  the  cliffs  for  a  distance  of  at  least  three  miles.  It  is 
the  great  summer  resort  of  the  merclumt  princes,  and  generally  of  the  wealthiest 


1 1 


'  ''''t**'!*;.  )^iii'!it|>'>>w>!i''''»j'»»?'  i..iir>»MtjiL'iiw  i\ 


NEWPORT.— CONNECTICUT. 


181 


and  most  fashionable  classes  in  North  America.  Newport  "  society  "  is  distinctly 
the  most  exclusive  "  aristocratic  circle "  in  the  Union.  The  villas  and  mansions 
vie  with  each  other  in  lavish  display  of  opulence  ;  all  the  avenues  radiating  round 
the  casino  are  fringed  with  flower-gardens  and  ebrubberies,  and  in  the  season 
crowded  with  brilliant  equipages.  In  the  public  park  stands  the  old  "Stone  Mill," 
a  round  tower  with  Roman  arches  resting  on  heavy  pillars,  which  has  become 
famous  since  Rafn  and  other  archsoologists  mistook  it  for  a  monument  built  by  the 

Fig.  60. — Newi>obt. 

Scale  1  :  70.000. 


OtoS 
Fathoms. 


DeptbB. 


•  Lighthouse. 


6  Fathoms 
and  opwards. 


Norsemen  five  centuries  before  the  discovery  of  America.  It  is  in  fact  a  mill 
erected  by  the  governor  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Trinity  Church, 
one  of  the  oldest  in  the  place,  is  associated  with  the  memory  of  the  famous  Bishop 
Berkeley,  philosopher  and  divine,  who  preached  in  its  pulpit  about  the  year  1730. 

6. — Connecticut. 

Connecticut,  or  the  "  Long  River  State,"  is  bounded,  like  most  other  territorial 
divisions  of  the  republic,  by  conventional  straight  lines  everywhere  except  on 


m 


V  '~^^W^^':'~^ 


^l^,^'»■-^'.»ia^^.^,t^''i^Wg.l'^W«^^RN^^JB^;.!^WwlWl^^^wt!^  ..■ 


p 


■■WW".- 


II 


182 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


I 


!J   1 


tho  fioul.h  side,  which  is  washed  by  the  waters  of  Ijong  Island  Sound.  In  its 
relief  and  general  geographical  constitution  the  country  consists  of  sections  of 
parallel  fluvial  valleys  descending  seawards  f  ntni  Massachusetts,  and  separated  by 
intervening  ridges  of  low  elevation. 

Like  most  other  New  England  states,  Connecticut  is  a  busy  industrial  region, 
the  products  of  which  are,  however,  less  specialised  than  elsewhere.  The  inhabi- 
tants boast  of  being  the  most  Yankee  of  Yankees,  and  tho  "  Brother  Jonathan  " 
applied  by  the  English  jocularly  to  all  Anglo-Americans,  and  especially  to  tho 
New  En  glanders,  has  reference  to  Washington's  intimate  friend,  Jonathan 
Trumbull,  a  citizen  of  Connecticut.  In  proportion  to  the  population  Connecticut 
has  given  birth  to  a  greater  number  of  celebrities  than  any  other  state  ;  it  also 
takes  out  more  patents  every  year,  and  its  inventors  and  craftsmen  have  had 
the  largest  share  in  developing  industrial  processes  throughout  the  Union. 

The  cotton-spinning  machines,  the  revolver,  the  method  of  preparing  rubber, 
and  many  other  mechanical  appliances,  attest  the  inventive  faculty  of  these 
Yankees,  who  also  take  tho  first  rank  for  the  manufacture  of  the  most  approved 
sewing-machines.  In  fact,  the  Connecticut  specialities  comprise  the  innumerable 
so-called  "  Yankee  notions,"  amongst  which  satirists  do  not  forget  to  include  the 
"  wooden  nutmegs,"  which  have  earned  for  it  the  title  of  the  "  Nutmeg  State." 
It  is  also  known  as  the  "  Freestone  State,"  from  iho  building  material  which  it 
supplies  in  abundance  to  New  York. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  the  chief  place  is  Norwich,  at  the  confluence  of 
two  rivers,  whose  united  waters  form  the  Thcimes,  and  whose  falls  have  largely 
contributed  to  the  local  prosperity.  The  pure  waters  of  these  streams  are  utilised 
especially  for  the  manufacture  of  paper.  Long  an  obscure  village,  noted  only  as 
the  burial-place  of  chiefs  of  the  Mohican  tribe,  Norwich  rose  somewhat  suddenly 
to  a  position  of  considerable  prosperity,  whereas  New  London,  situated  on  the 
rough  rocky  ground  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  has  remained  stationary,  or  even 
somewhat  declined.  Founded  in  1646,  and  named  in  memory  of  "  the  dear  native 
land  of  England,"  New  London  has  the  great  advantage  of  possessing  the  largest, 
best-sheltered,  and  deepest  harbour  on  this  coast,  in  the  estuary  of  the  navigable 
river  Thames,  as  it  was  named  by  the  early  English  colonj^ts.  The  loyalty  of  its 
founders,  however,  did  not  prevent  New  London  from  being  burnt  by  the  Royalist 
forces,  led  by  the  traitor  Arnold,  during  the  War  of  Independence.  It  recovered 
from  this  blow  during  the  flourishing  days  of  the  whale  fishery,  of  which  it  was  a 
chief  centre.  But  since  tho  ruin  of  this  industry  in  the  Atlantic  waters,  the 
shipping  of  New  London  has  mainly  been  confined  to  the  neighbouring  sea-coast. 

The  chief  river  valley  which  gives  its  name  to  the  state  is  no  less  densely 
peopled  in  Connecticut  than  are  i<8  upper  reaches  within  the  Massachusetts 
frontier.  Industrial  towns  follow  in  a  continuous  zone  all  the  way  to  Hartford, 
the  capital,  which  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  The  opposite  side  is  occu- 
pied by  an  extensive  suburb,  while  numerous  villas  are  scattered  in  all  directions 
over  the  neighbouring  wooded  heights.  Even  as  nn  English  settlement,  Hartford  is 
an  older  idixce  than  New  London,  dating  from  the  year  1636;  but  some  Dutch 


iiii 


t>>Wm 


.L, 


'¥mi]'i<m'infii0)i«titiHnk*  tK ■;■  '..■■■ '« -i  '.~~o~» 


NEW  LONDON. 


183 


pioneers  had  already  founded  a  stafion  on  this  spot,  the  site  of  the  Indian  village 
of  Suckeay.  Hartford,  one  of  the  most  opulent  cities  in  the  Union,  possesses  a 
superb  capitol  in  white  marble,  embellished  with  statues  and  bas-reliefs,  and 
crowned  with  a  glittering  dome. 

Formerly  it  boasted  of  perhaps  a  more  interesting  monument,  the  "  Charttir 
Oak,"  so  named  because  here  was  hidden,  in  1686,  a  copy  of  the  charter  granted 

Fig.  51.— New  London. 

Soalo  1  :  66.000. 


ITT 


Vy<Bt  or  Greenwich 


72-3- 


0to8| 
Fathnmg 


Depth*. 


2|to6 
Fathumi.  . 


6  Fathoma 
and  upwardat 


U  Mile. 


by  the  kinjr,  but  which  one  of  the  governors  wanted  to  suppress.  The  tree, 
having  been  blown  down  by  a  cyclone,  its  site  was  indicated  by  a  marble  tablet,  and 
Charter  Oak,  like  What  Cheer  Rock,  of  Rhode  Island,  continues  to  be  regarded 
as  the  palladium  of  the  local  liberties.  Hartford  vies  in  opulence  with  Provi- 
dence, and  is  at  present  the  chief  centre  of  insurance  associations  in  the  United 


KIIKS?5"««^»«3Wa«s«2 


U;MJ<(WMIIW>ilUM4WWMMBI<t»>MW>W!llt«Kj|i^ 


134 


THE   UNITED  STATES. 


States.     Its  libraries  arc  also  in  a  flourishing  condition,  but  the  cliief  industrial 
efital)li8iniient  is  an  extensive  sniall-ariUH  factory. 

South  of  Hartford,  Xcw  lirittun  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut,  and  Mcridett  in 
the  fluvial  valley  draininj^  to  New  Haven,  are  both  busy  townn,  the  latter  possessinw 
the  most  extensive  electro-plating  factory  in  the  Union.     Here  the  itinerant  Con- 
Fig.  fi'2.— New  Have.v. 
Hcale  1 :  80,000. 


Bands  Kipoaed 
at  low  crater. 


Depths. 


0to2) 
Fathoms 

•  Ijighthoose. 


2i^  Fatboma 
and  upwards. 


.  2  Miles. 


necticut  traders,  who  visit  every  part  of  North  America,  supply  themselves  with 
the  tinware,  cutlery,  silver-plated  ware,  britanuia  ware,  bronzes,  and  the  like, 
of  which  they  have  almost  acquired  a  monopoly. 

The  village  of  Saybrook,  on  the  left  side  of  the  Connecticut  enfcuary,  is  the 
oldest  English  settlement  in  the  state ;  but  it  never  becan-e  a  thriving  seaport, 


1  ; 


NEW  HAVEN. 


185 


owing  to  the  obstruction  to  navigation  cuuaed  by  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
The  old  fort  which  defended  its  entrance  has  been  razed  to  the  ground  to  make 
room  for  a  railway-station.  The  school  founded  here  in  1701  has  also  been 
removed  to  New  JIairii,  and  ia  now  merged  in  the  famous  university  of  Yale 
College,  whose  charter  dates  from  the  fame  year,  1701. 

Although  deprived  of  the  rank  of  ciipitiil,  which,  till  recently,  it  shared  with 
Hartford,  Now  Haven  is  iho  largest  city  in  the  state,  as  well  as  its  busiest  trading 
place.  The  harbour  is  too  shallow  to  admit  largo  vessels,  but  it  is  supplemented 
by  several  other  inlets,  such  as  TVent  JIacen,  Fair  Iluien,  uud  East  Haven,  oil  of 
which  trade  chiefly  with  the  West  Indies. 

New  Haven  has  received  from  its  inhabitants  the  title  of  the  'Elm  City,"  which 
is  thoroughly  justified,  except  for  the  industrial  and  shipping  quarters,  which 
resemble  those  of  most  other  cities  in  the  United  States.  The  spacious  sqv.cres  are 
shaded  by  magnificent  elms,  which  are  clothed  with  foliage  down  to  the  very 
ground  ;  and  these  superb  avenues  are  continued  by  broad  boulevards,  where  trees 
of  the  same  species  and  of  the  same  dimensions  adorn  the  grassy  swards,  affording 
a  grateful  shade  to  numerous  suburban  villas  with  bay  windows  and  verandas, 
clothed  with  ivy  and  surrounded  by  flower-gardens.  Herfe  everything  is  free  and 
open,  no  barriers,  no  enclosures,  no  threatening  notices  to  trespassers,  nothing  even 
to  indicate  the  boundaries  of  private  residences. 

A  whole  quarter  of  the  city  is  occupied  by  the  scattered  buildings  of  Yale 
College,  which  contends  with  Harvard  and  Johns  Hopkins  for  the  honour  of 
ranking  as  the  foremost  educational  establishment  in  the  Union.  It  takes  its 
name  from  a  wealthy  merchant,  who  at  a  critical  point  in  its  early  career  pre- 
sented it  with  a  gift  of  £500  sterling.  The  Puritan  college,  which  has  become 
one  of  the  wealthiest  institutions  in  the  world,  enjoys  a  yearly  revenue  of  ^300,000, 
and  possesses  numerous  sumptuous  buildings  for  its  museums,  libraries,  class 
and  assembly  rooms,  and  chambers  for  its  120  professors  and  1,300  students. 

But  the  glory  of  Yale  College  is  the  Peabody  Museum,  containing  a  paleonto- 
logical  collection,  where  the  geologist  Marsh  has  brought  together  all  the  speci- 
mens of  the  remarkable  extinct  fauna  recently  discovered  in  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  Bad  Lands  of  the  Far  West.  Besides  Yale  College,  New  Haven  possesses 
several  other  scholastic  establishments,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the 
Hopkins  Grammar  School,  dating  from  the  year  1660. 

The  western  part  of  Connecticut  is  comprised  almost  entirely  within  the 
basin  of  the  Housatonic,  which  also  supplies  abundant  water-power  to  numerous 
industrial  centres.  Of  these  the  most  important  is  Waterbury,  which  stands  on  the 
Naugatuck  affluent  of  the  Housatonic  and  which  boasts  of  one  of  the  largest 
watch  factories  in  the  world.  Stratford,  the  port  of  entry,  is  little  more  than 
an  obscure  village ;  but  some  flourishing  places  follow  along  the  coast.  Such 
are  Bridgeport,  a  great  centre  for  the  manufacture  of  sewing-machines,  fire- 
arms, carriages,  hardware,  and  machinery  ;  the  twin  towns  of  Norfolk  and  South 
Norfolk,  and  farther  on  Stamford,  all  noted  more  for  their  oyster-beds,  and  as 
watering-piaces,  than  for  their  industries. 


^    i 


Jt--:  \^::J-i^;-;,:. 


lAtmimMntm 


'm  1,1  V-p-V--|||-i'^^ff'gi*^fSsfo,.,- ■:..;:     v.;    ......s.:. 


186 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


! 


I  i 


In 


il'l 


m 


fl  ! 


Fijir  fiS. — Hudson- Mohawk  Comfluknck. 
Hool*  1 :  wa,ooo. 


7. — Nkw  Yokk. 

Now  York,  the  "  Empire  Sdite,"  takes  the  foromoat  posiliun  in  the  Federal 
Union,  both  in  respect  of  population  and  of  eoiiinu'reial  activity.  E.\clndingLoiig 
Island,  the  convcntionul  lines  marking  most  of  iu  frontiers  have  given  it  the  form 
of   a  nearly   regular  triangle,  with  its  apex,    that  is,  the  island  of  Manhattan, 

touching  the  Atlantic,  and 
its  base  facing  two  of  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  river 
St.  Lawrence.  The  ground 
dips  both  ways,  on  one  side 
draining  directly  to  the 
Atlantic,  either  through  the 
Hudson,  the  Delaware,  or 
the  Susquehanna,  on  the 
other  to  the  St.  Lawrence 
basin  either  directly  by 
streams  flowing  to  the  lake 
and  rivor,  or  indirectly 
through  Lake  Chumpluin. 

The  two  chief  water- 
partings  are  the  luount.iin- 
ous  and  lacustrine  plateau 
of  the  Adironducks,  and  the 
parallel  chains  of  the  Cat- 
skills.  The  surface  of  the 
land  contains  many  fertile 
tracts,  while  the  under- 
ground formations  abound 
in  ores  and  building  mate- 
rials. But  the  state  owes 
its  chief  importance  to  the 
two  great  natural  high- 
ways of  commerce,  that  of 
the  Hudson  through  Lake 
Champlain  to  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  that  running 
from  the  Mohawk-Hudson 
confluence  west  to  Lake  Erie.  Thus  New  York  City  is  the  necessary  outlet  for 
produce  forwarded  through  the  depressions  from  one  slope  to  the  other,  and 
from  this  primary  advantage  have  followed  all  the  other  privileges  that  have 
placed  this  state  at  the  head  of  the  North  American  Union.  Of  the  sum  total 
of  the  public  wealth  it  contains  a  larger  proportion  than  all  the  Southern  states 
taken  together. 


12  Miles. 


STATE  OF  NEW  YORK. 


187 


At  tbo  time  when  tho  thirteen  original  colonics  were  first  constituted  a  fwlorul 
union,  Now  York  occupiod  only  the  tii'th  pluco  in  population,  being  surpaHsod  in 
this  respect  by  Virginia,  Pounsylvuniu,  North  Cu:'olitiii,  und  MuHHiichusetts ;  but 
since  IHJO  it  baa  taken  tho  first  position,  although  recx-utly  tho  difference  between 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  hus  diminished  in  favour  of  tbo  latter  state. 


Of  all  the  regions  on  the  Atlantic  slope  the  Empire  State  has  preserved  the 
greatest  number  of  the  aboriginal  peoples.  The  survivors  of  the  Six  Nations 
(Iroquois)  are  still  settled  in  the  basin  of  tbe  elongated  lakes  draining  to  Lake 
Ontario  through  the  Oswego  River,  while  another  reserve  lies  on  the  Canadian 
frontier.     In  1890  these  tribal  groups  numbered  collectively  over  6,300. 


•««■■••».- 


1»H 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


i<! 


Tlir  lui'ge  towns  uro  diotributed  tiloii^  th(>  iiaturiil  lii^hwayH  by  wbi(;b  tbu  ut^to 
is  intorMOvtud,  tlie  eliiot'  mbiin  ^rouim  bein^  coiitred  in  tliu  lungitudinul  zomi 
connecting  tbo  8t.  Luwreiieo  with  tlio  lliidHon  oHtuury.  llore  uro  0ituuti>d  Albany 
and  noighboiiring  townH,  and  at  lln-  Moufhoni  extremity  Nt'W  York  (/ity  itscU' 

In  the  friaiif^ulur  wpacc  dowiribcd  by  tho  Upper  Hudson  with  its  M'f;  vk 
uiHtiont,  the  nioHt  frutpu^ntud  euinnier  retreat  is  tho  borough  of  ISumtoya  tip:  ,  , 
whoro  during  tho  season  as  many  as  /)<),0U0  visitorH  find  accomniodution  in  tho 
hotels  bore  •'roctedou  a  scale  of  prodigious  size.  As  many  as  2H  mineral  springs, 
saline,  sulphurous,  iodurotted,  or  carbonato,  aro  grouped  near  a  little  luko  which 
bore  the  Indian  name  of  Sanuf/nx/ti,  whence  tho  Anglo- Amorican  "  Saratoga." 
In  IM')  Jacques  Cartier  heard  reports  of  the  marvellous  virtues  of  those  waters, 
and  the  first  white  man  guided  to  the  spot  by  friendly  Indians  iu  the  year  17U7 
was  completely  cured. 

Although  tho  district  is  neither  picturesque  nor  fertile,  fashion  expects  the 
moneyed  aristocruey  to  make  a  lavish  display  of  wealth  at  this  place.  Tho  races 
on  the  track  owned  by  tho  Saratoga  Racing  Association  are  the  most  famous  in 
North  America,  and  not  a  season  passes  but  some  important  political,  scientitic,  or 
other  gathering  assembles  in  one  of  the  palatial  hotels,  some  of  which  are  largo 
enough  to  entertain  as  many  as  a  thousand  visitors. 

A  fine  avenue  of  trees  some  six  miles  long  connects  Saratoga  with  Balhton 
Spa,  another  noted  watering-place.  Saratoga  Lake,  which  lies  about  five  miles 
north-oust  of  Saratoga  Springs,  is  nearly  seven  miles  long  and  two  miles  broad, 
and  here  are  held  several  regattas  during  the  season.  It  drains  through  Fish  Creek 
to  the  IIud^on.  Some  twelve  miles  east  of  the  Springs  is  the  spot  where  the 
British  general,  Burgoyne,  surrendered  to  General  Gates  in  the  year  1777. 

The  confluence  of  the  Hudson  with  the  Mohawk  is  marked  by  a  pleiad  of 
cities,  which  in  reality  form  a  single  urban  aggregate  with  a  collective  population 
of  about  200,000  souls.  Amsterdam,  westernmost  of  these  groups,  still  bears  the 
name  given  to  it  by  its  Dutch  founders ;  like  its  neighbour  Schenectadi/,  i.e. 
"  Beyond  the  Pines,"  it  is  noted  for  its  butter,  its  hops,  and  especially  its  brooms. 
Schenectady  is  the  seat  of  Union  College. 

Cohocs,  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "  Manchester  of  New  York,"  is  a  manu- 
facturing place,  producing  paper,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods.  At  this  spot  the 
Mohawk  tumbles  into  the  Hudson  over  a  fall  which  supplies  the  motive  power  to 
the  local  mills.  South  of  the  confluence  the  united  stream  is  skirted  on  both 
sides  by  a  continuous  succession  of  riverine  towns,  for  a  distance  of  about  12 
miles.  Watcrford  stands  on  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  two  converging  rivers 
over  against  Lansinghurg,  with  its  countless  villas  embowered  in  shady  vegetation. 

Lansingburg,  which  is  connected  with  "Waterford  by  a  bridge  across  the 
Hudson,  is  continued  along  the  left  bank  by  the  populous  city  of  Troy,  which,  like 
the  ancient  city  of  the  Troad,  has  its  Olympus  and  Ida,  modest  little  eminences 
quarried  for  their  building  stone.  Troy,  which  marks  the  head  of  the  steamboat 
navigation  6  miles  above  Albany,  has  numerous  iron,  Bessemer  steel,  cotton, 
carriage,  and  other  works.  It  is  connected  by  two  bridges  with  West  Troy,  which 
is  disposed  in  amphitheatrical  form  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 


ATiPANT. 


lai) 


I.owor  down  on  tho  east  hide  follow  Ihlli  and  Kant  A/fxiiii/  or  Girpii/>n.<i/i,  both 
suburbs  of  Albaiii/,  proud  capital  of  tho  empire  Mtute.  Hero  tho  lludhon  i» 
croHsed  by  throe  bridges  connecting  thid  plnco  with  itH  ciiHfern  Hiiburbs. 

Albmy  is  tho  ohU-Ht  European  Nettloniont  in  tho  Northern  States;  its  site  had 
already  been  oxph>red  in  tho  year  Kit)!),  and  Hvo  yc>ur,H  later  a  Dtilch  factory  was 
founded  on  the  river-bank.  Then  in  lOli.j  tho  Dutch  erected  Fort  Onuxje,  which 
after  the  con(iueHt(l0l)4),  tho  Knglish  renamed  Albany,  in  honour  of  the  DiiUe 
of  York  and  Albany,  afterwards  Juinns  H.  The  state  house,  built  in  1()<)7,  is  tho 
oldest  public  editico  in  Albany,  which,  however,  still  contains  several  Dutch  houses 
with  their  quaint  gables.     There  uro  numerous  museums,   valuable  collections, 

Fig.  66.— Tun  Nkw  Caiitol  at  Alhaxv. 


educational  establishments,  and  a  splendid  public  park.  Bnt  the  chief  monu- 
ment is  the  Capitol,  or  State  House,  a  sumptuous  granite  pile,  which  cost  over 
$20,000,000;  it  is  one  of  the  grandest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  and  in 
the  United  States  is  exceeded  in  size  only  by  the  Federal  Capitol  at  Washington, 
and  the  Philadelphia  city  hall. 

Albany  takes  a  leading  part  in  directing  political  opinion  in  North  America, 
a  position  which  it  may  be  said  to  have  assumed  so  early  as  1754,  when  a  congress 
assembled  here  to  deliberate  on  a  union  of  the  provinces  on  ¥  Ijasis  afterwards 
adopted  in  some  essential  features  by  the  Federal  Constitution. 

As  a  commercial  and  industrial  centre  Albany  possesses  all  the  advantages 
derived  from  the  Hudson,  and  the  navigable  Erie  canal,  which  runs  westwards 


If 


.yggglglllglliig^^ 


oimiim 


iiiliii»ififikiti»«' 


nlSiSiiii 


mmm 


140 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


fci 


from  this  place,  and  which  in  1889  was  navigated  by  boats  representing  over 
5,370,000  total  tonnage.  Enormous  masses  of  lumber  are  piled  up  along  the 
quays,  and  the  chief  local  manufactures  are  hardware,  paper,  pianos,  machinery, 
and  beer.  But  the  great  government  arsenal  of  Watervliet  is  situated  higher  up 
the  river  at  West  Troy. 

Hudson,  on  the  left  bank  28  miles  south  of  Albany,  marks  the  head  of  the 
deep-sea  navigation.  Here  the  famous  navigator,  who  gives  his  name  to  the  river, 
was  compelled  to  cast  anchor,  his  further  progress  being  arrested  by  the  shoals 
and  sandbanks  higher  up.  During  the  lasr.  century  the  trade  of  this  place  was  at 
least  equal  to  that  of  New  York  ;  it  possessed  a  considerable  mercantile  fleet 

Fig.  56. — The  Catskilm. 

Scale  1 :  7&0,000. 


74-30' 


Weal  or  breenwich 


,  12  MUes. 


largely  engaged  in  the  whale  fisheries.  The  Catskill  Mountains  on  the  opposite 
side  are  studded  with  hotels  frequented  during  the  season  by  over  100,000  visitors. 

Poughkeepsie,  the  ancient  Apokipmnk,  or  "  Safe  Haven  "  of  the  Mohawk  Indians, 
has  become  a  considerable  place,  the  largest  city  between  Albany  and  New  York, 
thanks  to  its  position  midway  between  those  two  great  industrial  hives.  Its 
wharves  are  crowded  with  steamers  and  other  river  craft,  and  P  Jghkeepsie  has 
also  acquired  exceptional  importance  as  one  of  the  chief  stations  on  the  main 
route  between  Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts. 

Standing  on  a  terrace  some  150  feet  above  the  left  margin  of  the  river,  Pough- 
keepsie  is  itself  dominated  by  the  public  park  and  the  vast  structure  of  Vassar 


CITY   OF   NEW   YORK. 


141 


College,  the  wealthiest  and  largest  female  educational  establishment  in  the  Union. 
The  central  block  is  a  huge  pile  500  feet  long  and  five  stories  high.  Pough- 
keepsie  is  also  the  seat  of  the  Hudson  Kiver  State  Hospital  for  Insane,  another 
vast  and  imposing  group  of  buildings  two  miles  north  of  the  city  proper. 

Newburffh,  below  Poughkcepsie  but  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Hudson,  is  one 
of  the  historical  cities  of  the  Union.  Here  Washington  disbanded  the  federal 
forces  after  the  struggle  for  political  independence  had  been  brought  to  a  successful 
issue.  The  eminence  which  commands  the  river  south  of  Newburgh  and  Finhldll 
is  crowned  by  the  buildings  of  the  West  Point  Militury  Academy,  founded  in 
1802.  All  the  officers  of  the  Federal  army  receive  their  educutiou  at  this  esta- 
blishment, which  occupies  one  of  the  finest  sites  in  America,  amid  surroundings 
calculated  to  leave  a  lusting  impression  on  the  minds  of  the  young  men  adopting 
the  military  career  in  the  service  of  their  country. 

South  of  West  Point  the  Hudson,  escaping  from  the  gorges  of  the  high- 
lands, expands  into  the  spacioiis  Tappan  Sea,  which  is  overlooked  on  the  east 
side  by  the  extensive  buildings  ov  the  Sing  Sing  state  prison.  The  central 
structure  is  a  huge  limestone  block  nearly  500  feet  long  and  five  stories  high  ; 
here  some  of  the  convicts  are  employed  in  the  mechanical  arts.  Beyond  Sing 
Sing  the  river  again  contracts  at  the  foot  of  the  Palisades,  where  the  crests  and 
slopes  of  the  hills  are  studded  with  villas.  Opposite  the  Palisades  is  the  city  of 
Yoiikers,  which,  although  15  miles  from  the  Grand  Central  Depot  of  New  York, 
already  threatens  to  be  absorbed  in  the  rapidly  expanding  Empire  City. 

Niemee  Amsterdam  dates  from  the  same  year,  1614,  as  the  fort  at  Albany,  that 
is,  five  years  after  the  exploration  of  the  river  by  Hudson.  A  fortified  post  with 
four  little  houses  built  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Manhattan  Island,  between 
the  two  estuaries  of  the  North  and  East  Rivers,  were  the  first  humble  beginnings 
of  the  empire  city,  which  with  its  suburbs  already  rivals  Paris,  and  is  surpassed  by 
London  alone  amongst  the  great  cities  of  the  world. 

Twenty  years  after  the  foundation  the  little  Dutch  settlement  raised  a  rampart 
from  shore  to  shore  against  the  neighbouring  aborigines  along  the  line  still 
indicated  by  "  Wall  Street,"  which  has  now  become  the  financial  centre  of  the  New 
World.  At  first  the  settlement  grew  so  slowly,  that  in  1664,  when  it  was  conquered 
by  the  English,  and  changed  itsname  to  New  York,  it  had  a  population  of  only 
2,000  souls.  But  these  have  left  numei'ous  descendants,  to  whom  is  popularly 
applied  the  term  "  Knickerbockers,"  after  Diedrich  Knickerbocker,  one  of 
Washington  Irving's  characters,  taken  as  typical  of  the  Dutchman  of  the  period. 

The  present  city  of  New  York,  properly  so  called,  pent  up  in  its  narrow 
island,  which  has  a  mean  width  of  scarcely  two  and  a  half  miles  between  the 
Hudson  and  the  branch  of  the  sea  known  as  the  East  River,  and  higher  up  as 
the  Harlem  River,  has  been  compelled  to  develop  itself  longitudinally  in  the 
direction  from  south  to  north.  Beyond  the  labyrinth  of  irregular  streets  in 
the  lower  town,  the  regular  blocks,  separated  by  parallel  streets,  follow  from 
First  to  Hundredth  Street  in  unbroken  succession.  At  Two-hundred-and- 
twentieth,  hers,  however,  not  yet  completely  built  over,  they  stretch  beyond  the 


-I 

4 


ligjjtaitieiiiiii'wiiiiiifiiiiiiii 


tjrJMMMM^NiMiMMiiHdlM 


irruiifiiirl^  liim'' ffn  iii 


\'  -T-'T^'-'i-ri''-ifirrTtiiir-iifiitMiit' iiiii'ii  ill  iitiiiiMiiiili '  ^ifiaiti'iiitf  I'l^ii  'Viiha^iitrti^ 


xpn 


L:  'I^^l  \ 


142 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


low-lying  southern  tracts,  and,  after  absorbing  the  central  granite  formations, 
they  have  crossed  the  Harlem  River,  and  encroached  on  the  mainland  as  far  as 
the  Bronx  River,  which  runs  southwards  through  Westchester  County  and 
enters  Long  Island  Sound  above  the  Harlem  branch. 

Fig.  67.— Successive  Growth  of  New  York. 
Soale  1  :  200,000. 


J 3  Miles 


The  lower  course  of  the  Bronx  forms  the  official  boundary  of  the  city,  which 
compri-ses  a  superficial  area  of  40  square  miles,  and  includes  several  townships, 
such  as  Mott  Haven,  North  Netv  York,  Morrisania,  Tremout,  Pordham,  and  others, 
that  have  been  merged  in  the  all-devouring  metropolis. 


,^i.\^ 


P"^"j|ijHF  i«iy»T»»»ii'"HHiJw<fak- 


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'■'■i'i>!<4'M«t!w)''.!<f,''»w'jr)py.TJ't'-rT'r-r^ 


CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 


143 


Still  more  extensive  is  the  ground  covered  by  the  dependent  cities.  In  the 
caat  especially,  that  is,  in  Long  Island,  where  a  far  greater  space  was  available 
along  East  River  and  New  York  Bay,  the  population  has  already  covered  an 
immense  area.  Here  Long  Island  City,  and  farther  south  Brooklyn,  a  second 
New  York,  occupy  a  great  part  of  the  western  extremity  of  Long  Island,  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  strait  of  Hell  Gate. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  several  cities  belonging  politically  to  the 
State  of  New  Jersey,  but  inseparably  connected  with  the  'Nqw  York  social  and 
commercial  system,  stretch  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Hudson  estuary  from  the 
foot  of  the  Palisades  to  the  narrow  channel  flowing  between  the  mainland  and 
Staten  Island.  Such  are  Weehawken,  Uoboken,  and  Jersey  City,  which  arb  kept 
distinct  only  by  vast  railway  stations  with  an  enormous  network  of  rails. 

South  of  the  Hudson  estuary  the  low  peninsula  of  Bergen  separates  New  York 
Bay  from  Newark  Bay,  where  converge  the  estuaries  of  the  Hackensack  and 
Passaic  rivers.  Here  also  have  been  founded  rising  cities,  such  as  Oreenvilk  and 
Bayonne,  the  latter  probably  a  coriupt  form  of  the  earlier  appellation,  Pavonia, 
given  to  the  settlement  by  the  Dutchman,  Michael  Pauw.  In  the  same  way  the 
neighbouring  channel  west  of  Staten  Island,  Arthur  Kill,  may  be  a  corruption 
of  the  name  Adder  Kill,  the  "  Backwater,"  given  originally  to  Newark  Bay. 
Another  channel  or  passage,  the  Kill  van  KuU,  separates  Bayonne  from  Staten 
Island,  the  periphery  of  which,  fringed  with  villages  and  watering-places,  belongs 
de  facto,  though  not  administratively,  to  the  great  city. 

A  legislative  commission  is  now  deliberating  on  the  question  of  merging  in  a 
single  municipality,  of  some  330  square  miles,  the  cities  of  New  York  and 
Brooklyn,  as  well  as  the  other  townships  and  suburbs,  which,  within  the  limits 
of  New  York  State,  gravitate  towards  the  commercial  centre  of  Manhattan 
Island.  Political  difficulties  would,  however,  still  prevent  the  other  towns  situated 
in  the  state  of  New  Jersey  from  being  amalgamated  with  the  futuie  metropolis. 

But  even  this  limited  project  meets  with  great  objections,  especially  on  the 
part  of  Brooklyn,  which  is  most  reluctant  to  lose  its  corporate  independence.  The 
maladministration  of  New  York,  which  has  become  a  byword  in  the  United  States, 
is  not  of  a  nature  to  attruct  its  neighbours.*  By  such  a  municipal  union  they  could 
gain  no  advantage  beyond  the  empty  honour  of  belonging  to  the  second  largest 
city  in  tb.    .vorld. 

At  the  same  time  the  union  exists,  though  not  proclaimed  by  any  formal 
legislative  act.  In  1891  the  New  York- Brooklyn- Jersey  City  agglomeration,  with 
the  dependencies  as  far  as  Staten  Island  and  the  banks  of  the  Passaic,  comprised 
a  collective  population  of  no  less  than  3,250,000.  According  to  the  census  of 
1890,  the  inhabitants  of  New  York  City  alone  numbered  1513,000;  but  two 
months  later  a  second  enumeration,  undertaken  by  the  municipality  to  test  the 
foruier,  yielded  an  urban  population  of  1,700,000  souls. 

l^ew  York  presents  the  sharpest  contrasts  in  its  different  quarters.  The  old 
part  of  the  city,  where  have  been  erected  some  historic  monuments,  and  several 

«  In  1889,  the  munioipal  debt  of  New  York  amounted  to  the  enormous  sum  of  $146,100,0u0. 


144 


THE  UNITED   STATES. 


vast  modern  structures,  ten,  fifteen,  and  even  twenty  stories  high,  is  an  intricate 
maze,  crowded  (hn-ing  the  day  with  a  throng  of  business  peoj)le  and  tlioir  em- 
ployees, but  at  niglit  left  to  the  care-takers  of  the  coinmercial  buildings,  and  to 
the  wretched  denizens  of  badly-kept  liouses,  let  out  in  tenements  or  furnished 
apartments.  The  muddy  streets  near  the  river  also  traverse  unhealthy  quarters 
with  commonplace  houses,  sheds,  depots,  and  long  lines  of  grimy  docks  or  wharfs 
of  irregular  form,  constructed  without  any  general  plan. 

Broadway,  one  of  the  main  thoroughfares,  runs  from  the  lower  town  at 
first  obliquely  across  the  chessboard  of  quadrangular  blocks,  then  north-east  in 
a  line  with  the  main  axis  of  Manhattan  Island.  This  is  the  great  artery  of  the 
commercial  quarters,  but  at  Madison  Square,  a  shady  ])ublic  park  of  about  six 
acres  in  extent,  Broadway  is  crossed  by  Fifth  Avenue,  another  great  thorough- 
fare, which  runs  in  a  straight  line  for  a  distance  of  six  miles  towards  the  north- 
ern limits  of  the  metropoli'.  This  boulevard  has  been  specially  chosen  by  the 
wealthy  merchants  for  their  sumptuous  marble,  granite,  or  brownstone  resi- 
dences, some  embellished  with  statues  and  reliefs,  some  with  lloral  decoratiorjs 
of  orchids  and  other  rare  plants.  While  so  many  other  streets  have  been  almost 
transformeii  io  li'lf  underground  galleries  by  the  elevated  railways,  Fifth  Ave- 
nue ad  mittf'  iili  recently  nothing  but  elegant  private  equipages,  >' (^verthelcss, 
even  thi:,  tivu  rough  fare,  hitherto  so  jealously  preserved,  is  beirg  gradually  en- 
^;-'.\lird  npijii  by  shops  and  business  offices;  thus  the  private  mansion?  are 
Saiviv  y;>ldi"',  ill  the  direction  from  south  to  north,  to  hotels,  restaurants,  and 
st;  ,  w  "C  ■''''.  •:,:vtii. 

■Vmonfy-i  )r  eclifices  there  are  sera e  really  beautiful  structures,  and  certain 
arteries,  amongs.;.  others  Madison  Avenue,  present,  an  aspect  which  is  absolutely 
satisfactory  to  the  eye.  Here  every  imaginable  architectural  style,  European  and 
Eastern,  classical  and  modern,  Roman  and  Gothic,  Renai:;sance  and  Persian,  has 
been  imitated,  sometimes  with  complete  success. 

The  finest  and  one  of  the  largest  edifices  in  New  York  is  the  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral  of  Saint  Patrick,  built  entirely  of  white  marble.  Over  a  thousand 
other  churches  have  been  erected  in  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  In  fact,  the  latter 
place  has  been  specially  named  the  "  City  of  the  Churches,"  a  title,  however,  which 
might  equally  well  apply  to  all  ihe  cities  of  the  North-East,  where  one  church  to  a 
thousand  inhabitants  is  by  >.\o  means  an  unusual  propo'  lion. 

The  time  is  approach".  !g  when  the  centre  of  New  York  will  be  occupied  in 
reality,  as  well  as  nominally,  by  the  "  Central  Pai-k,"  a  long  quadrilateral  of  grassy 
slopes,  woods,  rock>,  ornamental  waters,  and  carriage  drives,  which  has  been 
skilfully  laid  out  m  an  unoccupied  tifjce  'je;ween  the  parallel  north  and  south 
avenues.  It  covers  a  superficial  area  of  no  less  thaL.  841'  acres,  and  the  visitor 
might  here  easily  fancy  himself  in  the  hoart  of  the  country  but  for  the  confused 
roar  of  the  traffic  in  the  surrounding  streets.  Here  is  the  terminal  outlet  of  the 
magnificent  aqueduct  which  taps  the  Croton  River  at  a  point  40  miles  north  of 
the  citj',  and  feeds  a  number  of  vast  artificial  reeervoira  capuble  of  holding  a 
supply  of  1,211,000,000  gallons. 


I     / 


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CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 


146 


Ths  dykes,  dams,  lakes,  conduits,  utid  ull  the  other  works  connected  with  this 
undertuking  are  ou  u  colossal  sculo,  und  the  underground  section  of  the  uciueduct 
is  no  less  than  28  miles  long.  Tiie  Croton  water  is  carried  over  the  Harlora 
River  between  the  city  und  the  niuinlund  by  a  magnificent  bridge,  und  a  tunnel 
containing  another  conduit  has  been  excavated  in  the  rocky  bed  beneath  the  same 
river,  liut  by  an  unfortunate  oversight  tlie  upper  reservoirs  were  not  legally 
protected  from  the  encroachments  of  industrial  works,  uud  the  water  of  the 
aqueduct  is  already  being  polluted  by  numerous  factories.* 

New  York  and  Brooklyn  are  amongst  the  cities  of  the  world  which  are  best 
supplied  vith  easy  and  rapid  means  of  communication.  Along  some  of  the  chief 
avenues,  disposed  in  New-Yoik  from  south  to  north,  and  in  Brooklyn  from  west 
to  east,  the  so-called  elevated  raUways,  supportod  on  iron  colonnades  above  the 
roadway,  keep  up  a  constant  service  of  trains  running  evtry  few  minutes  to  and 
fro  between  the  suburban  districts  and  the  commercial  quarters  near  the  harbour. 

On  the  water  steam  ferries  of  enormous  size,  which  at  night  look  like 
illuminated  flouting  pyramids,  keep  up  the  communication  from  shore  to  shore. 
But  owing  to  its  insular  position  New  York  lacks  some  of  the  facilities  enjoyed 
by  other  American  cities  for  communication  with  the  interior  of  the  continent. 
It  possesses  only  one  central  terminus  provided  with  totally  insufficient  rails,  and 
communicating  with  the  mainland  north  of  Harlem  River  only  by  a  single  draw- 
bridge, which  is  open  for  several  hours  for  the  passage  of  shipping.  The  other 
great  terminal  stations  are  situated  beyond  New  York  proper  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Hudson  in  Hoboken  and  Jersey  City. 

Several  bridges  connect  Manhattan  Island  with  the  mainland  across  the 
narrow  northern  channel  of  Harlem  River.  But  the  marine  branches  near  the 
harbour  are  still  crossed  only  by  one  viaduct,  the  colossal  suspension  bridge 
thrown  across  the  East  River  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn  by  the  engineer 
Roebling.  This  gigantic  work,  the  construction  of  which  occupied  thirteen 
years,  from  1870  to  1883,  rests  on  two  piers,  with  an  enormous  central  span  of 
1,595  feet.  The  two  piers,  springing  from  the  caissons  below  the  muddy  bed  of 
the  East  River,  rise  272  feet  above  the  high  water.  Vessels  with  masts  lUO 
feet  above  the  water  level  are  able  to  pass  under  the  bridge,  which  with 
the  approaches  has  a  total  length  of  5,989  feet.  Wire  cables  of  enormous 
strength  support  a  platform  with  a  footpath,  two  sideways  for  wheeled  traffic, 
and  a  double  line  of  rails  for  a  railway,  which  is  worked  by  a  stationary  engine, 
and  which  runs  trains  carrying  about  100,000  passengers  per  day. 

It  is  proposed  to  construct  a  similar  bridge  farther  north  across  the  same 
marine  channel,  and  the  engineers  are  discussing  the  plans  of  a  stupendous 
suspension  bridge  over  the  Hudson  River  with  a  span  of  2,870  feet.  By  the 
application  of  the  cantilever  principle,  as  carried  out  in  the  Forth  Bridge  at 
Edinburgh,  such  a  viaduct  seems  perfectly  feasible.  Since  1874  a  railway  tunnel 
under  the  harbur  between  New  York  and  Jersey  City  has  also  been  in  progress, 
though  the  works  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  east  side  were  suspended  in  1891. 

•  Total  capacity  of  the  Croton  reservoirs  in  the  year  1891,  2.70,000,000  cubic  feet  d^ily. 
76 


#tl 


;ii 


i  ■: 


iii 


146 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


At  this  Bectidii  the  rocky  ground  was  found  to  approach  so  near  tho  surface  of 
tho  Hudson  estuary  that  it  would  have  to  be  piorcod  right  through  iL  a  cnt 
that  has  ularnied  tho  projectors.  Rut  thero  can  be  no  reasonable  doaot  that 
before  many  years  Manhattan  iMhmd  will  bo  connected  both  with  Long  Islar.d 
and  tho  New  Jersey  mainland  by  overground  or  underground  lines  of  eomiuuni- 
cation  amply  sufficient  for  the  growing  requirements  of  tho  largest  emporium  in 
the  New  World. 

Being  piimarily  a  commercial  mart,  New  York  is  certainly  inferior  to  Iloston 
us  a  centre  of  science  and  the  arts.  Nevertheless,  it  possesses  some  ext-uiive 
educational  establishments,  such  as  Columbia  College,  one  of  the  foreTf'w;<t 
universities  in  the  Union,  and  Stevens'  Institute,  on  tho  New  Jersey  side,  where 
tho  course  of  studies  corresj.  >nds  with  that  of  the  French  rJcok  Po/i/fcc/iniqui', 
The  various  libraries,  especially  the  Astor  and  Lenox,  contain  valuable  works 
connected  with  the  history  of  America.  Tho  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  a 
tine  substantial  structure  in  Central  Park,  but  already  too  small  for  its  accu- 
mulating treasures,  is  extremely  rich  in  modern  paintings,  especially  of  the 
French  school  ;  here  is  also  the  famous  collection  of  Cypriote  antiquities  purchased 
from  Cesnola.  Not  far  from  the  museum  stands  an  Egyptian  obelisk,  of  the  age 
of  Thothmes  TIL,  one  of  the  two  "needles"  removed  by  Queen  Cleopatra  from 
the  Temple  of  Ileliopolis  to  her  residence  in  Alexandria.  The  other,  which  lay 
for  ages  half  buried  in  the  sands  on  the  be:ich  near  Alexandria,  had  already  been 
transported  to  London  and  set  up  on  the  Thames  Embankment. 

More  comprehensive  in  its  general  scope  than  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  is  tho  neighbouring  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  which  has  been 
founded  on  a  plan  of  great  magnitude,  and  which  admits  of  almost  indefinite 
expansion,  thanks  to  the  wise  foresight  by  which  a  considerable  extent  of  waste 
land  has  been  secured  in  the  vicinity  of  Central  Park.  Here  the  administration 
has  already  er.  cted  a  large  group  of  substantial  buildings,  in  which  are  con- 
veniently displayed  uum'^rous  archr.ological,  ethnological,  and  other  specimens 
from  every  pari  of  the  American  continent.  The  institution,  which  is  well 
endowed,  is  especially  rich  in  pre-historic  remains,  pottery,  objects  in  obsidian  and 
jiide  or  jaJite  from  the  mounds  of  the  Mississippi  basin,  from  Mexico,  Peru,  and 
Alaska.  The  collections,  which  are  steadily  accumulating,  already  rival  those 
of  Harvard  and  Washingt'^n  in  extent  and  variety. 

New  York  hacbour  is  a  vast  basin  some  40  square  miles  in  extent,  continued 
northwards  by  the  two  estuaries  of  the  North  (Hudson)  and  East  Rivers. 
It  also  communicates  through  the  somewhat  shuJlow  Kill  van  KuU  Channel 
westwards  with  Newark  Bay,  which,  however,  if  accessible  only  to  vessels  of 
light  draught,  and  which  is  traversed  near  the  entrance  by  a  railway  A-iaduct 
Ij  mile  long.  The  northern  part  of  New  York  Bay  is  studded  with  numerous 
islands,  such  as  Goreruor's  lalnnd,  where  formerly  resided  the  governor  of  the 
Dutch  settlement ;  EUh  Inlaiid,  where  has  been  erected  a  vast  structure  for  the 
reception  of  immigrants,  of  whom  as  many  as  10,000  are  here  often  assembled  ; 
Bcdloe'ts  Island,  with  some  military  works  now  reduced  to  a  simple  rampart  at  the 


3'\     ' 


! 


CITV  OP  NEW  YORK. 


147 


base  of  the  pedestal  Hiirmoiiiitcd  l.y  the  ooIosshI  bronze  stiitiio  of  "  Liberty  Kn- 
lif^htoniiifr  the  World,"  a  powerfnl  work  by  the  Bculptor  JJurtlioldi,  presented  to 
tlio  American  nation  by  the  French  people. 

The  chief  drawback  to  New  York  Huy,  otherwise  one  of  the  finest  havens  in 
the  world,  uro  the  bav  and  shoals  north  of  Sundy  I  look,  at  the  entrance  to  the  vast 
roadstead  of  the  Lower  IJay,  which  is  continued  westwards  by  Itaritun  iJiiy  to 
the  ports  of  I'erth  Aiiiboy  and  South  Ainboy.  The  Lower  Jluy  presents  as  much 
accommodation  for  shipping  as  the  inner  harbour,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
deep  channel  called  "The  Narrows,"  about  a  mile  in  width  and  length,  but  the 
entrance  to  the  magnihcent  roadstead  and  the  estuary  of  the  Hudson  lliver  is  not 
naturally  deep  enough  to  admit  the  largest  vessels.  Constant  dredging  opera- 
tions are  even  required  to  maintain  a  depth  of  28  or  HO  feet  at  low  water.  The 
channel  sweeps  round  almost  at  a  right  angle  west  of  Sandy  Hook,  abruptly 
rounding  this  sand  spit  to  reach  the  open  sea.  Another  channel  runs  from  the 
Narrows  directly  to  the  Atlantic,  but  is  unfortunately  still  shallower,  admitting 
only  comparatively  small  craft. 

However,  the  Narrows  are  not  the  only  entrance  to  the  Upper  New  Yoik  Tiay. 
Long  Island  Sound,  contracted  at  its  west'  treniity  by  a  labyrinth  of  islands 

and  peninsulas,  terminates  in  a  tortuous  passage,  whose  junction  with  the  Harlem 
Eiver  forms  the  East  River  leading  between  Manhattan  Island  and  Brooklyn 
south  to  New  York  Bay.  Hell  Gate,  as  the  passage  is  called,  from  the  dangerous 
eddies  and  gneiss  reefs  on  which  hundreds  of  vessels  have  been  wrecked,  is  now 
much  more  open  and  safer  than  formerly.  Several  of  the  rocks  have  been  blown 
up  by  means  of  explosives  deposited  in  submarine  galleries,  one  of  which  was 
supported  by  as  many  as  172  pillars.  The  explosion  of  the  chief  mine,  when  a 
charge  of  2,480  cwts.  of  powder  and  dynamite  was  fired  by  electricity,  directed 
by  the  hand  of  a  child,  was  awaited  with  no  little  anxiety  by  the  citizens  of 
New  York.  But  no  accident  followed  when  a  prodigious  column  of  water,  dis- 
placing at  least  7,000,000  cubic  feet  of  shattered  rock,  rose  to  a  height  of  300 
feet,  and  then  subsided  harmlessly  in  the  channel.  But  the  work  is  still  incom- 
plete, and  Hell  Gate  passage,  being  only  at  the  utmost  26  feet  deep,  is  still  too 
shallow  to  admit  the  great  Atlantic  liners. 

In  the  port  of  New  York  alone  is  concentrated  more  than  half  of  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  United  States,  the  total  exchanges  amounting  in  1891  to  over 
I  $800,000,000.  Thanks  to  this  enormous  commercial  development  this  emporium 
Ihas  become  the  most  important  city  in  the  Union.  As  Russia  faces  westwards, 
the  United  States  looks  across  the  Atlantic  eastwards  to  Europe,  so  that  the  two 
chief  cities  of  both  of  these  great  powers  occupy  a  somewhat  analogous  position  as 
the  "windows,"  so  to  say,  of  their  respective  domains. 

Two-thirds  of  the  imports  and  nearly  half  of  the  exports  of  the  republic  pass 
through  the  great  American  seaport.  The  unrivalled  commercial  highway 
running  westwards  through  the  Hudson  Valley,  the  navigable  Erie  Canal  and  the 
Great  Lakes,  constitutes  New  Y^ork  the  general  distributor  of  merchandise  through- 
out the  northern  continent.       A   great  part  of  the  imported  raw  materials  is 


".■'} 


I  > 


148 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


1^ 


if'i 


II- 


utiliiiod  on  tlio  spot  in  tlio  factories  of  all  kinds  possessed  by  this  vast  hive  of  ♦^m 
industries.  Moreover,  the  streum  of  euiigrution  sots  almost  exclusively  to- .ads 
the  port  of  New  Vuik,  und  most  of  the  j^reiit  Atlantic  stoaniNhip  eompiiiiic  have 
their  western  terminus  in  Manhattan  iMJund.  in  1H!)()  those  companies  trans- 
ported 470,000  passengers  from  the  Old  to  the  Now  World.  As  nuiny  as  nine 
Atlantic  liners  have  loft  the  wharfs  of  New  York  in  a  single  day  for  Europe. 

But  this  vast  traffic  is  carried  on  almost  entirely  by  foreign  vossols,  and  the 
American  flag  is  one  of  those  that  aro  most  conspicuous  by  their  absence  in  the 
part  of  the  harbour  reserved  for  foreign  trade.  In  1800  more  than  half  of  this 
trade  (01  5  per  cent.)  was  conducted  in  Britisli  bottoms,  the  share  of  tho  United 
States  not  exceeding  lij  per  cent. 

On  the  other  hand,  tho  traffic  with  tho  interior  of  the  continent  by  the 
Hudson  artery  is  reserved  entirely  to  the  American  flag.  So  exNnsivo  is  this 
movement  that,  taken  in  connection  with  tho  sea-borno  traffic,  it  gives  to  Now 
York  the  first  place  fimongst  tho  ports  of  the  whole  world.  In  this  respect 
neither  London  with  its  Thames  nor  Liverpool  with  its  Mersey  can  compare  with 
the  Hudson  estuary,  whose  shipping  represented  in  1890  a  total  burden  of 
nearly  31,000,000  Ions,  of  which  12,000,000  tons  were  murine,  and  18,582,000 
fluvial  navigation  between  New  York  and  Albany. 

Besides  renlral  Park  numerous  public  pleasure-grounds  e' circle  tho  city. 
Jiiccrmdc  Park,  in  Manhattan  Island  itself,  whore  the  remains  oi  General  Grant 
have  found  a  resting-place,  affords  from  the  summit  of  an  eminence  a  fine  view 
of  tho  Hudson  and  the  Palisadet  Near  Bronx  a  vast  stretch  of  woodlands,  lakes 
and  rocks  has  been  reserved  as  a  public  park  ;  Pciham  Bay  Park  skirts  the  shores 
of  Long  Island  Sound,  while  Prospect  Park  is  tho  glory  of  Brooklyn.  The  ceme- 
teries, especially  Woodlawn  on  the  r.ainland  and  ^  nonwood  in  Long  Island 
(Brooklyn),  are  also  beautifully  laid  out  wi''«  •  Ian'  ipes,  ornamental  waters, 
and  shady  avenues  winding  along  the  flanks  c  -Le  huls. 

But  the  most  frequented  ci  all  plea  .  resorts,  visited  on  Sundays  and 
holidays  by  tens  of  thousands  from  New  "i  ork  and  Brooklyn,  is  Coney  Inland,  a 
crescent-shaped  strip  of  fine  sands,  -  iparated  only  by  a  sluggish  backwater  from 
the  south-west  extremity  of  Long  Island.  The  hotels  of  Coney  Island  and  of 
the  neighbouring  Rockatvay  line  the  baaches  for  miles,  and  are  all  connected 
by  railways  with  Brooklyn. 

Another  favourite  watering-place  is  New  Rochelle,  a  town  of  French  origin, 
founded  by  some  Huguenot  refugees  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  on 
tho  north  side  of  Long  Island  Sound  near  Mamaroneck  in  Westchester  County  ; 
down  to  the  period  of  the  War  of  Independence  the  parish  registers  of  this  place 
wore  kept  in  the  French  language. 

The  Hudson  highway,  a  main  source  of  the  prosperity  of  New  York,  is  supple- 
mented by  that  of  the  Mohawk  valley  disposed  east  and  west  in  the  direction 
of  Lake  Erie.  The  lacustrine  port  of  Buffalo,  so  called  from  the  herds  of 
"  bisons  "  that  formerly  grazed  on  the  surrounding  solitudes  now  covered  with 
human  habitations,   stands  at  the   western  extremity  of    the   navigable   canal 


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BUFFALO. 


149 


connecting  the  Hudnon  basin  with  that  of  the  Great  Lakes.  A  chain  of  populous 
towns  has  already  sprung  up  along  this  busy  waterway  and  tho  railways  running 
by  its  side.  Buffalo,  largest  of  these  places,  lies  at  tho  cast  end  of  Lake  Erie,  at 
the  point  where  its  emissary,  the  Niagara  river,  escapes  in  a  rapid  stream  of  pure 


Fi^.  58.— Buffalo. 

Scale  t  :  77,000. 


78'56' 


Depths. 


O'o2t 

H  Fathoma 

Fathoms. 

andupwitrda. 

-_.— _  li  MUa. 

water  which,  after  bifurcating  and  uniting  round  Grand  Island,  is  again  divided 
by  the  smaller  Goat  Island  and  precipitated  over  two  prodigious  falls  down  to 
the  wild  eroded  gorges  of  its  lower  reaches.  An  artificial  islet  in  midstream 
marks  the  spot  where  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  is  captured  for  the  use  of  the 


f. 


150 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


inhabitants  of  Buffalo.  The  city  is  separated  from  the  shores  of  the  lake  and 
river  by  railway  stations,  depots,  elevators  and  other  extensive  structures, 
extending  nearly  three  miles  both  ways.  Towards  the  north,  however,  the 
Niagara  is  fringed  by  the  avenues  of  a  fine  park,  which  are  continued  eastwards 
by  splendid  boulevards  with  a  total  length  of  about  ten  miles. 

Founded  by  the  Holland  Company  in  1801,  converted  in  1812  to  a  military 
post,  and  destroyed  by  the  British  forces  during  the  war  of  1812-13,  Buffalo  long 
continued  to  be  regarded  merely  as  a  strategic  point  guarding  the  frontier  against 
the  English  and  Indians.  But  after  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  to  navigation 
in  1825,  it  rapidly  rose  to  great  importance  as  a  busy  trading  and  industrial  centre. 
It  has  a  large  transit  trade  in  cereals  and  coals  from  Pennsylvania,  and  also 
possesses  flourishing  iron,  steel  machinery  and  lumber  works. 

The  canal,  which  in  1890  was  navigated  bj'  numerous  craft  engaged  in  the 
inland  and  foreign  trade,  with  a  total  burden  of  over  7,000,000  tons,  passes  by 
the  great  lumber  depot  of  Tonauwida.  The  unsightly  factories  which  formerly 
faced  the  great  cataracts  at  the  toWn  of  Niagara  Falls  have  been  now  removed,  and 
the  banks  of  the  stream  at  this  romantic  site  having  been  secured  by  the  State  of 
New  York  on  the  one  side,  and  bv  the  Canadian  Government  on  the  other,  their 
great  natural  beauty  is  rapidly  bei'^  j  restored. 

South-west  of  Buffalo,  several  little  boroughs  and  groups  of  country  seats  are 
dotted  round  the  picturesque  shores  uf  Lake  Chautauqua,  formerly  navigated  by 
the  canoes  of  the  Erie  or  "  Cat "  Indians.  One  of  the  most  charming  spots  on 
the  margin  of  this  basin  has  been  chosen  as  the  seat  of  a  "  summer  school  of 
philosophy,"  a  college  opeu  during  the  long  vacations,  where  thousands  of  amateur 
students  flock  to  attend  the  lectures  of  professors  from  the  universities. 

Lock-port,  about  25  miles  north-east  of  Buffalo,  occupies  the  crest  of  the  water- 
parting  between  the  Tonawanda  Creek  and  Lake  Ontario.  Here  the  Erie  Canal 
descends  abruptly  through  five  double  locks,  a  total  height  of  56  feet.  The  motive 
power  supplied  by  the  rapid  fall  has  given  rise  to  numerous  factories,  especially 
flour  mills,  which  might  entitle  Lockport  to  the  name  of  "  Flour  City,"  a  name, 
however,  more  frequently  applied  to  Rochenter,  metropolis  of  the  Genesee  valley. 

There  were  settlements  in  this  district  as  early  as  1788,  but  the  actual 
foundation  of  Rochester  dates  only  from  the  year  1810.  Its  growth  was  at  first 
slow  ;  but  it  rapidly  developed  as  an  agricultural  centre  after  the  opening  of  the 
canal,  by  which  the  lumber,  grain  and  flour  of  the  surrounding  country,  as  well 
as  the  flowers  and  shrubs  of  the  local  nursery-grounds,  are  forwarded  to  New 
York.  But  Rochester  has  also  become  a  busy  manufacturing  city,  thanks  to  the 
driving  power  derived  from  the  Genesee  Falls,  formerly  one  of  the  finest 
spectacles  in  America,  but  now  interrupted  and  disfigured  by  commonplace 
structures  of  all  kinds ;  nevertheless  still  remarkable  for  the  enormous  amount  of 
power  communicated  to  a  world  of  workshops  lining  the  banks  of  the  river. 
Below  Rochester  the  Genesee  winds  through  another  gorge  excavated  to  a  depth 
of  over  300  feet  by  the  stream  itself  on  its  course  to  Lake  Ontario.  Charlotte, 
the  port  of  Rochester,  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  on  its  left  bank. 


# 


ITIIACA.— SYRACUSE. 


161 


and 
ires, 
the 
ards 

itary 

long 

jainst; 

;ation 

entre. 

1  also 

in  the 
sea  by 
rmerly 
ad,  and 
state  of 
,r,  their 

seats  are 
ated  by 
jpots  on 
chool  of 
amateur 

le  water- 
rie  Canal 
lie  motive 
especially 
"  a  name, 
>  valley, 
the  actual 
as  at  first 
ing  of  +'he 
ry,  as  well 
ed  to  New 
inks  to  the 

the  finest 
)mmonplace 
9  amount  of 
;  the  river. 

to  a  depth 
Charlotte, 

bank. 


Above  Rochester  in  the  Genesee  valley  one  of  the  richest  salt  regions  in  the 
Union  has  been  recently  developed.  Its  centre  is  at  Warsaw  ia  AN'yoining  county. 
The  brine  wells  range  in  depth  from  800  to  2,300  feet.  The  annual  suit  product 
of  the  Warsaw  district  is  already  6,000,000  bushels. 

The  lacustrine  region  formerly  comprised  in  the  domain  of  the  Six  Nations  is 
studded  with  populous  towns,  which  have  taken  the  place  of  the  Iroquois  "  long 
cabins,"  while  the  Iroquois  themselves  are  now  confined  to  narrow  reserves. 
Geneva,  like  its  Swiss  namesake,  lies  at  the  lower  extremity  of  a  beautiful  lake — 
Luke  Seneca — which  is  about  33  miles  long,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  about  two 
miles,  and  a  depth  of  no  less  than  530  feet. 

Ithaca  lies  at  the  head  of  Lake  Cayuga,  also  a  romantic  sheet  of  water  about 
the  same  size  as  Seneca,  and  nearly  400  feet  deep.     The  southern  extremity  of  the 

Fig.  69. — Lakes  of  the  Iboquois  defobe  the  SbTTLEUENT  of  tbb  Laitd. 

Scale  1 : 5,fi00,000. 


44' 


42' 


1?    !.>.-.  jn^  ..-.y/ 


V 


Caibanyi 


80- 


West   oF   Greenwich 


75* 


126  MilM. 


lake  is  commanded  by  the  imposing  buildings  of  the  Cornell  University,  so  named 
from  its  founder,  by  whom  it  has  been  richly  endowed.  It  is  open  to  both  sexes, 
and  has  an  attendance  of  nearly  600  studenta 

Syracuse,  at  the  entrance  of  Onondaga  Creek  into  Onondaga  Lake,  is  a  great 
centre  of  the  salt  industry,  and  also  a  flourishing  trading-place  and  seat  of  a 
rich  nniversity.  Formerly  about  half  of  the  salt  consumed  in  the  United  Slates 
came  from  the  saline  springs  bordering  the  lake,  which  since  the  year  1795  have 
been  the  property  of  New  York  State ;  these  productive  springs  still  supply  one- 
seventh  of  the  whole  consumption,  though  the  yield  fell  from  about  10,000,000 
bushels  in  1862  to  less  than  5,600,000  in  1888. 

Farther  east  is  Lake  Oneida,  so  named  from  another  of  the  Six  Nations. 
Its  shores  are  destitute  of  large  towns ;  but  the  village  of  Oneida,  founded  on  the 


I 


162 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


site  of  some  Iiidiun  sottlemcnta,  is  noted  as  the  residence  of  the  "  Porfectionists," 
a  religious  and  social  community  founded  at  this  place  by  J.  II.  Noyes  in  the  year 
1848.  The  few  survivors  of  this  delusion  are  little  more  than  a  trading  society 
engaged  in  the  production  and  sale  of  butter,  fruits  and  vegetables. 

lku-c(jo,  a  port  of  Lake  Ontario,  some  30  miles  north-west  of  Syracuse, 
stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oswego  River,  through  which  all  the  emissaries  of 
the  Iroquois  or  "  Finger  "  lakes  find  their  way  to  Lake  Ontario.  <Jswego  was 
an  old  French  military  station,  which  often  changed  hands  during  the  frontier 
wars.  It  is  now  the  most  flourishing  city  of  the  Union  on  the  shores  of  Ontario, 
and  the  construction  of  the  Oswego  Canal,  which  connects  at  Syracuse  with  the 
Erie  Canal,  has  made  its  commodious  harbour  the  chief  port  of  entry  for  the 
grains  and  wines  of  Canada.  The  harbour  is  well  sheltered  by  long  and  costly 
piers,  and  it  is  now  proposed  to  make  it  the  terminal  basin  for  u  great  navigable 
canal  running  through  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  valleys  to  New  York  and 
admitting  sea-going  vessels  to  Ontario.  The  craft  of  all  kinds  engaged  in  its 
inland  and  foreign  trade  represented  in  1890  a  total  burden  of  1,375,000  tons. 
In  its  passage  through  the  city  the  Oswego  River  has  a  total  fall  of  34  feet, 
affording  great  motive-power  to  the  neighbouring  iron  foundries,  flour-mills, 
machine-shops,  and  a  vast  corn-starch  factory  employing  many  hundred  hands. 

Between  Syracuse,  central  city  of  New  York  State,  and  the  group  of  towns 
clustering  round  Albany,  its  capital,  there  are  still  two  important  industrial 
centres  in  the  depression  which  formerly  carried  off  the  overflow  of  Lake  Ontario. 
These  are  Rome  and  Utica,  the  latter  of  which  is  much  frequented  by  tourists, 
being  the  chief  starting-point  for  the  famous  Trenton  Falls  on  a  Mohawk  afHuent, 
for  the  northern  Adirondack  "  Wilderness"  and  for  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Elinim  and  Biiighamton,  two  other  thriving  industrial  cities,  are  important 
stations  on  the  direct  railway  between  New  York  and  Buffalo  through  the  upper 
Susquehanna  valloy.  In  the  vicinity  of  Elmira,  which  lies  on  the  Chemung 
River,  is  the  famous  Wutkins'  Glen,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Seneca. 
This  romantic  gorge,  which  attracts  crowds  of  visitors  in  the  season,  is  considerably 
over  two  miles  long,  and  at  its  upper  end  stands  nearly  800  feet  above  the  lake. 
Thus  the  stream  has  a  tremendous  incline,  broken  at  several  points  by  beautiful 
cascades,  some  of  which  have  a  fall  of  from  50  to  60  feet. 


':'■ 


^ii^ 


8. — New  Jersey. 

The  State  of  New  Jersey,  wedged  in  between  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
between  the  "  North  "  and  the  "  South  "  rivers,  that  is,  the  Hudson  and  Delaware, 
is  one  of  the  smaller  of  the  original  thirteen,  but  also  one  of  those  that  have  the 
largest  relative  population.  The  three  chief  lines  of  railtvay  connecting  New 
York  with  Philadelphia  pass  right  through  the  heart  of  its  territory,  and  add 
to  its  wealth  as  a  dependency  of  these  two  great  commercial  marts.  Thanks  also 
to  a  more  liberal  fisciil  system  than  that  of  New  York,  New  Jersey  has  become 
the  official  headquarters  of  numerous  financial  companies,  whose  offices  are  really 
situated  on  Manhattan  Island. 


■■•'*-"-r"r-lJh-'-  1«  I 


iirTiifri'^''h''i^i^»Vir^'i-iifc'f[rrii'-it'ri- 


iijy^iMiifti?ir1ii"i/l..i 


.-_f 


1* 


JERSEY  CITY— NEWARK.— ORANGE. 


168 


The  most  populous  places  in  the  slate  uro  cither  simple  suburbs  of  the  neigh- 
bouring cities  or  else  urban  groups  gravitating  in  their  populations,  trudo,  and 
industries  towards  New  York  and  I'hiladelphia.  Tens  of  thousands  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Now  Jersey  reside  there  only  during  the  night,  their  business  interests 
leading  them  during  the  day  to  the  great  einporiu  beyond  the  Hudson  and  Delaware. 
New  Jersey  is  also  a  natural  dependency  of  these  cities,  as  a  common  watering- 
place  ;  crowds  of  their  inhabitants  swarm  on  its  beaches  during  the  bathing  season. 

Hence  the  fertile  or  fertilised  lands  of  the  state  are  in  great  measure  cultivated 
by  market  gardeners,  who  forward  their  produce  to  the  metropolitan  depots. 
Thousanrls  of  the  New  Jersey  factories,  also,  send  their  products  to  New  York  and 
Philadelphia,  and  are  mainly  owned  by  the  capitalists  of  those  cities.  Thus  is 
explained  the  fact  that  the  chief  potteries  and  most  flourishing  silk  factories  all 
lie  within  the  borders  of  this  little  state. 

Iloboken-  and  Jency  City,  both  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hudson,  opposite 
Manhattan  Island,  depend  absolutely  on  New  York,  as  do  the  extensive  railway 
stations  and  depots  grouped  together  along  the  narrow  shore  at  the  foot  of  the 
Palisade  range  of  hills.  All  these  busy  places  are  connected  during  the  day  by 
huge  steam  ferries  continually  plying  to  and  fro  on  the  Hudson  estuary.  The 
towns,  however,  of  the  Passaic  Valley,  being  separated  by  vast  marshy  lagoons 
from  the  peninsula  of  Jersey  City,  form  distinct  urban  groups. 

Newark,  that  is,  the  "  New  Ark  of  the  Covenant,"  founded  in  the  year  1666 
by  some  Puritan  settlers  from  Connecticut,  has  recently  encroached  on  a  part  of 
these  morasses  ;  but  the  older  quarters,  as  well  as  the  fashionable  new  suburbs^ 
all  stand  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  which  represent  the  former  coastline.  Newark, 
the  largest  and  most  industrious  city  in  New  Jersey,  has  numerous  rubber-works, 
coach-factories,  breweries,  silk  and  cotton  spinning  mills,  although  this  latter 
branch  of  the  manufacturing  industries  is  more  prominently  represented  in  the 
towns  of  Passaic  and  Paierson,  lying  higher  up  the  same  river  valley.  Here  a  fall 
of  about  50  feet  supplies  the  equivalent  of  several  hundred  horse-power  to  the 
surrounding  workshops.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Newark  are  some  beautifully 
laid-out  cemeteries,  fine  shady  drives,  and  the  delightful  Llewellyn  Park,  covering 
the  slopes  of  Orange  Mountain. 

While  the  New  Jersey  suburbs  of  New  York  are  steadily  advancing  in  the 
direction  of  the  Newark  flats,  Newark  itself  is  constantly  encroaching  north  and 
west  on  the  various  quarters  of  Orange,  collectively  called  "  the  Oranges,"  another 
busy  place,  whose  staple  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  hats. 

Elizabeth,  famous  for  its  sewing-machine  factory,  and  Rahicay,  whose  speciality 
is  coachbuilding,  communicate  directly  with  New  York  Bay,  and  are  depen- 
dencies of  the  great  metropolis.  New  Brunswick,  another  industrial  town,  is 
similarly  connected  with  New  York,  but  it  lies  at  the  head  of  the  navigation  of 
the  Raritan  River,  which  discharges  into  the  same  bay  as  the  Hudson,  and  within 
the  bar  at  Sandy  Hook.  The  two  ports  of  Perth  Amhoy  in  the  north,  and  South 
Amhoy  in  the  south,  lie  at  the  mouth  of  the  Raritan,  and  do  a  considerable  tiade 
in  earthenware  and  other  products  of  the  local  industries. 


^xf^m^s^sim. 


^.ViA^v-rSt^^ 


I 


154 


TnB  UNITED  STATES. 


Unlike  NtnvarK  and  the  other  towns  of  the  same  district,  Trenton,  capital  of 
New  Jersey,  lies  quite  beyond  the  sphere  of  attraction  of  the  Empire  City.  It 
gravitates  rather  in  the  direction  of  I'ljiladelphia,  being  situated  on  the  same  river, 
the  Delaware,  at  the  head  of  the  fluvial  navigation,  while  steamers  ply  incessantly 
between  the  two  places.  Founded  so  early  as  the  year  1080,  Trenton  grow  very 
slowly  till  about  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  despite  the  advantages  of  its 
position  as  capital  of  a  state,  and  even  as  the  temporary  seat  of  tho  Federal 
Congress.     Now,  however,  the  great  zones  of  attraction   about  New  York  and 

Fig.  60 —Cape  May. 
Pcale  1  :  fiWi.WlO. 


West    oF  Greenwich 


.  12  UUeii. 


Philadelphia  exercise  an  irresistible  force  on  the  intervening  districts,  and 
Trenton  naturally  benefits  by  its  position  as  a  central  station  between  the  two 
cities.  On  the  ground  at  present  covered  by  streets  Washington  gained  in 
1776  the  important  battle  which  restored  the  fortunes  of  the  republic. 

Trenton  rests  on  a  thick  deposit  of  argillaceous  clay,  which  supplies  the 
material  of  its  staple  industry,  crockery  and  earthenware,  said  to  be  the  largest 
in  America,  and  exported  to  every  part  of  the  Union.  This  "  Trenton- ware  "  is 
of  excellent  quality,  and  deservedly  enjoys  a  widespread  reputation. 

Princeton  College,  near    the    borough  of  Pnnceton,   10  miles  north-east  of 


feiartvtWUi<  ^iaafefiVt-Sni'na'ig^^^ 


t 


PRINCETON.— LONG   BRANCH. 


1S6 


Treti'on  and  50  miles  south-west  of  New  York,  ranks  us  the  most  important 
university  in  the  state,  and  is  in  some  rcspecjts  a  rival  of  Harvard  and  Yulo.  Of 
all  the  American  universities,  I'rinceton  has  given  biith  to  the  largest  number  of 
"  daughters,"  that  is,  educational  OHtablishments  founded  by  its  alninni  in  various 
parts  of  the  Union.  The  geographer,  Arnold  Guyot,  first  scientific  explorer  of 
the  Appalachians,  was  long  a  member  of  its  professorial  staff.  Princeton  College 
was  originally  founded  by  the  Presbyterian  body  at  Elizabeth  in  I7l6,  but  was 
removed  ten  years  afterwards  to  its  present  site. 

Most  of  the  other  noteworthy   tovi^ns   iu   New   Jersey   are   watering-places 

Fig.  61. — Babnboat  Bat. 

Rmlii  1  :  170,000. 


Deptlia. 


0to2t 
Fathonu. 


SttoB 
Fathonu. 


5to8 
rathoma. 


ana  upw"-  'a. 


Low  groucd. 


>  3  Miles. 


situated  on  the  seashore,  and  partly  separated  from  terra  firma  by  intervening 
morasses  or  running  waters.  They  are  much  frequented  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  inland  cities  during  the  season,  when  as  many  as  half  a  million  visitors  swarm 
on  these  strips  of  sand,  which  remain  almost  uninhabited  during  the  winter 
months.  Such  are  Long  Branch,  Atlanfic  City,  and  Cape  May,  the  latter  so 
named  from  the  Dutch  navigator,  Carolis  Jacobsen  Mey.  who  coasted  this  seaboard 
in  1614.      It  lies  near  the  southernmost  point  ("  Cape  May  Point")  of  the  state 


i^if 


■  HIIII>I»BW— "JFI- 


III  I  l,Hl|»<ti,.l 


■     ia«i.>^^i|ia.iiii|u4i,ii»^*niw 


[: 


»• 


156 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


between  Dolawaro  Buy  and  the  ocean,  while  Long  Branch,  although  in  New 
Jersey  territory,  is  aa  much  a  dependency  of  New  York  as  Coney  IsUmd  itself. 

So  pop\ilur  has  this  place  become  that  quite  a  permanent  quarter,  inhabited  all 
the  year  round,  has  Kpruiig  up  behind  the  murine  esplunado.  The  rows  of  towns, 
villages,  hotels,  and  villus  extend  a  total  distance  of  nearly  20  miles  along  the 
beach,  and  threaten  one  day  to  roach  all  the  way  to  the  breach  in  the  shore- 
lino  through  which  the  inner  lagoon  of  Barnogat  Buy  communicates  with  the 
Atlantic.  This  inlet,  which  is  one  mile  wide,  gives  access  to  bouts  between 
Island  Beach  and  Long  Beach,  presenting  a  joint  frontage  of  22  miles. 

Before  the  middle  of  the  present  century  a  few  little  groups  of  houses,  life- 
boat stations,  and  lighthouses  wore  the  only  structures  on  Long  Branch,  which  is 
now  flofnotimes  called  the  "summer  capital"  of  the  Union.  At  present  the 
beach  is  lined  by  sea-walls  and  other  works  required  to  protect  the  palatial  hotels 
and  residences  from  the  erosive  action  of  the  Atlantic  billows. 

"  9. — Pennsylvania. 

This  region  had  already  been  occupied  by  a  few  white  colonists  when  William 
Penn,  penetrating  into  its  vast  woodlands  in  1G81,  named  it  Pennsylvania  in  memory 
of  his  father.  Admiral  Sir  William  Penn.  The  Swedes  and  Norwegians  had 
founded  the  settlement  of  Christianiu  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware  ;  the  Dutch 
had  established  themselves  on  the  spot  where  now  stands  New  Castle,  and  some 
English  Quakers  were  settled  on  the  present  peninsula  of  Philadelphia  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  a  thriving  Swedish  colony  at  Wicaco.  A  year  after  the  arrival 
of  Penn  a  considerable  number  of  Welsh  people  reached  the  country,  and  then 
followed  the  great  immigration  from  Germany. 

Pennsylvania  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  thirteen  original  states  as 
regards  extent,  geographical  position,  and  natural  resources.  It  fully  deserves  its 
popular  name  of  the  "  Keystone  State,"  not  only  for  its  massive  rectangular  form, 
with  no  natural  frontiers  except  on  the  east  side,  but  also  because  it  contains  within 
its  territory  the  watershed  between  the  Atlantic,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the 
Great  Lakes.  Watered  on  the  east  and  south-east  by  the  Delaware  and  Sus- 
quehanna affluents  of  the  ocean,  it  borders,  if  not  on  the  sea,  at  least  on  a 
navigable  estuary.  Towards  the  north-west  a  narrow  strip  of  its  domain  is  washed 
by  Lake  Erie,  while  on  the  west  and  south-west  it  sends  its  running  waters 
through  the  Ohio  basin  to  the  Mississippi  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Thus  Pennsylvania  has  three  distinct  slopea,  and  it  was  chiefly  in  the  Appa- 
lachian regions  of  this  state  that  were  established  the  first  easy  lines  of  commu- 
nication— roads  and  canals — between  the  various  fluvial,  lacustrine  and  oceanic 
basins.  Thanks  to  this  threefold  natural  division,  Pennsylvania  presents  an 
astonishing  variety  of  physical  aspects  and  geological  conformations,  according  as 
it  faces  the  Atlantic  seaboard  with  its  Appalachian  mountains  and  valloys,  or  the 
western  lands  sloping  either  to  Lake  Erie  or  to  the  Ohio  basin. 

Yet  for  population,  accumulated  wealth  and  even  industry,  Pennsylvania  takes 
only  the  second  rank.     But  although  outstripped  iu  those  respects  by  New  York, 


,Wi 


rENN8YJ,VANIA. 


187 


It  far  excoods  tho  average  when  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  Union,  containing 
as  it  does  a  twelfth  part  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States.  The  yearly 
value  of  the  output  of  its  coalfield"  oil  springb  and  iron  industry  exceeds 
that  of  all  the  other  states,  the   products  of  its  iron  and   stool  works,  in  fact, 


surpassing  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  Union  taken  altoo^ether.  The  abundance 
of  the  various  combustibles,  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal,  and  the  ease  with 
which  they  can  be  extracted  ;  the  wealth  of  iron  ores,  the  extensive  underground 
reservoirs  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas,  have  given  to  this  regfion  a  prepon* 


ft 


■  HIPH.|i| 


168 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


V 


tleratin(i[  purt  in  mining  und  motuUurgio  oporutions,  u  part  which  huH  ovrn  boen 
increased  hy  tho  prolcctivo  turiffs  diotutod  to  tho  Fuderul  (congress  L.y  tbo 
Pennsylvuniun  capitalists.  Tho  tirst  settlors  worn  evidently  miHtuken  in  their 
forocuHt  of  the  future  development  of  the  state,  for  which  they  choHo  the  device : 
"  Vinum,  liniim  et  tfxlnnutn." 

Tho  Dolttworo  liivor,  fonning  the  boundary  of  Pcnnnylvunia  towards  New  Jer- 
sey, has  no  large  towns  in  the  upper  and  middle  sootions  of  its  vnlley.  Here 
the  more  frequented  places  along  its  banks  are  tho  groups  of  villus  and 
hotels  situated  on  the  "  water  gup  "  excavated  by  the  erosive  action  of  the  stream 
in  forcing  its  way  through  the  liiuo  Mountains. 

The  cit  of  Emlon,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Delaware  and  Lehigh  Rivers, 
covers  the  slopes  of  another  gap,  and  is  connected  by  a  bridge  across  the  Delaware 
with  its  dependency  of  Philiipuburg  in  New  Jersey  and  by  another  bridge  across 
the  Lehigh  with  its  suburb  of  ISouth  Eimton,  Like  Allentown,  higher  up  the 
Lehigh  valley,  Easton  is  a  great  dep6t  for  the  anthracites  mined  beyond 
Lehigh  Qap  on  the  other  side  of  tho  Dlue  Mountains.  The  space  of  about  18 
miles  between  Easton  and  Allentown  is  almost  entirely  occupied  with  a  succession 
of  tall  furnaces  and  other  mttallurgic  works.  Easton  stands  on  the  spot  where 
the  colonists  had  famous  conferences  with  tho  Mohawk  Indians  in  1758,  and 
with  the  Five  Nations  in  1761. 

Above  Allentown  the  borough  of  Bethlehem  is  associated  with  the  missions 
of  tho  Moravian  Brothers,  who  estublished  themselves  in  this  district  in  the  year 
1741.  Here  is  still  their  chief  American  station,  with  a  theological  seminary  and 
en  academy  for  girls.  Bethlehem  is  connected  by  a  bridge  across  the  Lehigh 
with  South  Bctldehcm,  seat  of  the  Lehigh  Episcopalian  University,  founded  and 
richly  endowed  by  Asa  Packer  in  1866. 

Mtitich  Chunk,  that  is,  "Bear  Mountain,"  in  the  Algonquin  language,  takes  its 
name  from  a  cone-shaped  peak  of  that  name  rising  over  650  feet  above  tho  narrow 
Lehigh  valley.  Near  this  spot  were  found  the  first  specimens  of  anthracite, 
towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  here  the  first  mines  were  opened.  The 
town,  pent  up  in  its  narrow  gorge,  develops  its  canal,  its  two  long  streets,  its 
railways  all  in  parallel  lines  round  the  reddish  escarpments  of  the  mountain. 

Here  was  first  applied  the  switchback  principle  to  a  railway  nine  miles  long, 
opened  in  the  year  1827  for  the  transport  of  coal  from  Mauch  Chunk  to  Summit 
Hill,^over  the  intervening  Mount  Pisgah.  The  trucks  are  drawn  up  a  first 
incline  by  a  stationary  engine,  then  descend  the  opposite  slopes  by  their  own 
gravity,  the  momentum  thus  acquired  carrying  them  up  the  next  ascent,  and  so 
on.  But  the  principle  has  not  been  found  to  answer  in  a  general  way,  and  switch- 
backs are  now  chiefly  used  for  purposes  of  amusement,  affording  a  pleasant  change 
from  the  somewhat  monotonous  motion  of  merry-go-rounds.  Even  the  Mauch 
Chunk  line  is  now  used  mainly  for  pleasure  trips.  One  of  the  neighbouring  mines 
has  been  burning  for  half  a  century,  the  ground  slowly  subsiding  in  the  form  of 
a  crater  above  the  underground  fire. 

The  anthracite  beds,  which  begin  near  Mauch  Chunk,  belong  to  a  coalfield 


,  coalfield 


rillLADKLPniA. 

which  oxtor)(U  Bouth-wontwardH  puriiUcl  with  tho 
miiin  uxin  of  lliu  Appiilacliiun  ruiigo  ;  Pottmille, 
tho  chiuf  town  of  thu  uppor  Schuylkill  vulluy, 
occupioH  about  tho  centre  of  th«>80  dcpoHita. 

Uindiiig,  which  uIro  lies  in  tho  Hchiiylkill 
btisin,  ut  tho  coiivorging  point  of  aovoral  latorul 
viiiloys,  in  ono  of  tho  greut  cities  of  I'ennHvl- 
vunitt.  Founded  by  Penn,  it  received  tho  niiiue 
of  tho  cupitul  of  BerkHhiro,  in  England,  and  is 
itholf  eupitul  of  tho  I'ennaylvanian  liorks  County, 
liut  tho  dominant  population  is  (jlorinan — ut 
least,  in  origin,  if  no  longer  in  speeuh,  Knglish 
having  long  bien  tho  prevailing  languugo  in  the 
district. 

Phifmfffphid,  tho  "  city  of  brotherly  love," 
recalls  by  its  very  name  one  of  tho  most  touching 
episodes  in  American  history,  the  arrival  of 
William  I'enn  amongst  his  "  brothers,"  the 
Lcn&piJ  Indians  of  the  surrounding  forests. 
Landing  ut  ih  i  spot  on  tho  Delaware  whore  now 
stands  the  little  town  of  Nciv  Cunf/e,  he  first 
visited  the  flourishing  Swedisth  settlement  of 
Wicuco,  and  then  ascended  tho  river  as  far  as 
the  peninsula  formed  by  the  confluence  of  tho 
Delaware  und  Schuylkill,  where  ho  founded  the 
now  city,  in  order,  as  he  expressed  it,  "  to  afford 
an  osylum  to  the  good  and  oppressed  of  all 
nations,  to  frame  a  government  which  might  bo 
un  example  to  show  men  as  free  and  as  happy 
us  they  could  bo." 

Down  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury the  snored  Shuckamaxon  elm  was  still  shown, 
under  which  Penn  had  his  famous  interview  with 
the  natives.  The  very  ground  on  which  stood 
this  tree,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Delaware,  had 
for  centuries  been  neutral  territory,  a  sacred  spot 
where  the  delegates  from  all  the  coast  tribes 
between  the  Hudson  and  Potomac  estuaries  came 
to  kindle  their  "council-fire."  The  site  of  the 
ar  'jut  elm  is  indicated  by  a  simple  stone  block, 
in  tne  most  crowded  part  of  the  quays  lining  the 
bunks  of  the  river. 

The  place  chosen  by  Ponn  as  the  centre 
of   the   future  city   lay   almost  exactly  midwaj' 


^  i 


169 


:8::s?S: 


m 


100 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


across  an  isthmus  nearly  two  miles  wide,  formed  by  two  bends  of  tbe 
Delaware  and  Schuylkill,  The  low-lying  flat  plain  south  of  this  isthmus  gra- 
dually merged  in  the  swamp  of  the  confluence,  while  northwards  rose  some 
forest-clad  gravel  heights.  The  whole  space  between  the  two  rivers  has  now 
disappeared  beneath  streets  and  structures  of  all  kinds,  extending  three  miles  to 
tl^e  south  and  as  many  as  nine  to  the  north  of  the  spot  marked  out  by  Penn. 
The  city  has,  moreover,  crossed  both  streams,  and  developed  new  quarters  to  the 
east  and  west  beyond  them. 

Philadelphia,  which  was  for  a  time  the  federal  capital,  and  the  most  populous 
city  of  the  Union,  has  been  outstripped  in  size  by  New  York,  since  1822,  and 
recently  by  Chicago.  Nevertheless,  it  remains  one  of  the  great  cities  of  the 
world  for  population,  having  over  a  million  inhabitants,  while  for  superficial 
extent  it  has  but  few  rivals,  being  probably  exceeded  only  by  London  and  Chicago. 
An  oblique  line  drawn  from  its  north-eist  extremity  on  the  Delaware  to  its  south- 
west end  on  the  Schuylkill  traverses  an  unbroken  succession  of  streets  for  a  total 
distance  of  no  less  than  15  miles.  -     wv-;    -^'-i^'^i;^ 

This  extraordinary  growth  of  Philadelphia  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that 
most  of  tlio  householders  are  the  owners  both  of  the  dwellings  and  of  the  ground 
on  which  they  stand — in  fact,  at  once  house-owners  and  landlords,  the  land 
being  largely  freehold.  Hence  its  title  of  "City  of  the  Homes,"  which, 
however,  does  not  apply  to  some  hundred  thousands  of  the  proletariate  classes 
attracted  to  the  numerous  factories  of  this  grejt  hive  of  industry.  For  miles 
and  miles  there  follows  an  endless  succession  of  streets  and  whole  quarters,  for 
the  most  part  covered  with  low  houses,  each  owned  separately.  Philadelphia 
takes  also  the  name  of  the  "  Quaker  City,"  from  the  religion  of  its  founders. 

The  central  quadrangular  space,  whence  radiate  the  four  main  thorough-, 
fares,  is  occupied  by  the  City  Hall,  a  sumptuous  monument  iA  white  marble, 
which  has  been  in  progress  since  1871,  at  an  annual  rate  of  expenditure  of 
from  ^400,000  to  ^600,000.  The  tower,  which  stands  on  one  side  of  the  central 
court,  has  already  (1891)  reachei  a  height  of  3  )0  feet,  and  is  ultimately  to  be 
carried  to  450  feet,  terminating  in  a  statue  of  Fenn  no  less  than  36  feet  high. 
The  highest  point  of  this  superb  Renaissance  pile,  which  covers  an  area  of  four 
and  a  half  acres,  will  thus  be  visible  beyond  all  the  surrounding  hills  and  forests. 

In  its  general  plan  Philadelphia  presents  the  regularity  of  a  chessboard, 
except  where  the  lines  of  railway  have  ruthlessly  thrust  themselves  in  and  broken 
up  the  original  symmetry  of  the  rectangular  streets  and  squares.  But  with  all 
this  general  primness,  the  city  is  by  no  means  a  model  of  cleanliness,  and  certaiu 
quarters,  especially  in  the  proximity  of  the  shipping,  are  little  better  than  open 
sewers.  It  also  still  remains  unconnected  with  its  eastern  suburbs  of  Camden 
and  Gloucester  City  in  New  Jersey  by  any  viaducts  over  the  broad  channel  of 
the  Delaware,  though  the  narrower  Schuylkill  is  already  crossed  at  many  points 
by  bridges  for  railways,  pedestrians  and  wheeled  traflSo. 

Of  buildings  associated  with  the  local  history  the  most  famous  is  Indepen- 
dence Hall,  an  unpretentious  structure,  shaded  with  fine  trees,  where,  on  July  4th, 


■  tiBBwiiiiriiyftiiiiiirfi'iiiwiiiiiii 


B  of  the 
mu9  gra- 
:ose  some 
has  now 
e  miles  to 
by  Penn. 
tera  to  the 

jt  populous 

1822,  and    • '  A. 
ties  of  tlie         ; 

superficial  .•••■\, 
nd  Chicago.     ■  ,> 
jo  its  south- 
foratotal 

le  fact  that 

the  ground 
ds,  the  land 

3,"  whicb, 
jriate  classes 
For  miles 
quarters,  for 

Philadelphia 

founders, 
ain  thorough-, 
white  marble, 
xpenditure    of 
I  of  the  central 
timately  to  be 
t  36  feet  high, 
n  area  of  four 
ills  and  forests, 
a    chessboard, 
8  in  and  broken 
But  with  all 
ess,  and  certain 
etter  than  open 
urbs  of  Camden 
road  channel  of 
L  at  many  points 

aous  is  Indepen- 
lere,  on  July  4th, 


.'a-.-S'-' 


PHILADELPHIA. 


161 


1776,  the  Independence  of  tie  Colonies  was  declared  by  their  delegates  in  Con- 
gress assembled.  It  has  now  been  transformed  into  a  historical  museum.  Another 
noted  monument  is  an   orphan  asylum,  which,   with  its  vast  annexes,    affords 


Fig.  64.— Philadbiphia. 
.  Soale  1  :  SlO.OOOb 


40' 
5- 

39' 
55 

1 

1 

1 

40 
5' 

39 

55' 

.^%n     l^^MKCfi'^^IOW>K^SiE-j:^pE^JL^j::==:=^ 

•  /   i  .'  'nit  i\.;'?,     .     i 

m 

1 

^T\  /I 

^Y  l^'^pj^^l^^^^ 

75-15- 

West  oF   Greenwich          IS'b' 

Depths. 


•  IilghtbooM. 


OtotI 
Fsthoma. 

C.H.  CitT  HiUL 


H  FMboms 
anduinmrda. 

I.H.  Independence  HolL 
»Mil«e. 


G.C.  Oiiard  Collegv. 


accommodation  for  from  1,200  to  1,500  inmates.  This  Connthian  edifice  takes 
the  name  of  Girard  CoUegpe  from  its  founder,  a  Bordeaux  merchant,  who 
bequeathed  ^2,000,000  with  lands  and  houses  to  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  where 

77 


■<.■»'•.",".  It' 


168 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I 


he  had  amassed  an  immense  fortune.  By  one  of  the  clauses  in  the  deed,  all 
priests,  missionaries  and  ministers  of  any  sect  are  excluded  from  the  administra- 
tion, and  even  barred  from  entrance  into  this  richly-endowed  college. 

Philadelphia  also  possesses  a  university,  an  academy  of  natural  sciences,  some 
fine  collections,  and  a  splendid  zoological  garden  in  Fairmount  Park,  besides  an 
Academy  of  Music,  several  libraries,  colleges,  benevolent  and  learned  institutions. 
It  has  also  preserved  some  of  the  privileges  which  it  enjoyed  while  capital  of  the 
Union.  Here  is  still  the  United  States  Mint ;  and  League  lalaiid,  600  acres  in 
extent,  about  the  confluence  of  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill,  has  been  reserved  as 
a  federal  arsenal  and  dockyard  for  the  United  States  Navy. 

Philadelphia  is  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of  the  republic,  especially 
for  hardware,  machinery,  locomotives,  sugar  refineries,  carpets  and  other  textiles, 
furniture,  boots  and  shoes,  and  chemicals.  In  1890  the  total  yield  of  these 
industries  was  valued  at  no  less  than  $200,000,000.  Its  foreign  trade  gives  it  the 
rank  of  fourth  port  in  the  Union,  the  chief  exports  being  coal,  petroleum,  grain, 
and  the  products  of  the  local  factories.  The  Atlantic  steamers  and  sailing-vessels 
engaged  in  the  foreign  and  coastwise  traffic  bring  return  freights  from  Europe,  the 
West  Indies,  the  neighbouring  seaboard,  and  South  America,  while  a  direct  trade 
is  carried  on  with  New  York  by  the  canal  traversing  the  State  of  New  Jersey.  The 
total  exchanges  amounted  in  1890  to  nearly  $80,000,000,  and  the  commercial  fleet 
belonging  to  this  port  had  a  collective  burden  of  256,000  tons  in  the  same  year. 

The  numerous  basins,  wharves^  docks,  and  piers  lining  both  rivers  exceed  a 
total  length  of  19  miles.  But  this  great  Pennsylvanian  seaport  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  being  situated  about  120  miles  from  the  coast,  while  the  Delaware 
estuary  opens,  not  eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Europe,  but  southwards  in  the 
direction  of  the  comparatively  little-frequented  southern  waters.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  deep  canals  afford  direct  communication  between  the  Delaware  basin 
and  the  ports  of  New  York  and  Baltimore.  Below  Philadelphia  the  Delaware 
itself  is  occupied  by  some  advanced  seaports,  such  as  Chester,  on  the  right  bank, 
ivhich  lies  within  Pennsylvanian  territory. 

Fairmount,  the  finest  public  ground  in  Philadelphia,  and  one  of  the  noblest 
parks  in  the  whole  world,  one  where  the  illusion  of  being  lost  in  the  sylvan  charms 
of  natural  scenery,  remote  from  all  human  habitations,  is  most  complete,  stretches 
north-west  of  the  city  proper  along  both  banks  of  the  Schuylkill,  and  also  embraces 
the  wild,  rocky  glen  traversed  by  the  Wissahickon  Creek  flowing  to  the  Schuylkill. 
It  covers  an  area  of  nearly  3,000  acres,  and  measures  in  one  direction  a  distance 
of  13  miles. 

It  was  in  order  (o  preserve  the  p'lrity  of  the  Schuylkill  waters  for  the  use  of 
the  citizens  that  the  municipality  acquired  the  valley  of  the  river,  and  the  sur- 
rounding park  takes  its  name  from  Fair  Mount,  the  eminence  on  which  is  situated 
the  great  reservoir.  The  level  of  the  stream  has  been  raised  by  a  huge  dam,  by 
which  a  portion  of  the  current  has  been  deflected  to  the  basins,  and  the  old  falls 
effaced.  Till  recently  the  grounds  of  Fairmount  lay  altogether  in  the  outskirts ; 
but  now  the  park  is  being  encircled  south,  east,  and  north  by  various  quarters  of 


:<e*^. 


aW^UUillHIHUJWj^B 


W1LLIAM8P0ET.  — LANCASTER. 


168 


Philadelphia.  The  Manayunk  and  Oermantown  districts  already  form  north- 
western suburbs  of  the  city,  which,  in  1890,  contained  over  200,000  houses. 

Most  of  I  .st  Pennsylvania  is  comprised  within  the  Susquehanna  basin,  which 
rivals  that  of  the  Schuylkill  in  the  extent  of  its  anthracite  deposits.  To  the 
abundance  of  this  combustible,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  mined,  is  due  the 
rapid  development  of  Scranton,  already  one  of  the  large  cities  of  the  state. 

The  city  is  situated  in  the  northern  extension  ^f  the  Wyoming  Valley,  which 
is  watered  by  the  Lackawanna  Kiver,  but  the  stream  is  too  small  for  the  transport 
of  the  fuel ;  hence  the  output  is  partly  forwarded  by  rail  to  all  quarters,  partly 
consumed  on  the  spot  by  the  numerous  factories  that  have  sprung  up  round  about 
the  coalpits.  "'     . 

Some  10  miles  to  the  south-west  the  Lackawanna  joins  the  Susquehanna  at  its 
eastern  bend,  corresponding  to  a  parallel  curve  described  by  the  Delaware.  Here 
begins  the  charming  Wyoming  district,  famous  in  the  history  of  the  colonisation 
for  the  massacre  of  1778.  The  inhabitants  of  the  valley,  having  no  time  to  escape, 
were  scalped  by  the  Indians  and  the  country  remained  unoccupied  till  the  conclu- 
sion of  peace  with  Great  Britain.  Then  Wilkes  and  Barr^,  two  of  the  former 
settlers,  returning  to  the  Wyoming  valley,  founded,  on  the  north  branch  of  the 
Susquehanna,  the  town  which  bears  their  name.  In  the  vicinity  of  Wilkesbarre 
is  situated  the  great  "  Mammoth  Vein,"  an  exposed  bed,  30  feet  thick,  of  nearl}' 
pure  anthracite,  and  of  excellent  quality. 

The  western  branch  of  the  Susquehanna,  whose  chief  sources  rise  in  the  heart 
of  the  Appalachian  plateau,  has  no  important  town  above  the  gorge  where  it 
emerges  from  the  plateau  region.  Below  this  point  stands  the  city  of  Williams- 
port,  principal  point  for  the  distribution  of  the  lumber  floated  down  by  the 
tributary  streams  during  the  freshets.  Williamsport,  a  favourite  summer  resort, 
is  connected  with  the  south  bank  of  the  river  by  a  fine  suspension  bridge,  above 
which  is  the  great  "  Susquehanna  Boom,"  capable  of  holding  300,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  lumber. 

Below  the  confluence  of  the  two  Susquehannas,  the  united  stream  successively 
pierces  several  parallel  ridges  and,  after  escaping  from  the  gap  of  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains, passes  under  the  four  bridges  of  Harrishurg,  political  capital  of  Penn- 
sylvania, but  otherwise  a  city  of  somewhat  secondary  importance  except  for  its 
metallurgio  works — blast  furnaces,  rolling-mills,  Bessemer  steel,  machinery  and 
other  factories.  These  busy  workshops,  which  skirt  the  left  bank  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna for  a  distance  of  some  miles,  draw  much  of  their  raw  material  from  the 
famous  "  Iron  Mountain  "  near  the  post  town  of  Cornwall,  some  24  miles  east  of 
Harrisburg  in  the  South  Mountains  range.  The  mountain  is  a  triple- crested 
mass  of  a  ferruginous  ore  containing  about  50  per  cent,  of  pure  metal. 

On  the  railway  connecting  the  state  capital  with  Philadelphia  the  chief  station 
is  the  city  of  Lancaster,  formerly  "Hickory  Town,"  one  of  the  headquarters  of 
the  Mennonite  body.  At  the  end  of  the  last  century,  when  Philadelphia  was  still 
the  seat  of  Congress,  Lancaster  yfas  the  most  populous  place  in  the  interior  of  the 
United  States.    It  stood  on  the  main  track  of  emigrants  moving  westwards,  in 


"rtaSs-l 


IHT 


:ii.i)-'J>iii,>»ii,i. 


164 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


E^'     . 


tbe  midst  of  an  extremely  fertile  district,  which  still  yields  the  best  wheat  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  that  which  was  first  exported  to  Europe  long  before  the 
settlement  of  the  Western  grain-growing  territories.  For  yeara  the  wheat  market 
was  controlled  by  the  "  Lancaster  barometer." 

York,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Susquehanna,  24  miles  south-west  of 
Lancaster,  is  also  an  active  agricultural  centre.  It  is  noted  in  the  history  of  the 
Union  as  the  place  where  the  federal  Congress  met  in  the  year  J  777,  while 
Philadelphia  was  occupied  by  the  British  forces. 

About  40  miles  south-west  of  Harrisburg,  in  the  region  of  rolling  plateaux 
forming  the  divide  between  the  Susquehanna  and  Potomac  slopes,  there  stands  a 
small  post-borough,  which,  though  little  larger  than  a  good-sized  village,  is  one 
of  the  most  frequented  places  in  the  Union.  Such  is  Oettyshurg,  guardian  of 
the  memorable  battlefield  where  General  Meade  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Confederates  under  General  Lee,  on  July  3rd,  18(i3,  just  one  day  before  the 
stronghold  of  Vicksburg,  key  of  the  Mississippi,  was  captured  by  General  Grant. 
Pilgrims  by  tens  of  thousands  flock  during  the  summer  season  to  this  hallowed 
spot,  where  even  deputations  from  the  Southern  volunteers  come  to  fraternise  with 
the  veterans  of  the  federal  army.  Monuments  erected  at  great  expense  stand  on 
the  points  where  the  fight  was  hottest,  and  every  grave  is  marked  by  a  block  of 
white  marble.  From  a  distance  may  be  seen  the  concentric  circles  of  thousands 
and  thousands  of  these  blocks,  arranged  in  regimental  order  and  glittering  amid 
the  surrounding  verdure,  mute  tributes  of  respect  to  nameless  heroes. 

A  picturesque  line  of  railway  traverses  the  tortuous  Juniata  Valley,  winding 
from  gorge  to  gorge  through  the  old  domain  of  the  Tuscarora  nation  and  abutting 
about  the  sources  of  the  river  against  the  buttress  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 
Before  the  year  1854  the  range  was  crossed  by  means  of  a  "  portage  "  formed  by 
two  inclined  planes,  on  which  the  trains  were  drawn  up  by  the  endless  cables 
of  stationary  engines.  Here  the  crest  of  the  watershed  culminates  at  Blair's 
Gap,  2,325  feet  above  sea-level.  But  the  portage  is  now  replaced  by  a  long 
semicircular  gradient  and  two  tunnels  passing  under  the  town  of  Qallitzin. 
Nevertheless,  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  still  maintains  the  centre  of 
its  system  on  this  line  between  eastern  and  western  Pennsylvania,  all  its  chief 
workshops  for  locomotives,  carriages  and  repairs  being  stationed  at  AUoona,  on 
the  east  slope  of  the  rcnge,  116  miles  east  of  Pittsburg. 

The  westsrn  slope  of  Pennsylvania  belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  Ohio  basin. 
The  furthest  headwaters  of  the  Alleghany,  one  of  the  main  forks  of  the  Ohio, 
rise  in  the  chain  of  redistributed  moraines  which  skirt  the  southern  shore  of  Lake 
Erie  just  south  of  the  lacustrine  port  of  Erie.  This  place,  whose  excellent  land- 
locked harbour  four  miles  long  by  one  mile  wide  is  enclosed  by  breakwaters,  and  by 
the  former  peninsula,  now  island,  of  Presque  Isle,  exports  the  petroleum  and 
coal  forwarded  from  the  upper  Alleghany  basin. 

Corry,  Warren,  Tititsville,  Meadville,  Oil  City  and  Franklin  are  all  so  many 
busy  centres  of  the  natural  oil  industry,  so  that  the  whole  district  is  every- 
where dotted  over  with  the  scaffolding  25  or  30  feet  high  raised  in  the  form  of 


"SS5BiSS5».SSaf=S9B 


mmsm 


J. 


WARSAW.— JOHNSTOWN. 


165 


;i'';:- 


truncated  pyramids  over  the  wells,  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  along  the  water- 
courses, in  the  middle  of  the  plains,  and  even  in  the  towns  themselves.  Al- 
together as  many  as  60,000  shafts  have  been  sunk  in  this  part  of  western  Penn- 
sylvania. The  same  region,  so  rich  in  underground  treasures,  also  possesses 
extensive  deposits  of  salt,  discovered  at  depths  of  1,500  and  even  2,500  feet  by 
those  engaged  in  sinking  the  oil-wells.  The  village  of  Warsaw  and  the  surround- 
ing district  in  the  adjacent  State  of  New  York  already  produce  more  salt  than 
Syracuse,  as  stated  on  page  151.  -, 

Johnstown,  a  railway-station  on  tlie  slope  of  the  Alleghanies  on  the  line  running 
from  Philadelphia  through  Pittsburg  to  Chicago,  is  already  a  little  Pittsburg 

Pig  65  — GBTTTSBtmo  Ckmbtkut;  Giuvh  of  Namklkm  Soldikks. 


with  its  numerous  metallurgic  works  vomiting  fire  and  smoke  day  and  night.  It 
was  the  scene  of  a  frightful  catastrophe  in  May,  1889,  when  the  Conemaugh 
River,  on  which  it  stands,  flooded  iis  banks.  The  inundation  was  followed 
by  the  bursting  of  a  large  reservoir,  which,  with  the  burning  of  raUway 
stations  and  trains,  suddenly  buried  Johnstown  and  its  suburbs  under  a  mass  of 
mud  and  smoking  debris,  swallowing  up  nearly  2,300  persons.  Johnstown  is 
now  recovering  from  this  tremendous  disaster,  and  thousands  of  workmen, 
especially  Poles,  Slovacks,  and  Ruthenians  (Little  Russians),  collectively  known 
as  "  Hungarians,"  are  again  engaged  in  the  surrounding  coal  and  iron  mines. 
Farther  on,  the  groups  of  workshops  become  more  and  more  numerous  in  the 
direction  of  Pitt&burg. 


166 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


This  great  city,  second  in  Pennsylvania  for  population,  and  one  of  the  first 
in  tho  United  States  as  an  industrial  centre,  is  of  comparatively  ancient  origin. 
About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  English  and  French  were  already 

Fig.  66.— Oil  and  Natubal  Gas  Reoion. 
SoalA  1  :  1,900,000. 


West  of  Greenwich        80° 


s.- 


DepUiB. 


oto6 
Fatkonu. 


6  to  It 
Fathonu, 


IStnSfi 
Tatbomf. 

.  80  Miles. 


?5  Kathomi 
and  upwai'da. 


contending  for  the  angular  space  comprised  between  the  two  rivers,  Allegheny 
and  Monongahela,  whose  junction  forms  the  Ohio.  The  French,  at  first  vic- 
torious, founded  Fort  Duquesne  near  the  confluence,  and  repulsed  two  successive 


^iafcs 


/>• 


PITTSBURG. 


167 


jlieny 
t  vic- 
essive 


attacks  of  the  Euglisli.  But  in  1758  tlioy  liad  to  evacuate  this  stronghold,  wliich 
then  took  the  nntno  of  Fort  Pitt,  or  Pittsburg,  in  honour  of  William  I'itt,  then 
prime  u"'  Mster  of  England,  A  little  fort  dating  from  this  epoch  still  exists  amid 
tlie  surj.niig  tide  of  new  structures. 

The  representatives  of  the  rival  powers,  struggling  for  the  possession  of  this 
narrow  corner  of  ground,  regarded  it  merely  in  the  light  of  a  strong  strategic 
and  trading  post  favourably  situated  at  the  junction  of  two  rivers  commanding 
a  long  navigable  waterway.  Hut  the  discoveries  of  geologists  have  revealed 
other  advantages  little  dreamt  of  by  the  first  settlers.  The  extensive  coal  measures 
of  the  surrounding  valleys,  the  underground  lakes  of  rock  oil  and  reservoirs  of 
iuflummable  gas  have  given  an  enormous  impulse  to  the  local  industries. 

Fig.  67.— PlTTSBUBO. 
S<mU  1 :  800,000. 


Hj^^jIiuWH!" 


West  or  Greenvtich 


80' 


79' 


eiiiiM. 


The  first  workshops  were  opened  in  1812,  and  since  then  the  whole  city,  with 
tlie  dependent  town  of  Allegheny,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  of  like  name, 
together  with  numerous  other  suburbs,  has  become  one  huge  factory  with 
innumerable  tall  chimneys.  Such  is  the  "  Fire  City,"  as  it  is  called,  while  the 
less  complimentary  title  of  the  "  Smoky  City "  is  considered  by  some  to  be  no 
longer  justified,  since  bituminous  coal  has  been  replaced  in  a  large  number  of 
mills  by  the  conduits  of  smokeless  natural  gas. 

The  industrial  statistics  of  Pittsburg  give  evidence  of  a  really  prodigious 
industry.  The  yearly  output  of  coal  in  the  surrounding  district  now  averages 
20,000,000  tons,  and  31  tall  furnaces  yielded  in  1889  over  1,200,000  tons  of  pig 
iron,  while  33  other  workshops  turned  out  11,000,000  tons  of  steel  and  640,000 
tons  of  rolled  iron,  and  the  glass*  works  furnish  products  valued  at  $8,000,000. 
In  1890  the  natural  gas,  supplied  through  conduits  of  a  total  length  of  1,120  miles, 


1(18 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


illumined  over  30,000  buildings  of  all  sorts,  and  the  880,000,000  cubic  feet 
consumed  during  the  year  did  the  work  of  8,000,000  tons  of  coal. 

No  branch  of  industry  is  neglected  by  the  powerful  productive  processes  of 
Pittsburg  and  the  neighbouring?  Allegheny  city  pent  up  between  the  river  and 
fringing  cliffs,  l^esides  iron  and  steel,  here  are  produced  glass,  machinery,  carriages, 
electric  lamps,  objects  in  aluminium,  chemicals  of  all  kinds,  and  a  multiplicity 
of  minor  wares.  Pittsburg,  officially  a  port  of  delivery  of  the  New  Orleans  dis- 
trict, is  even  a  marine  dockyard ;  but  the  craft  constructed  in  these  yards  are 
flat-bottomed  boats,  steamers  and  barges,  chiefly  intended  for  the  navigation  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi.  Pittsburg  itself  owns  a  considerable  trading  fleet,  and  the 
traffic  carried  on  with  the  riparian  ports  along  the  Ohio  and  other  navigable 
streams  exceeds  that  of  many  busy  places  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

Some  80  miles  south-west  of  Pittsburg  a  post-borougb,  bearing  the  name  of 
Wmhington  in  common  with  200  other  localities  in  the  Union,  has  suddenly  acquired 
a  certain  celebrity  as  one  of  the  distributors  of  natural  gas.  McKeeapwt,  a  con- 
siderable borough,  15  miles  south-east  of  Pittsburg,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Monongahela  at  its  confluence  with  the  Youghiogheny ;  about  midway  between 
the  two  places  lies  B ruddock' a  Field,  so  named  from  the  British  general,  Braddock, 
whose  forces  were  nearly  exterminated  in  1755  by  the  French  and  their  Algonquin 
uUies.    Washington,  holding  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  took  part  in  the  engagement. 

10. — Maryland. 

Maryland,  formerly  Terra  Mariw,  so  named  in  honour  of  Queen  Henrietta 
Maria,  wife  of  Charles  I.,  is  one  of  the  smallest  states  of  the  Union  ;  but  its 
central  position  between  Pennsylvania  and  the  Southern  States,  on  the  debatable 
frontier  so  hotly  contested  during  the  Civil  War,  has  made  it  one  of  the  historical 
regions  of  North  America.  Formerly  a  slave  state,  it  has  at  present  a  coloured 
population  far  more  numerous  than  the  neighbouring  Pennsylvania. 

Separated  from  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware  by  conventional  straight  lines, 
Maryland  presents  an  extremely  irregular  frontier  towards  Virginia.  The  western 
counties  are  disposed  in  a  narrow  zone  between  the  course  of  the  Potomac  and 
the  Pennsylvanian  frontier,  and  here  are  situated  the  coal  and  iron  mines,  as 
well  as  the  most  productive  grain  and  fruit  growing  districts.  In  the  central 
region  of  plains  comprised  between  the  course  of  the  Potomac  and  Chesapeake  Bay . 
the  first  settlements  were  established,  and  here  were  developed  those  tobacco 
plantations  to  which  the  country  was  indebted  for  its  commercial  prosperity. 

Within  the  state  is  also  included  the  eo-cdlled  Eastern  Skore  district,  which 
lies  east  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  forming  part  of  the  peninsula  that  stretches  due 
south  to  the  sharp  headland  of  Cape  Charles,  across  two  and  a  half  degrees  of 
latitude.  On  the  other  hand  Delaware  occupies  half  of  the  east  coast  of  this  penin- 
sula, the  southern  extremity  of  which  belongs  to  Virginia.  To  the  dissensions  of 
the  colonies  between  themselves  before  the  Revolution  is  due  this  eccentric  par- 
tition of  the  peninsula. 

Havre  de  Ordce,  the  northern  port  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  is  accessible  only  to 


mm 


BAMIMOUB. 


lUl) 


:AS! 


light  craft,  the  SuHqiiobunna,  wbich  hero  roaches  tho  ostuary,  being  too  shallow  to 
admit  largo  vosscU.  Two  long  vitiduots  cross  tho  mouth  of  tho  river,  one  a  wooden 
structure  no  loss  than  3,/JOO  foot  in  length. 

liitltimore,  36  miles  further  south,  named  in  honour  of  Lord  Baltimoro  from  un 
obicuro  village  on  tho  south-west  coast  of  Ireland,  bus  taken  rank  among  the  great 
cities  of  the  Union  ;  it  is  the  seventh  in  population.  A  few  settlers  had  already 
established  themselves  on  the  site  of  the  present  city  so  early  as  the  year  1(182. 
But  its  official  foundation  dates  only  from  tbn  year  1729,  the  position  chosen  for 
the  new  settlement  being  a  low -lying  peninsula  north  of  the  Patapsco  River,  which 
here  enters  Chesapeake  Bay  through  a  broud  estuary.     The  extensive  marshes 

"■:.':  Fig.  68.— Baltimobb 

Soale  t :  190,000. 


West  of  Greenwich 


M- 


76*40- 


76:35- 


SUUei. 


encircling  the  rising  colony  have  since  been  filled  in  with  the  remains  of  some 
neighbouring  mounds  gradually  cleared  away.  Now  Baltimore  has  not  only 
absorbed  the  peninsula  and  the  banks  of  the  two  lateral  creeks,  but  also  extends 
north  and  west  fur  a  space  of  at  least  12  square  miles,  while  its  suburbs  stretch 
away  in  long  diverging  avenues. 

Baltimore,  metropolis  but  not  capital  of  Maryland,  takes  the  proud  title  of  the 
"  Monumental  City,"  and  was  really  distinguished  among  American  cities  for  the 
number  and  size  of  its  edifices  before  the  inhabitants  of  New  York,  Boston, 
Albany,  Philadelphia,  and  Washington  were  stirred  to  emulation.  Its  chief 
Roman  Catholic  temple  is  the  primittial  church  of  that  religion,  of  which  Balti- 
more is  the  metropolitan  see. 


'v:- •■??■■ 


•aiMIMilMilU 


170 


TUB  UNITKI)  HTATES. 


During  tliu  Civil  Wur  Fort  McIIonry,  erected  on  the  peiiiiiHulu  sopnrating 
the  two  oHtuurioa,  huld  the  city  under  tho  nkux/loa  of  ita  guns  to  prevent  any 
rimng  on  tho  part  of  the  Bhivo-holdurs.  Yet  tho  first  uctuul  conflict  occurred  in 
the  Btrcotn  of  Hultimoro.  Few  phices  uro  better  nupplied  with  good  wutcr.  Tho 
Oiinpowder  River,  retuined  in  a  aucceBsion  of  terraced  lakea  on  tlje  height*, 
feeds  tho  rosorvoira  of  tho  park  on  Druid  Hill,  whence  a  aupcrb  view  ia  com- 
manded of  tho  roadstead  a)id  encircling  ahores.  Thia  sourco  of  aupply  ia  aupplo- 
monted  by  tho  water  derived  from  Luke  Roland,  seven  niilea  distant. 

Although  Baltimore  and  ita  auburbs  have  extensive  machinery,  hardware  and 
other  industries,  the  chief  occupation  ia  trade,  in  which  roNpect  thia  aoaport  has 
even  outatripped  Philadelphia.  It  exjrarta  vast  ({uantitiea  of  cereals  and  tobacco, 
and  importa  Drazilian  coffee,  while  it  ia  the  principal  market  for  the  oyater  trade, 
which  since  the  middle  of  tho  present  century  haa  acquired  an  enormous  develop- 
ment in  the  United  States.   As  many  as  37,000,000  bushels  were  here  sold  in  188l(. 

A  steam  ferry,  large  enough  to  receive  a  train  of  27  cars,  keeps  up  the 
railway  communication  from  one  side  of  the  bay  to  the  other,  and  helps  to  sup- 
port an  export  trade,  valued  in  1890  at  over  ^87,000,000,  while  the  shipping 
entered  and  cleared  represented  a  total  burden  of  1,969,000  tons.  Daltimore  haa 
also  recently  taken  a  foremost  position  amongst  the  university  cities  of  America. 
The  Johns  Hopkins  University,  ao  named  from  its  founder,  lies  in  the  Clifton 
district,  and  ia  richly  endowed ;  it  is  attended  by  numerous  students,  and  to  it  is 
attaohed  a  vuat  hospital.  Other  educational  or  learned  eatablishments  are  the 
Mar}'land  Institute,  a  Baltimore  ti^y  ooUege,  a  state  normal  school  and  the 
Teubody  Inetitute. 

AnnapoliH,  capital  of  Maryland,  lies  south  of  Baltimore,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Severn,  on  Chesapeake  Bay.  Though  now  a  small  place,  it  was  at  one  time  a 
rival  of  the  neighbouring  city,  but  having  lost  nearly  uU  its  trade,  it  now  derives 
its  chief  importance  from  its  legislative  position,  and  from  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy.  Thanks  to  its  proximity  to  Washington,  Annapolis  has  also 
become  tho  central  station  of  the  United  States  navy  in  Chesapeake  Bay.  The 
foundation  of  Providence,  as  it  was  first  called,  dates  from  about  1650,  but  when 
chartered  in  1708,  it  was  re-named  Annapolis  in  honour  of  Queen  Anne, 

The  little  havens  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  bay  are  almost  exclusively 
engaged  in  the  fruit  and  oyster  trade.  As  many  as  20,000  hands,  with  800  sloops 
and  3,000  boats,  are  occupied  with  oyster  culture,  and  in  harvesting  the  moUusca 
during  the  season  from  September  to  April.  But  reckless  fishing  haa  already 
exhausted  a  large  number  of  beds,  so  that  the  Chesapeake  oyster- grounds  are  in 
great  danger  of  losing  the  first  position  for  productiveness.  The  villages,  which 
during  the  fishing  sea^^on  are  almost  completely  deserted  by  their  male  inhabitants, 
are  erected  on  piles  extending  a  long  way  into  the  shallow  waters  of  the  bay. 
Crixjield,  largest  of  these  villages,  stands  on  Tangier  Sound,  and  is  known  as  the 
"  Venice  "  of  the  eastern  shores.  One  of  tho  islets  on  this  shore  was  the  first 
land  in  the  bay  settled  by  the  whites,  who  here  established  themselve3  in  1631. 

In  the  western  part  of  Maryland  watered  by  the  upper  Potomac,  the  rich  and 


tamtmimiiKm 


-«* 


^mm 


DELAWAUE— .FEDEUAL  DISIUICT. 


171 


woll-wo(MU'd  Cmiiborliind  VuUoy  contains  oxtonMVo  dopoHitaof  bituininouH  ooni  und 
iron  oroft.  Cumlx'rlmut,  wliich  haa  givuu  its  uunio  tu  thu  district,  it  buth  un  induH- 
triul  und  ugriculturul  centre. 

11. — Dki.awark. 

Dolawuro,  HtnuUuHt  stuto  in  the  Union  next  to'IUiodo  iNliind,  buitrH  tbo  titio  of 
tbo  "  Diuinoiid  Htutv,"  as  if  to  ittik>j)ly  thut  the  worth  of  its  inhabitants  is  in 
invcrHu  proporuon  to  tho  extent  of  their  domain.  It  oontprisos  eounu'ly  ono- 
fourth  of  tho  peninsula  whiuh  is  boutfd«>d  by  iho  f  vo  estuaries  of  Chosupeuku  and 
Dolawuro  Hays.  It  thus  oofisista  of  u  luirrow  niarifimo  zono,  extending  ulong 
the  west  side  of  Delaware  Huy,  an  '  separated  from  tho  eastern  shore  of  Muryhind 
by  two  straight  linos  running  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian  and  of  the  parallel. 

Except  in  tho  neighbourhood  of  its  chief  city,  Delaware  is  ongiiged  uhieHy  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  and,  speaking  comparatively,  surpoHhes  all  other  slates  in 
the  production  of  fruits.  Both  its  peaches  and  grapes  (a  small  black  variety 
of  exquisite  flavour)  enjo}'  a  high  reputation. 

Dover,  capital  of  the  state,  lies  on  Jones  Creek,  near  the  west  side  of  Delaware 
Bay ;  it  is  a  small  place,  with  little  over  3,000  inhabitants,  largely  engaged 
in  the  fruit-preserving  trade.  Wilmington,  the  commercial  city  of  Doluwuro,  may 
be  regarded,  with  New  Castle,  as  one  of  the  advanced  ports  of  Philadelphia. 
]  t  lies  on  the  same  side  of  the  river,  22  miles  farther  down,  and  is  visited  by  tho 
steamers  plying  to  and  fro.  Within  the  enclosure  is  shown  the  historic  rock  where 
the  first  Swedish  immigrants,  founders  of  tho  colony  of  Nova  Suecia  (Now 
Sweden),  landed  in  1638.  This  colony,  which  extended  up  the  Delaware  River 
as  fur  as  Wicaco,  now  Philadelphia,  was  reduced  by  the  Dutch  from  New 
Amsterdam  in  1656,  and  thus  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  English  with 
the  other  Dutch  settlements  in  1664.  ;. . 


12. — Tub  Federal  Distkict  of  Columbia. 

As  Delaware  is  enframed  in  the  eastern  part  of  Maryland,  the  Federal  District 
of  Columbia  has  been  carved  out  of  its  south-western  section.  Despite  its  small 
size,  not  exceeding  70  square  miles,  the  district  is  by  no  means  the  least  important 
political  division  of  tho  Union  in  population,  industry,  and  especially  public  wealth. 

The  city  of  Washington,  which  contains  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
district,  no  longer  deserves  its  former  title  to  the  "  City  of  Magnificent  Dis- 
tances," where  interminable  shad}'  avenues,  mostly  destitute  of  houses,  inter- 
sected each  other  at  all  angles.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  kept  pace  with  the 
portentous  growth  of  the  Union  itself,  and  is  now  reully  a  great  city,  with  a 
permanent  population  of  nearly  250,000,  increased  during  the  sessions  of  Congress 
by  many  tens  of  thousands  attracted  to  the  spot  by  the  endless  interests  asso- 
ciated with  the  public  administration.  The  boulevards,  which  radiate  from  the 
central  nucleus  dominated  by  the  Capitol,  are  for  the  most  part  lined  with  lofty 
structures,  and  in  the  season  are  crowded  with  pedestrians  and  vehicles. 

Pennsylvania  Avenue,  which  connects  the  Capitol  with  the  White  House 
and  the  public  offices,  shares  most  of    the  traffic  with  the   boulevards  in  the 


Jl 


"-^^  iv*-'«—  ■  ■•J'  >«,^  .M^jgrn-^ 


172 


THE  XJNITED  STATES. 


MS:. 


neighbourhood  of  the  City  Hall ;  but  the  lines  of  bouses  are  continued  for  miles 
beyond  these  points.  The  north-western  distiiot  of  Georgetown,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Potomuc,  is  already  connected  with  the  metropolis,  as  are  also  the  south- 
east quarters  stretching  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Anacostia,  an  eastern 
affluent  of  the  Potomac.  The  little  river  Tiber  has  disappeared  altogether,  trans- 
formed, like  the  London  Fleet,  to  a  sewer. 

"Washington  has  scarcely  any  artisan  classes  beyond  those  connected  with  the 
federal  areenal ;  nor,  with  few  exceptions,  are  there  any  traders  besides  those 
engaged  in  supplying  the  local  demands,  fiut  as  a  winter  residence  it  already 
exercises  considerable  influence  on  northern  society,  while  its  vast  museums  and 
great  scientific  resources  attract  an  increasing  number  of  students,  who  take  up 
thei  •  residence  in  this  pleasant  and  well-kept  city,  the  most  li'oerally  provided  of 
any  in  the  Union  with  gardens,  avenues,  and  shrubberies. 

The  Capitol,  political  centre  of  the  United  Slates,  stands  on  a  low  rising 
ground,  whose  gentle  slopes  incline  westwards  to  the  Potomac,  eastwards  to  the 
Anacostia.  The  huge  structure  consists  of  three  sections — in  the  north  the  Senate, 
in  the  south  the  House  of  Representatives,  and,  between  the  two,  vast  lobbies 
ommon  to  both  divisions  of  Congress.  In  the  centre  a  double  rotunda,  96 
feet  in  diameter,  rising  above  the  pediment,  carries  to  a  height  of  310  feet  nn 
iron  cupola  terminating  in  Crawford's  bronze  statue  of  Liberty.  The  marble 
peristyles  contract  strangely  with  the  immense  metal  dome,  and  viewed  us  a 
whole  the  edifice,  being  too  long  for  its  cupola,  lacks  harmony.  Nevertheless,  it 
produces  an  imposing  effect,  thanks  to  its  vast  proportions,  the  beauty  of  the 
materials,  the  terraces  and  flights  of  steps  supporting  its  base,  and  the  numerous 
statues  and  splendid  vegetation  surrounding  it 

The  interior  of  the  rotunda  is  df^corated  with  has  reliefs  and  numerous  historic 
paintings,  such  as  the  "  Landing  of  Columbus,"  by  Vanderlyn  ;  "  The  Baptism  of 
Pocahontas,"  by  Chapman ;  "  Hernando  de  Soto's  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi," 
by  Powell ;  "  The  Embarkation  of  the  Pilgrims,'*  by  Weir ;  "  The  Surrender  of 
General  Burgoync,"  "The  Surrender  of  Lord  Comwallis,"  and  "Washington 
resigning  his  Commission  at  Annapolis,"  all  by  Trumbull.  Besides  the  special 
libraries  of  the  upper  and  lower  chambers,  the  Capitol  also  contains  the  magnificent 
Congressional  Library,  the  richest  in  the  New  World.  Unfortunately  the  space 
is  quite  inadequate  for  the  proper  housing  of  these  half  a  million  volumes  piled 
up  in  the  galleries  and  in  the  very  cellars  of  the  Capitol.  Hence  students  are 
impatiently  awaiting  the  completion  of  the  new  building  now  in  progress  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood,  where  ample  room  will  be  provided,  not  only  for  the 
treasures  of  the  present  library,  but  for  its  future  expansion  to  the  extent  of 
about  three  and  a  half  million  volumes  altogether.  A  library  of  such  dimensions 
is  by  no  means  too  large  for  an  age  in  which  books  accumulate  at  the  rate  of 
60,000  a  year,  not  to  speak  of  60,000  newspapers,  and  other  documents  in 
myriads.  By  Act  of  Congress  publishers  are  bound  to  deposit  in  the  Congressional 
Library  copies  of  all  works  copyrighted  in  the  United  States. 
.     On  a  grassy  slope  about  1|  mile  north-west  of  the  Capitol  stands  the  so-called 


•  \ 


r!'t',i;i{!?W't"':tH»JMI 


tiiitmmmim 


WASHINGTON. 


178 


ed  for  miles 
le  left  bank 

>  the  south- 
an  eastern 
sther,  trans- 
it! with  the 
esides  those 

>  it  already 
luseums  and 
tflio  take  up 
provided  of 

low  rising 
vards  to  the 
.  the  Senate, 
vast  lobbies 
rotunda,  96 
310  feet  nn 
The  marble 
iriewed  us  a 
ertheless,  it 
auty  of  the 
e  numerous 

■ous  historic 

Baptism  of 

lississippi," 

lurrender  of 

iVashington 

the  spevial 

magnificent 

y  the  space 

ilumes  piled 

tudents  are 

:ress  in  the 

>nly  for  the 

le  extent  of 

dimensions 

the  rate  of 

liuments    in 

ingressional 

he  so-called 


"White  House,"  that  is,  the  President's  official  residence,  a  two-storeyed  struc- 
ture of  greenstone,  painted  white,  with  a  frontage  of  170  feet  on  Pennsylvania 
Avenue,  with  extensive  ornamental  grounds.  The  White  House  is  flanked  by 
two  vast  piles,  the  Treasury,  some  600  by  200  feet,  with  500  rooms,  and  the 


*1g  69.    Wasiunoton. 
Soale  1  :  160,000. 


77V 


w 


'est    o 


F  G 


•friKajS!'-; 


reenwicr 


76'55- 


1.  Capitol.    2.  The  Whi»e  Houm.    9.  emitliMniiui  Inrtitntion.    4.  New  Libraiy. 
6   ObaeiTOtoiy.    6  WanhingtoD  Honument. 
Depths. 


OtoS 
Fathom*. 


2  Fatbomii 
and  upwards. 

.  3  Miles. 


building  of  the  State  Department,  containing  the  various  ministries,  the  largest 
granite  structure  in  the  world. 

Washington  possesses  many  other  large  public  buildings  needed  for  the 
efficient  administration  of  such  a  country  as  the  United  States.  Amongst  them  are 
the  General  Post  Office,  a  superb  edifice  in  white  marble  204  by  102  feet ;  the 
Patent  Office,  covering  an  entire  square,  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  with 


'flit^v. 


174 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


library,  herbarium  and  greenhouses.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  the  Washington 
Monument,  a  marble,  obelisk  560  feet  high,  the  tallest  structure  in  America. 

As  the  political  capital  of  the  republic,  Washington  naturally  enjoys  the 
special  favour  of  Congress,  and  of  all  American  cities  it  is  the  most  liberally 
adorned  with  public  statues,  nearly  all  erected  to  the  memory  of  presidents  and 
generals.  One  of  the  groups,  representing  Lafayette  and  his  associates  in  arms, 
is  the  joint  work  of  Merci^  and  FalguiSre.  There  ai-e  also  galleries  of  paintings, 
statues,  and  bronzes ;  but  the  most  valuable  treasures  are  those  contained  in  the 
various  departments  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  so  named  from  a  wealthy 
English  merchant  who  bequeathed  to  the  American  nation  a  sum  of  ^600,000  for 
the  purpose  of  creating  a  scientific  establishment,  "  for  the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  amongst  men."  In  the  central  structure,  a  fine  Romanesque  build- 
ing, 450  by  140  feet,  are  admirably  arranged  the  extensive  collections  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum.  The  Bureau  of  Ethnology  is  also  connected 
with  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  which  has  amply  fulfilled  the  promises  made  at 
Its  foundation,  and  which  has  perhaps  given  a  greater  impulse  to  scientific 
research  than  any  similar  establishment  in  the  whole  world.  To  the  Medical 
Museum  is  attached  an  extremely  rich  library,  and  the  catalogue  of  medical  works 
issued  by  this  institution  is  the  most  complete  in  existence. 

Washington  had  long  the  reputation  of  being  an  unhealthy  city,  and  the 
United  States  Naval  Observatory,  occupying  a  commanding  position  south-west 
of  the  White  House,  near  the  marshes  formed  by  the  Potomac,  above  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Anacostia,  was  almost  uninhabitable.  But  the  low-lying  lands 
have  been  drained,  and  transformed  to  a  public  park.  The  flow  of  the  river  has 
been  regulated  and  a  muddy  estuary  changed  to  a  convenient  har^^ur  accessible  to 
small  steamers  and  coasting- vessels.  An  abundance  of  pure  water  is  obtained 
from  the  great  falls  of  the  Potomac,  some  18  miles  higher  up,  by  an  aqueduct 
carried  through  eleven  tunnels  and  six  bridges. 

The  health  of  the  city  has  also  been  improved  by  extensive  plantations  of  over 
60,000  trees  of  37  different  species  lining  120  miles  of  streets.  In  the  north 
there  are  some  extensive  pleasure-grounds,  such  as  the  fine  parks  surrounding 
the  Soldiers'  Home,  for  disabled  soldiers  of  the  regular  army,  and  the  Howard 
University,  a  non-sectarian  school  of  higher  instruction,  founded  immediately 
after  the  Civil  War  for  young  negroes  of  both  sexes. 

The  "  Long  Bridge  "  crossing  the  Potomac,  south  of  the  Washington  Monu- 
ment, some  remains  of  fortresses  on  the  summit  of  the  neighbouring  hills,  and 
on  the  right  side  of  the  river  the  Arlington  National  Cemetety,  where  16,000 
soldiers  were  interred — are  all  so  many  memorials  of  the  great  struggle  for  the 
possession  of  Washington. 

About  seven  miles  farther  on,  an  eminence  commanding  an  extensive  pano- 
ramic view  over  land  and  water  is  occupied  by  Mount  Vernon,  where  Washington 
lived  and  died.  It  now  belongs  to  a  society  of  ladies,  who  regard  it  as  a  pious 
duty  to  embellish  this  famous  place  of  pilg^mage.  They  propose  to  construct 
a  "  sacred  way  "  14  miles  long,  crossing  the  river  near  the  Observatory,  and 


"WlllL'.',  ^U 


VIRGINIA. 


175 


connecting  Washington  directly  with  Mount  Vernon,  the  whole  distance  to  be 
planted  with  tre«8  and  ornamental  grounds. 

13. VlROlNlA. 

Virginia,  to  which  its  children  still  give  the  name  of  the  "  Old  Dominion," 
both  on  the  ground  of  its  relative  antiquity  and  in  memory  of  its  past  political 

Fig.  70.— SrtafB  op  the  Crni,  Wab  in  Vihoinia.       .         ' 
Seal*  1 :  8,000,000. 


aoiiiiM. 


preponderance,  has  greatly  fallen  from  its  former  proud  position.  Down  to  the 
year  1811  it  was  the  most  populous  state  in  the  Union,  and  during  the  War 
of  Independence  the  commander-in-chief  and  the  foremost  leaders  of  the  rising 
confederation  were  drawn  from  its  landed  aristocracy.  Then  it  became  the 
"  Mother  of  the  Presiujuts,"  the  other  states  tacitly  conceding  to  it  a  sort  of 
prerogative  in  the  selection  of  the  heads  of  the  Federal  Union. 

With  each  successive  census  the  Old  Dominion  falls  one  or  more  steps  behind 
in  the  race,  and  during  the  Civil   War  the  trans- Alleghany  section,  differing 


'  I 


m 


i\ 


:.(.:■■■  ■■ 
.Vi   ■ 


% 


176 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


!       f 


in  its  geographical  relalions  and  to  some  extent  in  the  social  conditions  of  its 
inhabitants,  became  detached  and  reconstituted  as  a  separate  state  under  the  name 
of  West  Virginia.  But  even  thus  dismembered  of  this  valuable  territory,  which  is 
comprised  within  the  Mississippi  (upper  Ohio)  basin,  Virginia  still  remains  one 
of  the  powerful  states  of  the  Atlantic  slope.  In  its  physical  conformation  it  pre- 
sents the  greatest  diversity  of  aspect,  including  the  Appalachian  ranges  in  the 
west,  the  hilly  "  Piedmont  Couaty  "  on  the  eastern  slope,  inclining  eastwards  to 
the  "  Middle  District "  and  south-eastwards  to  the  "  South  Side,"  the  lovely 
"  Valley  of  Virginia  "  in  its  central  part,  the  so-culled  "  Little  Tennessee  "  country 
in  the  south-west,  the  "  Tidewater  District,"  east  and  south-east  of  the  Piedmont 
region,  the  detached  "  Eastern  Shore  "  on  the  east  side  of  Chesapeake  Buy,  and 
the  low-lying  marshy  coastlands  farther  south. 

Here  might  be  cultivated  all  the  plants  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  the  country 
is  certainly  large  and  fertile  enough  to  support  many  millions  of  inhabitants. 
But  the  plantations,  recklessly  worked  fur  one  or  two  centuries  without  manuring 
the  land,  have  in  many  places  exhausted  the  soil,  while  a  considerable  section  of 
the  population  has  been  ruined  by  the  sudden  transition  from  the  system  of 
slavery  to  that  of  free  labour ;  hence  for  years  vast  tracts  of  land  have  lain  fallow. 

Next  to  cereals  the  staple  crop  is  still  tobacco,  which  during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  had  enriched  the  Virgini  m  planters.  Tomatoes,  legu- 
minous and  other  vegetables,  besides  a  considerable  variety  of  fruits,  such  as 
peaches  and  grapes,  are  also  raised  in  large  quantities,  both  for  the  home  con- 
sumption and  the  northern  markets. 

In  Virginia  the  coloured  element  represents  two-tifths  of  the  whole  population. 
The  blacks  of  this  region  are  in  general  distinguished  for  their  tail  stature  and 
physical  strength.  During  the  old  regime  the  annual  increase  of  the  negro 
families,  bred  on  the  Virginian  plantations  like  so  much  livestock,  supplied  a 
large  export  trade  in  slaves  for  the  lower  Mississippi  regions.  But  the  planters, 
who  controlled  this  traffic,  made  a  selection,  reserving  the  best  "  stock  "  for  them- 
selves, and  exporting  the  less  intelligent  negroes,  such  as  those  incompetent  for 
any  work  beyond  field  operations.  Thus  the  race  was  gradually  improved  by  the 
annual  weeding  out  of  inferior  stock. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  most  hotly-contested  territory  was  that  lying 
between  Washington  and  Richmond,  capital  of  Virginia.  Few  even  of  the 
European  "  cockpits "  have  been  the  scene  of  more  bloodshed.  Frederick&hnrg, 
sauth  of  the  Potomac,  skirts  the  foot  of  a  hill  whose  crests,  held  by  the  Con- 
federate forces,  defended  the  passage  of  the  Rappahanook.  Farther  south,  the  so- 
called  Wilderness,  a  gently  rolling  district,  diversified  with  glens  and  woodlands, 
was  the  theatre  of  the  indecisive,  sanguinary  battles  of  Spottaykania  Court  Home, 
and  ChancellorstiUe.  The  ground  was  disputed  with  the  same  obstinacy  all  the 
way  to  Richmond  and  Petersburg. 

Richmofid,  headquarters  of  the  Confederate  forces  and  capital  of  the  Confederacy 
during  the  years  l8bl-65,  does  not  rank  as  one  of  the  great  cities  of  the  Union. 
In  1890,  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  after  its  foundation,  Its  population  still  fell 


mmtm 


f    i 


m 


.^ 


ID 


!  II 


\ 


Nv 


mt 


RICHMOm). 


177 


short  of  100,000.  Nevertheless,  in  the  Southern  States,  New  Orleans  alone  ex- 
ceeds it  in  the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  and  oven  this  place  is  inferior  to  it  in 
manufacturing  industry. 

Built,  like  Rome  and  Byzantium,  on  "seven  hills,"  hills,  however,  not  steep 
enough  to  prevent  the  city  from  developing  its  streets  and  boulevards  on  the 
usual  regular  plan,  Richmond  is  a  pleasant,  picturesque  place,  whence  a  wide 

Fig.  71.— ToBAOoo:  DBTiHa  rni  Plikt.  '       , 


prospect  is  commanded  of  the  James  River  valley  and  surrounding  plains.  There 
are  a  few  fine  buildings,  such  as  the  new  city  hall,  an  imposing  limestone  block 
near  the  central  park,  and  the  Capitol,  which,  from  its  commanding  position  on 
Shockoe  Hill,  dominates  the  whole  city.  Here  are  the  state  Ubrary,  witli  valu- 
able colonial  archives,  several  portraits  of  historical  characters,  and  Houdon's 
marble  statue  of  Washington.    In  the  grounds  are  the  statues  of  Henry  Clay 


>f-1 '  -  ^ 


178 


TUR  UNITED  STATES. 


luid  General  Thomas  J.  Jackson,  and  Crawford's  Washington  Monument,  a  fine 
group  of  sculpture,  compriaing  a  colossal  equestrian  bronze  o£  Washington,  with 
two  tiers  of  pedestals  supporting  statues  of  Patrick  Henry,  Thomas  Jefferson,  and 
other  worthies,  and  seven  symbolic  figures.  In  the  fashionable  north-wea 
quarter  another  monument,  dedicated  to  General  Lee,  hero  of  the  Civil  War,  h:n 

been  erected  on  Leonard 
Fig.  72— Entbbnchbd  Camp  at  Richmond  dtjmso  thk  Civil  War 

Soae  I  :  470.000. 


Height.  Conspicuous 
amongst  the  learned  in- 
stitutions is  the  Virginia 
Historical  Society,  whose 
publications  are  indispen- 
sable to  the  student  of 
early  colonial  history. 

Richmond  occupies,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  James, 
the  most  favourable  site  in 
the  valley  for  trade  and 
industry.  Just  above  the 
city  the  river  descends 
about  100  feet  through  a 
series  of  rapids,  which 
supply  throughout  the  ye^ir 
the  motive-power  for  the 
flour-mills  and  other  in- 
dustrial establishments. 
Conspicuous  amongst  these 
are  Allen  &  Ginter's  ciga- 
rette-works, and  Valen- 
tine's meat-juice  factory, 
the  produce  of  which  is 
exported  to  every  part  of 
the  civilised  world. 

Farther  down,  the  At- 
lantic tides  ascend  about 
150  miles  to  the  quays  of 
Richmond,which  ianow  ac- 
cessible to  vessels  of  conbi- 
derable  draught.  Formerly 
the  James  was  not  navigible  at  this  distance  from  the  sea  by  ships  drawing  more 
than  8  or  10  feet;  but  the  channel,  dredged  to  a  depth  of  20  or  22  feet,  now 
enables  large  sea-going  vessels  to  reach  the  Virginian  capital  On  the  other 
hand  the  navigable  canal,  which  formerly  turned  the  rapids  and  penetrated  210 
miles  up  the  fluvial  valley  into  the  heart  of  the  Alleghanies,  has  been  superseded 
by  the  Jimes  River  rail  war,  one  of  the  axoBi  picturesque  lines  in  the  world. 


ConfedamtM. 
8  HUM. 


-**»»•*  i^^^^lRWC' 


wwwr ■^H»( 


TOBKTOWN.— LEXINGTON. 


179 


'■■■',■  \ 


Numerous  foundries  line  the  river,  both  at  Richmond  and  in  the  neighbouring 
industrial  town  of  Manchenter  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 
.  "  Founded  in  1737  by  William  Boyd,  Richmond  has  been  the  capital  of  thf 
state  since  the  year  1780.  It  was  named  from  the  pleasant  town  of  Richmond 
on  the  Thames  above  London,  in  reference  to  a  certain  resemblance  observed  by 
the  first  settlers  between  the  surrounding  scenery  of  both  places. 

Petemburg,  27  miles  farther  south,  occupies,  on  the  ^ppomatto^,  a  position 
analogous  to  that  of  the  capital  on  the  James.  It  is  conveniently  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  just  below  the  falls  at  the  head  of  the  tidewater,  some 
10  miles  above  the  port  of  City  Point,  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers  40  miles 
below  Richmond. 

Large  vessels  ascend  the  James  estuary  to  City  Point,  while  the  Appomattox 
is  navigable  fur  lighter  craft  as  far  as  Petersburg. 

During  the  Civil  War,  Petersburg  was  the  southern  bulwark  of  the  vast 
entrenched  camp  of  which  Richmond  occupied  the  northern  extremity,  and  after 
an  heroic  defence  both  places  fell  simultaneously  into  the  hands  of  the  Federal 
forces.  Towards  the  east  the  formidable  position,  also  defended  by  several 
parallel  lines  of  earthworks,  was  also  protected  by  the  neighbouring  marshes  and 
their  malarious  exhalations.  The  east  front  of  the  military  lines  at  one  time  ran 
back  of  the  famous  village  of  Yorktoicn,  already  memorable  for  the  capitulation  of 
Lord  Cornwallis  on  October  19th,  1 781,  which  brought  the  War  of  Independence  to 
a  triumphant  issue.  Fortified  by  the  Confederates,  Yorktown  offered  an  insuperable 
barrier  to  the  advance  of  General  MacCIellan  on  Richmond  in  1863.  But  the  com- 
bined efforts  of  Grant,  Sherman,  and  Sheridan,  pushing  forward  from  the  north  and 
south,  compelled  the  forces  of  General  Lee  to  evacuate  Richmond,  which  had 
been  so  hotly  contested  for  a  period  of  four  years.  The  Confederates,  greatly 
reduced  in  numbers,  broken  by  hunger  and  hardships,  withdrew  towards  the 
open  plains  of  the  west  in  the  hope  of  reaching  Lynchburg  in  the  fertile 
Piedmont  district,  and  thence  fall  back  on  the  upland  valleys  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  But  being  overtaken  by  General  Grant,  Lee  was  compelled  to 
surrender  on  April  0th,  1865,  near  Appomattox  Court  House,  about  the  source  of 
the  Appomattox  River.    This  was  the  closing  event  of  the  Civil  War. 

The  intellectual  centre  ol  the  Shenandoah  Valley  is  the  picturesque  town  of 
Lexington,  at  the  western  terminus  of  the  former  James  River  and  Kanawha  canal, 
about  32  miles  north-west  of  Lynchburg.  Lexington  is  the  seat  of  the  old 
Washington  College,  of  which  General  Lee  became  president  after  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War.  From  this  circumstance  the  institution,  which  was  reorganised 
in  1871,  was  then  re-named  the  Washington  and  Lee  University.  In  the  memorial 
chapel  here  erected  to  his  memory  is  seen  the  beautiful  recumbent  statue  of  the 
Confederate  commander-in-chief,  executed  in  white  marble  by  Edward  Yalentine^ 
of  Richmond. 

In  the  neighbouring  cemetery  stands  another  fine  statue  by  the  same  sculptor, 
erected  in  honour  of  Thomas  Jefferson  ("  Stonewall ")  Jackson,  who  fell  at  the 
battle  of  Chancellorsville,  May  2nd,  1862. 


ri'! 


J _. 


M 


l!fi 


180 


TUB  UNITED  STATES. 


Tig.  73  — Orksapsaxk  Bat. 

Boale  t  :  S.500,n00. 


In  the  hilly  district  Bomo  40  miles  north-caflt  of  Ijexington  h  eituatod  thn 
picturesque  town  of  Staunton,  noted  for  its  numerous  female  educational  establish- 
ments, and  seat  of  the  Western  Lunatic  Asylum,  and  of  a  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind 
Institution,  where  over  700  pupils  receive  instruction.     About  40  miles  east  of 

Staunton,  and  08  miles  north- 
west of  Richmond,  stands  the 
post*  town  of  Charloitemlk, 
seat  of  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, which  was  planned  by 
Thomas  Jefferson,  and  en- 
dowed by  the  state  about  the 
year  1820.  Attached  to  this 
institution,  which  has  a  staff 
of  18  professors,  are  a  valu- 
able library  of  nearly  60,000 
volumes,  and  an  observatory 
crowning  the  neighbouring 
Mount  Jefferson. 

Nearly  all  the  Alleghany 
valleys  have  one  or  more 
watering-places,  that  have 
sprung  up  round  about  the 
thermal  springs.  In  Vir- 
ginia, where  they  are  most 
numerous,  there  are  about 
thirty  such  stations,  includ- 
ing Warm'  Springs,  Hot 
Springs,  Healing  Springs  Jfig 
Springs,  Sulphur  Springs,  and 
others  with  similar  names. 
Near  Luray,  a  post-town  in 
the  east  Shenandoah  valley, 
below  Harrisonburg,  and  90 
miles  in  a  bee-line  from  Rich- 
mond, there  were  lately  dis- 
covered some  remarkable 
caves,  less  extensive  than  the 
Kentucky  Mammoth  Cave, 
but  of  more  varied  aspect, 
and  much  more  lofty. 
The  entrance  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  of  all  its  lateral  inlets  and  estuaries — 
Susquehanna,  Potomac,  Eappahannock,  York,  James,  Appomattox — ^ia  of  such 
strategic  importance  that  it  was  thought  necessary  to  defend  it  by  a  strong  citadel, 
although  the  approaches  are  already  suflSciently  endangered  by  shifting  sands  and 


West  oF  Greonwich      76 


nepthi. 


OtoB 
IktbouM. 


M»10 
Fatbomg. 


to  Fathnros 
and  upwaitbi. 


.  aOUilet. 


HJJ^!&iMlii^Jj^'Jiikjy|jlyiliil'il^|;',s>>j^^a 


f  ^iiiiHinW)^|iiiim  <■■ 


FORI  MONBOE. 


lUt 


treacherous  currents.    Fort  Monroe,  erected  on  York  Peniusulia,  ^  tb»     ntr«nc«, 

IB  iho  seuwurd  bulwark  of  a  repfion  with  a  populutiun  of  ovt-  '<,00i  ,(H)0,  ar^l 
including  the  greut  cities  of  Baltimore  and  VVushington,  besid>  ho  Virgi  m 
capital.  The  maintenance  of  u  strong  Federal  garrison  at  this  ^kh  ^ad  a  dcci  ve 
influenoeon  the  vicissitudes  and  final  issue  of  the  Civil  War.  In  the  ncighbouiin^ 
JFumpton  Roads  was  fought  the  mcmorablo  battle  between  the  Mrrrimac  and  the 
Monitor,  the  first  ironclads  nver  engaged  in  actual  combat  (March  9th,  1862). 

Fort  Monroe,  to  which  is  attached  a  United  States  School  of  Artillery,  is  half 
encircled  by  a  much-frequcntcd  bathing  village,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  has 

Fig.  74.  — Hakfto:*  Roam. 
Sodto  t :  170,000. 


Depths. 


OtoSi 
lathom*. 


MtoS 
TathoiM. 


5  Fathom* 
and  ujnriirda. 


.SMIlM. 


been  erected  a  vast  asylum  for  veterans,  with  gardens,  pleasure-grounds,  park,  and 
national  cemetery. 

The  Federal  Qovernment  haa  also  made  choice  of  this  peninsula  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  a  technical  school  and  of  an  agricultural  college  for  the  sons  of 
emancipated  negroes  and  young  aborigines.  The  black  students,  to  the  number  of 
about  500,  work  side  by  side  with  the  150  Indians  in  the  workshops  and  in  the 
fields  in  such  perfect  harmony  that  the  teachers  and  tutors  are  never  ctlled  upon 
to  interfere. .  The  young  Indians,  characteristically  grave  and  dignified,  ask  no 
questions  of  anybody,  but  respectfully  attend  to  their  teachers'  instructions,  con- 
ducting themselves  altogether  like  grovm-up  people.  During  the  vacation  most 
of  tlie  students  go  to  work  on  distant  farms,  and  several,  after  their  training  at 
Hampton  College,  continue  their  studies  at  some  university. 

Becently  this  part  of  the  Virginian  lowlands  has  witnessed  the  rapid  develop- 


J^WSSgiSaMpP 


i,-«iil'fflWlfM^iM^ 


182 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


merit  of  Nfirport  Nnrt,  an  old  iiottlonicnt  founded  on  the  north  tide  of  Hampton 
Uoada  a  little  wost  of  Fort  Monroe.  A  ruilwuy  company,  which  hun  its  Atluntio 
torminun  at  thin  pliico,  him  here  construuted  hoiiiu  cxtonHivo  hurhour  works,  ducks, 
Hhipyardfl,  qimya  und  warohousoH,  which  have  trunHfortncd  this  hitherto  obscure 
Htalioa  to  a  wcll-uppointed  soiiport.  In  1890  its  shipping  entered  and  cleared 
ruprosontcd  a  total  burden  of  over  2((0,0U0  tons,  and  in  the  same  year  the  rising 
emporium  exported  agricultural  produce  to  the  value  of  ^8,000,000. 

Rival  speculators  have  cast  their  eyes  in  the  direction  of  Chandler,  or  York- 
mout/t,  with  the  view  of  also  converting  it  into  a  great  outlet  for  the  produce  of 

Fig.  Ili.-JAxano'wv  Iilaxd. 

I  !  130,000, 


-,  ,) 


DepUM. 


Otol^ 
FKtiMmia. 


Si  Fkthoma 
■ndupwuda. 


,  8  HilM. 


Virginia  and  surrounding  states.  Were  this  scheme  carried  out,  the  historic 
borough  of  Yorktown  would  soon  recover  its  position,  and  even  take  its  place 
among  the  flourishing  cities  of  the  Union.  On  the  other  hand,  no  one  dreams  of 
reviving  Jamestown,  which,  though  the  first  English  settlement  in  Virginian 
territory,  dating  from  the  year  1607,  was  too  unfavourably  situated  on  its  marshy 
island  ever  to  acquire  any  expansion.  Speaking  of  this  very  colony  of  Jamestown, 
Jefferson  remarked,  in  his  Observations  on  Virginia,  that  there  are  places  where 
cities  cannot  arise. 

Opposite  Fort  Monroe,  on  the  south  side  of  the  James  estuary,  the  ports  of 


■"^  " '  ^  ■  ^;*ll(JB^^;jfttl.i"li  ?  ^ 


-^:^.'^'^'^. 


r..,-,,\^^'i'^'i^X-;-^'i:  '■^■•. 


■■■.■J*te;^^wn^w:»'f 


NOBFOLK.-POBTSMOUTH. 


Norfolk,  Portnmouth  ond  Pfiklfi/,  nopnratcd  from  each  other  hy  tho  mufldy  and 
aomewhut  almllow  nwiritio  ittlots,  nr  hranchoa  of  tlio  no-cuUed  Klixubcth  Uivor, 
oonstituto  a  cluster  of  towns  whose  collective  populution  \h  oxcoodod  only  by  that 
of  tho  capital.  Before  tho  Civil  War,  Portsmoutli  wuh  tho  chief  United  States 
Dttvul  station  ;  but  at  present  this  group  of  towns  poBsosscH  uo  iiuportunco  except 
as  oommeroial  marts  engaged  in  tho  export  trade. 

Nearly    all  the  uteumers  entering  Chesupeuko  Bay  touch  at  Norfolk,  which 

Fig.  78.— Norfolk  kiro  Pobthiouth. 

BoU*  1  :  TO,OUO. 


188 


is  also  a  harbour  of  refuge  and  port  of  call  for  the  numerous  fishing  smacks 
engaged  in  the  Chesapeake  oyster  industry.  The  rivalry  of  Newport  News  has 
not  prevented  Norfolk  from  olso  rapidly  coming  to  the  front  during  the  last  few 
years.  The  trade  of  Norfolk  is  much  furthered  by  the  Dismal  Swamp  and  Albe- 
marle and  Chesapeake  canals,  the  foi  .ner  of  which  extends  from  Norfolk  through 
the  swampy  coastlands  to  the  navigable  river  Pasquotank.     Norfolk  thus  serves 


ur-fi 


iW^ 


■w 


184 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


as  the  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the  North  Carolina  lowlands,  which  have  them- 
selves no  convenient  seaward  outlet,  being  separated  from  the  Atlantic  by  narrow 
strips  of  surf-beaten  sands. 

,  .    ,   14. — North  Carolina.        -./'.UJ'M^'^'  /'^y''.i.'M: 

North  Carolina  forms  in  its  physical  divisions  a  natural  southern  extension  of 
Virginia  along  ihe  Atlantic  seaboard.  Stretching,  like  the  conterminous  state, 
from  the  coast  to  the  trans-Appalachian  slope,  it  presents  similar  parallel  zones, 
which  are  characterised  by  a  corresponding  diversity  of  soil,  climate,  and  produc- 
tions. But  taken  as  a  whole,  North  Carolina  is  less  fertile  and  of  less  picturesque 
aspect  than  Virginia.  Vast  plains  of  ancient  marine  beds  are  covered  with  arid 
sands  crossed  by  planked  tracks  and  producing  nothing  but  conifers  ;  hence  the 
title  of  the  "  Turpentine  State  "  home  by  North  Carolina.  On  the  east  side  a 
large  part  of  the  seaboard  is  occupied  by  swamps,  sluggish  backwaters,  or  muddy 
arms  of  the  sea.  This  coast,  with  its  three  sandy  points  of  Cape  Hatteras,  Cape 
Lookout  and  Cape  Fear,  is  with  that  of  Texas  the  most  inhospitable  in  the  Union. 

Thanks  to  these  natural  disadvantages,  North  Carolina,  though  larger  than 
Virginia,  is  greatly  inferior  in  population,  trade  and  the  industries.  Nevertheless 
its  inhabitants,  almost  exclusively  English,  with  some  Scotch  and  Irish  Celts,  have 
by  emigration  during  the  first  half  of  this  century  largely  contributed  to  the 
peopling  of  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  and  Texas.  The  system  of  small  holdings  has 
developed  in  North  Carolina  an  energetic  democracy  of  sturdy  farmers. 

Raleigh,  the  capital,  is  one  of  those  places  of  secondary  importance  which 
have  been  chosen  as  the  seats  of  the  legislature  on  account  of  their  central  position. 
It  has,  moreover,  the  advantage  of  occupying  one  of  the  healthiest  sites  in  the 
forest  region.  Wilmington,  the  most  important  city  in  the  state,  lies  133  miles 
south-east  of  the  capital,  not  far  from  the  coast,  on  the  Cape  Fear  River,  which, 
despite  its  dangers,  is  the  point  of  easiest  access  from  the  sea.  During  the  Civil 
War,  Wilmington  acquired  considerable  importance  as  the  chief  station  visited  by 
the  blockade- runners,  which  here  landed  munitions  of  war  and  other  supplies, 
taking  in  exchange  cargoes  of  cotton  for  the  Bermudas  and  Bahamas.  This 
perilous  trade  was  actively  carried  on  till  it  was  arrested  by  the  capture  of  the 
forts  defending  the  entrance  of  the  Cape  Fear.  This  river  is  navigated  by  small 
steamers  plying  between  Wilmington  and  Faifetteville,  120  miles  higher  up. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  state  As/ieville,  with  its  orchards  and  fruit-gardens, 
occupies  a  central  position  in  the  heart  of  the  Appalachians.  It  serves  as  the 
starting-point  for  mountain  climbers  visiting  the  lofty  ranges  culminating  in 
Mitchell's  High  Peak.  During  the  month  of  September  the  women  and  children 
collect  in  the  surrounding  forests  the  roots  of  the  gint^eng  plant. 

This  Asheville  district  is  the  most  remarkable  in  the  Union  for  the  surprising 
variety  and  brilliancy  of  its  flora.  In  general  the  flowers  are  lovely  and  the 
fruits  excellent.  Grapes  grow  wild,  and  here  also  flourish  the  persimmon,  the 
Chickasaw  plum,  the  cranberry,  yeliow  jessamine,  the  rhododendron,  false  vanilla, 
yawpan  (yupon),  akin  to  the  miit6  (Paraguay  tea),  and  the  curious  Venus's  fly- 
trap (Dioncea),  which  entraps  and  digests  small  insects. 


■j-ijuoLix  iiiii *■ ■ v"'i!^!L!,'l'H'J*-'-'J--'' -'Jll'V-i-'MM'^ 


^A-"*gtfv?i?w?^-"^;-^  ^g.T^w,"">'"^5' 


SOUTH   CAEOLINA. 


185 


-.fc 


At  the  time  of  the  enforced  Cherokee  emigration  (1836-39),  a  small  tribe 
succeeded  in  maintaining  itself  in  the  western  extremity  of  the  state,  concealed  in 
a  remote  valley  of  the  Smoky  Mountains,  scarcely  known  to  the  whites.  In  1890 
this  tribe,  which  had  enjoyed  some  measure  of  prosperity,  numbered  2,885  souls, 
of  whom  nearly  one-half  were  full-blood  Indians.  The  Government  has  now 
granted  them  a  "  reserve,"  to  be  held  by  the  whole  group  collectively. 

1-5, — South  Carolina. 

This  region  formed  part  of  the  original  Carolina  province  from  1633  to  1729, 
when  the  two  colonies  of  North  and  South  Carolina  were  constituted.  The 
first  permanent  settlement  took  place  at  Port  Royal  in  1670,  and  ten  years  later 
the  same  settlers  established  u  station  on  the  site  of  the  present  Charleston.  The 
'•  Palmetto  State,"  as  it  is  called,  was  thus  one  of  the  thirteen  original  colonies, 
and  took  part  in  the  "War  of  Independence,  though  quite  a  number  of  its  citizens 
were  royalists  and  fought  with  the  English  army  against  the  colonial  forces. 

A  far  more  intense  feeling  prevailed  when  the  Southern  States  attempted  to 
sever  the  union  and  establish  an  independent  confederacy  ruled  by  the  slave  party. 
On  this  occasion  Charleston  took  the  initiative,  and  immediately  after  the  election 
of  President  Lincoln  South  Carolina  seceded.  All  the  forts  and  arsenals  belong- 
ing to  the  Federal  Government  in  the  state  were  seized,  with  the  single  exception 
of  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston  Harbour,  which  remained  for  some  months  in  the 
hands  of  the  .Northerners.  Here  occurred  the  first  open  conflict  between  the 
Northern  and  Southern  forces. 

South  Carolina,  which  is  of  rough  triangular  shape  wedged  in  between  North 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  presents  the  same  natural  features  as  the  other  cis- Appa- 
lachian states.  Beyond  a  zone  of  low  islands  and  swampy  tracts  fringing  the 
coast,  the  land  rises  towards  the  foot  of  the  Appalachians,  while  the  mountains 
themselves,  with  their  upland  valleys,  constitute  another  agricultural  province. 

The  Sea  Islands  produce,  though  in  small  quantity,  the  famous  long-staple 
cotton,  the  mo^t  highly  prized  in  the  world,  while  the  best  rice  in  the  Union  is 
grown  on  the  swampy  coastlandij.  But,  as  in  other  regions  formerly  cultivated 
by  slave  labour,  the  plantations  have  been  to  a  great  extent  exhausted  by  a  reckless 
system  of  tillage,  and  vast  tracts  now  lie  fallow. 

The  Civil  War  also  spread  like  a  devouring  conflagration  over  these  plains, 
destroying,  expelling,  or  ruining  the  planters.  A  considerable  portion  of  the 
land  passed  into  the  hands  of  Jewish  money-lenders,  and  the  total  assessed 
valuation  fell  from  $490,000,000  in  1860— of  which  |131.000,000  was  real  and 
^359,000,000  was  personal  property,  largely  slaves— to  $160,000,000  in  1890, 
of  which  $88,000,000  was  real  and  $62,000,000  personal  and  railroad  property. 

Of  the  abandoned  plantations  some  are  found  to  be  extremely  rich  in  the 
phosphatic  lime-rock,  which  was  formerly  used  only  as  road  metal,  but  which  has 
now  acquired  the  greatest  economic  value  as  an  excellent  fertiliser  of  the  exhausted 
soil.  The  niiuernl,  which  appears  to  be  of  remote  animal  origin,  is  found  in  a 
tract   1,200  square  miles  in  extent,  about   the  lowlands  and  river  beds  near 


Hi 


HI     ''.i 


186 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Charleston,  and  near  St.  Helena  Sound.  Here  the  yield  averages  ahout  1,400 
tons  the  acre  of  pure  phosphates,  of  which  nearly  318,000  tons  were  exported 
from  Charleston  in  the  year  1889. 

Some  of  the  districts  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  abound  in  other  treasures, 
including  auriferous  gravels,  which  have  been  profitably  worked  for  the  last  half- 
century.     Gold  also  occurs  in  reefs,  while  iron  ores,  copper,  lead,  manganese,  and 

Tig.  77.— CHAButaroK. 
Soale  1 :  136,000. 


'M5; 


79'57- 


Wett  oP  Greenwich 


79*50 


Depth*. 


0to5 
FathiHiM. 


SfWthMiui 
_»61tilM. 


bismuth  are  found  especially  in  the  north-west ;  and  elsewhere  kaolin,  red  and 
yellow  ochres  and  fine  soapstone  in  abundance. 

Before  the  Civil  War  the  population  of  South  Carolina  included  a  large  majority 
of  blacks,  about  three-fifths  of  all  the  inhabitants.  They  still  remain  the  most 
numerous  element,  and,  aided  by  the  Northern  party,  they  for  a  time  even  acquired 
the  political  ascendency.  But  their  triumph  was  of  short  duration  ;  by  means  of 
threats,  combined  with  a  skilful  manipulation  of  the  laws,  the  whites  have  succeeded 
in  completely  recovering  the  political  power. 

South  Carolina  has  for  official  capital  Columbia,  a  city  of  umbrageous  magno- 
lias and  oaks,  crowning  a  high  bluff  on  the  river  Congaree,  below  the  rapids.  Other 
affluents  converge  on  this  watercourse,  forming  with  it  the  Santee  River,  which 


I  A"   .l|!J^i-""J."_.    .  '  ■■•UfU 


CHABLESTON. 


187 


and 


reaches  the  Atlantic  north  of  Charleston.  This  city,  constructed  on  a  low  penin- 
sula surrounded  by  quays  and  promenades,  is  the  metropolis  of  the  state,  and  one 
of  the  historic  cities  of  America.  V^  foundation  dates  from  the  year  1G80,  and 
from  the  first  it  became  one  of  the  ct  tres  of  American  commerce  for  the  expor- 
tation of  cotton  and  rice,  and  especially  for  the  importation  of  slaves  from  the 
West  Indies.  During  the  War  of  Independence  it  was  twice  unsuccessfully 
attacked  by  the  English  fleet,  and  during  the  four  years  of  the  Civil  War  it  was 
not  taken  by  the  Federal  forces. 

Charleston  has  also  had  to  suCFer  from  fires,  floods,  and  earthquakes.     But  it 

Fig.  78.— Beaxtfobt. 
Sede  1 :  OU.OOO. 


Dep'ba. 


OtolO 
taet. 


10  Feet 
•adopwud* 

3,300  Tardi. 


rapidly  recovered  from  every  fresh  disaster,  and  in  1890  its  foreign  trade  was 
valued  at  about  ^23,000,000.  Charleston  lies  on  a  peninsula  formed  by  the 
two  broad  estuaries  of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  Rivers,  which  wash  the  city  on 
the  north  and  south  sides,  and  then  unite  on  the  east  side  to  form  a  perfectly 
safe  and  commodious  harbour.  This  spacious  basin  communicates  with  the  sea  at 
Sullivan's  Island,  seven  miles  lower  down ;  but  although  the  two  rivers  have 
depths  of  from  30  to  40  feet,  the  entrance  is  obstructed  by  a  tortuous  sandbar,  with 
not  more  than  10  feet  at  low  water  and  16  or  18  at  the  flow.  For  some  years 
^extensive  harbour  works  have  been  in  progress,  including  two  converging  piers, 
one  projecting  4,600  feet   from    Sullivan's  Island,  the  other  6,260  feet  from 


^m 


188 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


Morris  Island  on  the  south  side.  It  is  expected  that  the  scour  thus  produced 
will  have  the  effect  of  deepening  the  channel  to  over  20  feet  at  the  bar. 

The  approaches  are  defended  by  several  forts,  such  as  Cmtle  Pincknetj,  Fort 
Ripley,  and  Fort  Sumter  on  islands  in  the  harbour,  and  Forts  Moultrie  and  Johnson 
on  either  side  of  the  entrance.  if  '-     -  ■   ''^ 

Charleston,  which  covers  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  for  a  distance  of 
nearly  four  iniles  north  and  south,  with  an  average  breadth  of  one  and  one- 
half  miles,  is  well  kid  out  with  many  broad  shady  avenues  running  parallel 
with  Cooper  and  Ashley  Rivers,  here  1,400  and  2,100  yards  wide  respectively. 

Beaufort,  in  the  archipelago  of  the  Sea  Islands,  possesses  an  extensive  group 
of  excellent  anchoring  grounds  comprised  under  the  collective  name  of  Port 
Eoyal,  and  affording  ample  accommodation  fur  whole  fleets.  In  recent  years 
this  place  has  become  a  serious  rival  of  Charleston  for  the  exportation  of  cotton 
and  rice.  It  was  in  one  of  the  Port  Royal  islands  that  the  French  Huguenots, 
under  RibauU,  made  an  attempt  to  found  a  colony.  Here  also  the  first  English 
settlers  established  themselves  in  1670,  and  declined  to  adopt  the  eccentric  con- 
stitution framed  by  the  philosopher,  John  Locke,  which  set  up  a  nobility  of 
landgraves  and  caciques  under  the  colonial  proprietors.  This  constitution  lasted 
till  1729,  when  it  was  replaced  by  the  Crown  government. 

16. — Geohgia. 

Qcorgiu,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  states,  is  one  of  the  roost  important  of  all 
those  situated  south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line.  It  has  already  outctripped  both 
Tennessee  and  Virginia  in  population,  and  thus  earned  the  title  of  "  Keystone  of 
the  South,"  which  it  claims  as  a  set-off  to  Pennsylvani  i,  "  Keystone  of  the  North." 
It  occupies,  in  fact,  an  analogous  geographical  position,  inasmuch  as  within  its 
borders  is  comprised  the  divide  between  tlie  waters  flowing  south  and  south-west 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  south-east  to  the  Atlantic.  Its  seaward  frontage, 
however,  is  confined  to  the  relatively  narrow  coastline  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Savannah  and  Suint  Mary's  Rivers  on  the  south-east  side.  On  tho  south  and 
south-west  it  is  completely  enclosed  by  the  States  of  Florida  and  Alabp>ma,  so 
(hat  in  this  direction  it  nowhere  reaches  the  sea-coast. 

Georgia,  which  forms  an  inclined  plane  beginning  with  the  terminal  ridges  of 
the  Appalachians,  and  watered  by  numerous  streams  diverging  like  the  ribs  of  a 
fan  towards  both  seas,  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  in  North  America,  and 
before  the  Civil  War  enjoyed  a  large  measure  of  material  prosperity.  Thanks  to 
its  great  distance  from  the  chief  seat  of  the  military  operations  between  Washing- 
ton and  Richmond,  it  might  have  hoped  to  escape  from  the  horrors  of  the 
struggle.  But,  on  the  contrary',  of  nil  the  Southern  regions  it  was  exposed  to  the 
most  widespread  ruin,  for  it  was  across  Georgian  territory  that  Sherman  led  his 
devastating  army  in  the  campaign  undertaken  to  cut  in  two  the  Confederate  States. 
After  several  fierce  conflicts  for  the  possession  of  Atlanta  in  the  north-western 
part  of  the  state,  the  Federal  army  advanced  in  several  parallel  columns,  burning 
the  towns  and  farmsteads,  ravaging  the  plains,  destroying  bridges  and  railways, 


I  iwu«»i  III  jiaawMw— — »—»■ 


*'*ifH«'?rtnl!.  '\i"t%f^-r-i^ypi.y.^\-r- 


7'  1»  ji_sjiTii'^UJi*.>i 


OEOROU.— ATLANTA. 


189 


sweeping  everything  before  it  like  an  irresistible  cyclone  some  60  miles  broad. 
The  property  destroyed  during  this  terrible  march  was  estimated  at  ^400,000,000. 
Nevertheless,  Georgia  has  already  repaired  her  losses  and  even  increased  her 
population  by  one -half. 

Although  cotton  and  maize  are  the  chief  cultivated  crops,  the  land  yields  an 
immense  variety  of  other  agricultural  produce — wheat  iu  the  north-west,  tobacco 
in  the  north,  rice  and  some  sugar-cane  in  the  south,  elsewhere  sweet  potatoes, 
market-garci  .  produce,  grapes  and  other  fruils  in  great  abundance.  There  are 
extensive  grazing  lands  suited  both  for  cattle  and  sheep  farming ;  largo  herds  of 
swine  are  also  fattened,  chiefly  for  the  home  consumption,  and  while  the  sea 
islands,    as   in   South  Carolina,    yield   the  very  finest  long-staple  cotton,  the 


Fig.  79.— Shxbkan's  Mahob. 


♦♦♦♦♦♦ 


MthOorpi. 


«-«->-» 

ISth  OorpiL  t7th  Oon» 


SOUi  Corps. 


neighbouring  "  pine  barrens,"  stretching  some  60  miles  from  the  coast  inland, 
supply  great  quantities  of  lumber,  turpentine,  and  naval  stores  of  all  sorts. 

Atlanta,  which  since  the  War  has  been  chosen  as  the  sta^e  capital  through  a 
patriotic  sense  of  gratitude  for  its  long  resistance  to  the  Federal  armies,  does 
not  occupy  a  central  position  like  most  of  the  other  seats  of  state  legislation.  But, 
as  was  sufficiently  shown  by  Sherman's  campaign,  it  is  the  true  strategic  centre  of 
Georgia.  Jointly  with  Chattanooga,  it  holds  the  key  of  all  the  states  comprised 
between  the  Atlantic,  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  hence 
its  title  of  the  "  Gate  City."  Standing  at  an  altitude  of  over  1,000  feet  above 
sea-level,  Atlanta  commands  all  the  southern  passes  of  the  Appalachians  as  well 
as  the  headwaters  of  all  the  streams  diverging  from  this  hydrographic  centre 
towards   the  Mississippi,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Atlantic  waters.     Thia 


|-7.54^,ite- 


190 


'J  HE  UNITED  STATES. 


vital  strategic  importance  is  increased  1>y  the  numerous  trunk  lines  of  railway 
converging  on  Atlanta,  which  has  already  become  the  most  populous  city  of 
Georgia,  although  the  first  settlements  date  only  from  the  year  1840. 

About  12  miles  north-east  of  Atlanta  stands  the  so-called  Stone  Mountain, 
a  huge  granite  mass  supposed  to  be  the  Mount  Oluimi  of  the  Creek  Indians. 


Fig.  80.— Atlanta. 
^     Boole  1 :  180,000. 


Qrso 


.W»el  or  preenwich 


84'gO' 


■  SMilM. 


The  upper  plateau,  about  900  yards  in  circumference,  is  enclosed  by  a  wall, 
probably  the  remains  of  an  ancient  fortress. 

Till  recently  the  position  of  state  capital  was  contested  with  Atlanta  by  two 
other  cities,  Macon  on  the  Ocmulgee,  and  Milledgeville  on  the  Oconee,  both  near  tlie 
geometrical  centre  of  the  state.  Like  Columbus  on  the  Chattahoochee,  these 
places  have  sprung  up  on  the  spot  where  the  rivers  descend  in  rapids  from  their 
upper  valleys,  and  where  they  begin  to  become  navigable. 


SL- 


■(li. 


n 


S 

O 


^ 


%•' 


mmM 


AUGUSTA.— SAVANNAH. 


191 


Augusta,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Savannah,  opposite  Unmhnrg,  in  South 
Carolina,  occupies  a  similar  position  at  a  point  where  the  rapids,  with  a  total  full 
of  40  foet,  supply  driving  power  to  the  neighbouring  cotton-mills,  flour-mills, 
foundries,  and  other  factories. 

i  Savannah,  which  was  long  the  largest  cily  in  Georgia,  and  which  still 
remains  its  chief  commercial  centre,  lies  on  tho  south  side  of  the  Savannah  River, 
which  here  develops  a  broad  estuary  about  2-5  miles  long.  Savannah,  which  was 
founded  in  17J3  by  General  Oglethorpe,  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1789,  is  well 


l{.. 


Fig.  81. -Savannah. 
Scale  1  :  380,000. 


,  i.M.  \^ 


Vye«t  oF  Greenwich 


80'50* 


Suidi  exprvrd  at 
low  water. 


ft  to  Si 
Fstbuin*. 


Depths. 


3Ato5 
FiithoB)*. 


O  LiffhthniiM. 


B  FHtbom* 
•nd  upward*. 


i>i^6MilM. 


laid  out  with  spacious  avenues  closely  planted  with  shady  trees;  hence  the  title  of 
"  Forest  City,"  which  it  shares  with  Cleveland  and  some  others. 

The  river  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  Augusta,  and  the  harbour,  one  of  the 
best  on  the  south  coast,  is  accessible  to  vessels  drawing  20  feet.  Thanks  to  these 
advantages  the  trade  of  Savannah  has  already  far  surpassed  that  of  Charleston, 
the  exports,  chiefly  cotton  and  rice,  being  valued  at  |33,500,000  in  1890. 

The  other  seaports,  which  follow  southwards  along  the  Georgian  seaboard,  are 
all  of  dangerous  access,  but  are  none  the  less  frequented  by  numerous  craft 
engaged  in  fishing  and  the  coast  trade.  The  best  of  these  ports  is  Brunamck, 
on  St.  Simon's  Island. 


Wm 


X: ' 


IM 


THE  UNITED  OTATES. 


17. — Florida. 

The  prosent  Slutu  of  Fluridu  ia  a  mere  remnant  of  the  vast  territory  of  the 
•'  Floridus,"  which  formerly  extended  round  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  westwards  to 
the  Missisnippi  delta.  But  as  now  constituted,  it  has  the  advantage  of  forming  a 
distinct  geographical  region.  It  projects  abruptly  from  the  mainland  in  the 
direction  of  the  West  Indies,  which  its  Houthern  extremity  resembles  in  its 
geological  constitution  and  climate,  as  well  as  its  flora  and  even  its  fauna. 

Nor  did  Florida  form  part  of  the  original  Anglo-American  domain,  having 
been  purchased  from  Spain  so  recently  as  the  year  1819.  Its  progress  in  popula- 
tion and  wealth  also  has  not  kept  pace  with  that  of  the  northern  and  central 
states.  Settlement  has  been  greatly  retarded  by  the  lagoons,  backwaters,  and 
swamps,  which  cover  vast  tracts,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula.  Even  in  the  drier  districts  the  agricultural  settlers  from  the 
north  were  long  discouraged  by  the  obstacles  opposed  to  tillage  by  the  widely 
diffused  dwarf  palms,  which  ore  with  difficulty  uprooted,  even  by  the  plough. 

Lastly  u  great  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  agriculture  has  been  created  by  the 
vast  concessions  of  lands  that  had  been  made  to  various  distinguished  perscmages 
under  the  Spanish  admi^iistration,  concessions  which  were  afterwards  ratified 
by  the  United  States  Go^^ernment.  A  considerable  extent  of  the  best  lands  has 
thus  been  monopolised  by  foreigners  who  are  absentees,  not  only  not  residing  on 
their  estates,  but  for  the  most  part  either  leaving  them  uncultivated  or  else 
renting  them  tu  rapacious  syndicates. 

Yet  despite  all  these  serious  drawbacks,  the  population  of  Florida — three- 
fifths  white  and  two-fifths  coloured — has  more  than  '.oubled  since  the  Civil  War. 
Certain  agricultural  industries,  also,  amongst  others  the  production  of  oranges 
and  early  vegetables,  have  g^ven  the  country  an  increasing  economic  importance. 

On  the  Florida  nainland  the  chief  city  is  Jacksonville,  port  of  entry  of  the 
Suint  John  River,  and  centre  of  attraction  for  invalids  and  for  sportsmen  attracted 
to  the  lakes  and  woodlands  of  the  interior,  which  afford  excellent  fishing  and 
hunting.  The  harbour  is  unfortunately  of  difficult  access,  being  obstructed  by 
a  bar  which  has  scarcely  more  than  three  feet  at  low  water.  Converging  piers 
are  now  being  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  deepening  the  passage  to  14  or 
15  feet. 

Steamboats  ascend  the  Saint  John  for  a  distance  of  160  miles  to  Sanford, 
on  Lake  Monroe,  while  smaller  '•'essels  ascend  to  Lake  Florence,  150  miles  farther. 
The  river  itself  is  rather  a  "chain  of  lakes"  connected  by  channels,  as  indicated 
by  its  Indian  name,  Wi-la-ka.  One  of  these  lakes  has  received  the  appellation 
of  Lake  George,  from  its  resemblance  to  the  marvellous  lacustrine  basin  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  and  its  umbrageous  shores  are  yearly  visited  by  thousands  of 
strangers.  Higher  up,  the  Silver  Spring,  which  flows  through  the  Ocklawaha  to 
the  Saint  John,  near  Palatka,  develops  near  its  source  in  the  limestone  rock  a 
basin  200  yards  wide,  and  so  wonderfully  clear  that  its  sandy  bed  is  visible  at 
a  depth  of  nearly  70  feet.    Through  its  outlet,  which  is  accessible  to  large  river 


li  -jim.iiiiM|i 


MiiiiBiiififiiiiiriiiiii'imiiuiiiiiiiii 


m 


FLORIDA.— SAINT   AU0U8TINB. 


1«« 


ciaft,  this  basin  dlHcliargcB  tlio  prodigious  ({iiantity  of  about  500  (Mibic  foot  per 
liocond,  the  water  inaintaitiing  a  uniform  teuiiieraturo  of  50°  Fahr.^ 

Like  Jaoksouville,  Saint  Angimt  no,  which  lies  farther  south  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  is  surrounded  by  orange-groves.  This  is  the  San  Agontin  of  the  tirNt 
Spanish  colonists,  the  oldest  European  settlement  in  any  part  of  the  United 
Staten.  It  dates  from  the  year  1504,  but  even  before  that  time  the  sit«  had 
already  been  for  ages  occupied  by  Indians,  for  the  whites  built  their  dwellings 
on  enormous  shell-mounds,  and  other  heaps  of  kitchen  refuse  rising  nearly 
14  feet  above  sea-level.  Since  then,  however,  these  mounds  have  subsided, 
so  that  the  city  has  now  to  be  protected  against  the  erosive  action  of  the 
waves  by  a  broad  sea-wall  which  forms  the  chief  publin  promenade. 

Fig.  82.— Thb  Flobida  Rracn.  '"  \^. 

Bo«l»  1  : 8,800,000.  ■«■(■ 


Depths. 


Oto9i 
Fathoma. 


*itolO 
fathoma. 


10  to  100 
Fathoma, 


10O  Fnthuma 
and  upworda. 


O  liighthonae. 


,  AO  MUea. 


Farther  south  the  Florida  seaboard  for  a  distance  of  370  miles  to  its  extreme 
point  at  Cape  Sable  has  not  a  single  large  town,  nothing  but  a  few  villages 
and  some  lighthouses  and  little  havens  of  refuge.  The  whole  of  this  sea- 
board, however,  is  being  prepared  for  settlement  and  for  transformation  to  a 
vast  garden  by  the  draining  of  the  marshes,  and  this  work  has  already  been 
greatly  advanced  by  the  construction  of  a  canal  running  in  the  direction  of  the 
Caloosahatchee,  which  flows  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 

A  few  Seminole  Indians,  who  escaped  the  wholesale  transportation  of  1842, 
still  survive  in  over  twenty  camping-grounds,  in  the  islets  and  on  the  margin 
of  the  Everglades  (Pai  Oki,  or  "Grassy  Lake")  in  the  southern  part  of  tlie 

*  D.  0.  Brinton,  Ouiditook  to  Florida. 
7» 


IM 


TUB  UNITED  8TATE8. 


p<MiinMila.  Tlipy  nro  prohjwrouM  fHnnorH  and  craftKincn,  proparo  htan-li,  flour  hihI 
tA|>iu(*n  from  tiio  root  of  tlit)  kooiili,  urul  drcHH  hidim,  forwiinlirif;  thrir  prodiictt 
through  th(^  nci)(ld)oiiring  littlu  port  of  Miami,  and  iinportitig  for  ittir  own  umi 
HtovuM,  M'wing-niachinuH,  pianoH,  tiinopiuccH,  and  tho  like.  NunutroUH  nioun<lrt  and 
barrowH  mtatteri'd  over  tliu  inland  piaiiiH  and  hcapH  of  Hhcll-tnuundH  along  tho  nva- 
•hor«i  show  tliat  the  country  was  formc'rly  thickly  iM-opled.         , 

Thu  citadel,  guarding  tho  chanuelM  through  which  tho  Atlantic  cntnmnniratofi 
with  the  (iulf  of  Mexico,  han  l»«en  erecte<l  on  the  iHlet  of  AV//  West,  in  the  chain 
of  roufs  continuing  the  oast  cua«t  of  Florida  an  far  an  tho  ManpiosaH  and  Tortuga«. 

Fig.  83.— Kmt  Wm. 
aooa  1 1 100,0001 


5%3iei^-^ 


«/o^/^>]^^^ 


Mjf^tnoTo* 


ersff 


ffe»t  op  Greenwich 


8I*46' 


Deittbs. 


Suidn  MCpnMd  at 
low  wstor. 


Otoai 
Fatboma. 


SttoS 
Fathom*. 


ft  Fatboni* 
•ad  npwanla. 


2  MOaa. 


Key  West  is  the  Cayo  Hueso,  that  is,  "  Key  of  the  Bone  "  of  the  Spaniards,  so 
named  from  its  rocks  looking  like  bleached  animal  remains.  The  islet,  which  is 
only  five  by  two  miles,  rises  not  more  than  18  or  20  feet  above  the  main  level  of 
the  sea.  Nevertheless,  a  considerable  town  has  spmng  up  on  this  ivef  almost 
awash  with  the  waves. 

Key  West  has  the  advantage  of  possessing  an  excellent  well-sheltered  haven, 
acceseihle  to  vessels  drawing  from  20  to  23  feet.  Thanks  also  to  its  commanding 
position  between  two  seas,  it  has  become  the  natural  port  of  call  for  most  of  the 
lines  of  steamers  plying  to   and  fro  in  the  track  of  the  Gulf  Stream  through 


f:  -\ 


ai<niVi 


KEY  WI-asT— TAMPA. 


in 


Florida  I'uNJta^fc.  i-yiutf  ovor  uguitiMt  Ifiivana,  with  which  it  ii  connoctod  by  a 
■ubiiiuriut>  cublo,  Kuy  Wunt  •hurtis  in  tho  truda  of  tho  greut  Hpaninh  city,  und  in 
IHJJO  tho  burdrn  of  tho  Hhips  ontfiringand  cleuring  itH  port  oxcocdcd  2H(>,('00  toiiH. 
It  uIm>  roHcniLlus  thu  Cuban  capital  in  it*  pluaNunt  villun  ncntling  in  tho  Nhado 
of  paltna,  magnolias,  mangos  and  other  tropical  growths.  Thu  ('ubuiis  form 
a  oonHiderublo  section  of  tho  popuhition.  Key  West  boiiig  for  them  a  place  of 
refuge  and  a  utintru  of  propaganda  for  thoHe  expelled  front  the  Spanish  Autiilea. 


¥ig  M.— Tbm  LAOuinuifa  Ukoiom,  FLoanui. 

Sflkto  1  :  3,B0I>,IW0. 


DapUM. 


0to6 
IVitbani*. 


6(0  10 


10  to  100 
Fathonu. 


100  Faihom* 
and  upwuda. 


.aouiiM. 


The  Cuban  refugees  have  introduced  the  cigar  industry,  which  has  acquired 
a  great  development  in  Key  "West.  During  the  Civil  War  this  vitally  impor- 
tant station  was  held  throughout  by  the  Federal  fleet,  and  served  as  the  chief 
base  in  keeping  up  the  blockade  of  the  Southern  States. 

The  low-lying  west  coast,  being  obstructed  by  reefs  and  shoals,  presents  only 
a  few  ports  accessible  to  vessels  of  heavy  draught.  One  of  the  least  dangerous, 
used  especially  for  the  export  trade  of  cattle  to  Cuba,  is  Tampa^  an  old 
Spanish  settlement,  which  had  long  beer  abandoned.     Here  converge  all   the 


■)!« 


liiiiiii) 


196 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


vn%^i 


chief  roads  from  the  remarkable  region  of  countless  lakes  in  the  interior  of  the 
peninsula.  ,.;,       ;. 

Tampa,  which  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hillsborough  River,  on  the  east 
side  of  the  spacious  and  navigable  Tampa  Bay,  lies  about  100  miles  south  by  east 
of  Cedar  Keys,  the  principal  distributing  point  for  the  west  coast  of  Florida. 
This  station  lies  near  the  mouth  of  the  Suwanee,  which  rises  45  milen  higher  up 
at  Manatee  Spring,  so  ndmed  from  the  large  cetaceans  {Trichecua  tnanatm)  which 
formerly  frequented  the  wooded  shores  of  its  blue  waters.  The  remains  of  these 
marine  mammals  may  still  be  seen  half  covered  by  the  sands  and  sediment. 
Engineers  have  Jjscussed  the  question  of  constructing  a  navigable  maritime  canal 
at  the  root  of  the  peninsula  between  Cedar  Keys  and  Fernandina,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Saint -Mary's  Oliver  on  the  Atlantic  side.  Such  a  canal,  which  would  be 
about  137  miles  long,  would  enable  vessels  plying  between  New  Orleans  and 
New  York  to  avoid  a  detour  of  560  miles  round  the  peninsula  in  extremely 
dangerous  waters  studded  with  islets,  reefs,  and  keys.  The  annual  shipwrecks 
on  these  treacherous  coasts  represent  an  average  loss  of  about  $5,000,000. 

In  West  Florida  the  old  Spanish  settlement  of  San  Marco  {Saint  Mark's)  has 
been  a  mere  ruin  since  the  year  1704,  when  a  British  force,  aided  by  a  band  of 
Alibamon  Indians,  captured  the  fortress,  and  put  to  the  sword  or  reduced  to 
slavery  the  Appalachian  Indians,  who  were  settled  here  under  the  control  of 
Spanish  missionaries.  Saint  Mark's  is  the  natural  port  of  Tailahasfee,  capital  of 
Florida,  and  of  a  vast  well-watered  region,  which  might  easily  be  transformed  to 
a  lovely  garden. 

Near  the  Saint  Mark's  River,  some  12  miles  south  of  Tallahassee,  well  up  from 
a  depth  of»  100  feet  the  cold,  pure  waters  of  the  copious  Wakulla.  This  river, 
flowing  to  an  arm  of  Appalachee  Bay,  is  the  lower  course  of  the  Alachua,  which 
some  distance  higher  up  plunges  into  a  yawning  chasm,  and  then  reappears  as  the 
Wakulla.  Wakulla,  Silver  Spring,  and  Manatee  Spring  are  the  three  marvellous 
waters  of  Florida,  supposed  to  be  those  long  sought  by  the  Spaniards,  who  hoped 
in  them  to  find  the  fabled  "fountain  of  rejuvenescence." 

But  the  trade  of  this  region  is  gravitating  westwards  to  the  port  of  Pensacola, 
which  lies  on  the  west  side  of  Pensacola  Bay,  10  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
near  the  Alabama  frontier.  Like  Key  West,  Pensacola  is  a  military  station, 
although  the  United  States  navy-yard  is  at  Warrington,  seven  miles  nearer  the 
gulf ;  both  the  Spaniards  and  the  French  utilised  it  as  such  since  the  year  169-), 
and  during  the  frontier  wars  the  place  was  frequently  attacked  and  captured. 
The  harbour,  which  is  sheltered  from  all  winds,  and  accessible  to  vessels  drawing 
20  feet,  is  one  of  the  very  best  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  hence  the  great  strategic 
importance  of  Pensacola. 

Since  the  Civil  War,  and  especially  since  the  development  of  the  coal  and 
iron  mining  industries  in  Alabama,  Pensacola,  which  is  connected  by  rail  with 
the  central  states,  has  also  become  a  flourishing  trading-place.  Till  recently 
the  only  export  was  lumber ;  now  it  forwards  the  pig-iron  of  Alabama  and 
Tennessee,  and  it  has  become  the  chief  outlet  for  the  produce  of  Birmingham, 


-rrtssa 


iterior  of  the 

,  on  the  east 
south  by  east 
t  of  Florida. 
BH  higher  up 
natus)  which 
lains  of  these 
nd  sediment, 
aritime  canal 
it  the  mouth 
ch  would  be 

Orleans  and 
in  extremely 
1  shipwrecks 
0,000. 

Mark's)  has 
)y  a  band  of 
r  reduced  to 
le  control  of 
lee,  capital  of 
'ansformed  to 

well  up  from 
This  river, 
achua,  which 
ppears  as  the 
se  marvellous 
8,  who  hoped 

of  Pensacola, 
f  of  Mexico, 
.lary  station, 
IS  nearer  the 
leyear  169.J, 
md  captured, 
sels  drawing 
reat  strategic 

the  coal  and 
by  rail  with 
Till  recently 
Alabama  and 
Birmingham, 


APPALACHICOLA. 


197 


mining  and  iron  manufacturing  emporium  of  the  South.  In  1890  the  shipping 
cleared  and  entered  represented  a  total  btirden  of  676,000  tons.  The  approaches 
to  the  harbour  are  defended  by  Forts  Pickens  and  McRae. 

Fig.  86. — Banks  of  thi  Siltir  SpitiNO,  FtORiDA. 


Appalachicolay  which  perpetuates  the  name  formerly  borne  by  the  capital 
of  the  Palatzi  or  Appalachee  nation,  stands  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  River  Appa- 


SMMi 


nw 


198 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


lachicola,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  about  80  miles  south-west  of  Tallahassee, 
close  to  Cape  San  Bias.  The  river  is  the  lower  course  of  the  Chattahoochee, 
which  recalls  the  presence  of  the  Uches,  an  ludian  nation  allied  to  the  Creeks 
but  speaking  a  fundamentally  distinct  language. 

The  village  of  Chattahoochee,  situated  on  the  Appalachicola,  near  the  Flint 


'i! 


W  'i 


Fig.  86. — PENaACOLA. 
Bcale  1  :  180,000. 


r::'. 


' . :  o  .•  • 


,         ••    .    ...V-    •  •      ••      ••  ■    .    •f... 


_nf(l8t  ^F  Greenwich 


0to2i 
Fitthonu. 


DqitlM. 


2tto6 
Fathoms 


6  TatboKM 
and  upwarda. 


8  Miles. 


and  Chattahoochee  confluents,  stands  on  the  site  of  the  old  Indian  town  of 
Chnta-houche.  This  place  was  described  by  Bartram  *  as  the  largest  of  all  Indian 
towns,  with  wood  houses  plastered  with  mud  and  roofed  with  cypress  shingles. 

*  Trawlt  through  North  and  S^mth  CarokMa. 


■JC 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  GREAT  LAKES  AND  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 

I. — Relikf  of  the  Land. 

|F  the  three  g^eat  physical  divieiona  of  the  United  States,  by  far  the 
most  extensive  is  the  natural  region  which  forms  part  of  the  North 
American  central  depression  between  the  Frozen  Ocean  and  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  AUeghanies  and  Rockies,  which  form  its  two 
outer  rims,  enclose  a  space  with  an  average  diameter  of  about 
950  miles  in  all  directions,  comprising  about  three-fifths  of  the  superficial  area 
of  the  whole  Union  exclusive  of  Alaska. 

This  vast  region  is  t'ur  from  uniformly  inhabited,  and  immense  tracts, 
especially  on  the  trans- Mississippi  plains,  being  insufficiently  watered  either 
by  atrei'-fi  ■  bv  precipitation,  are  available  only  for  cattle  grazing.  But  nearly 
the    who''  .he    cis-Mississippi    states,  the    Louisiana  delta,  and    the  lands 

stretching  westwards  along  the  middle  course  of  the  Missouri  and  its  affluents,  ure 
endowed  with  marvellous  natural  resources.  In  this  prodigious  field  of  humun 
enterprise  hundreds  of  millions  of  people  might  easily  find  the  means  of  support. 
The  exceptional  advantage  of  these  regions  consists  in  the  extreme  facility  of 
the  communications.  Even  before  the^  development  of  the  railway  system,  the 
Mississippi  basin  and  the  Great  Lakes  offered  to  the  colonists  a  network  of  natural 
highways  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  elsewhere  found  in  any  of  the  mokt 
favoured  lands  of  the  glnbe.  To  these  navigable  routes  have  now  been  added  the 
innumerable  railroads,  whose  connections  are  yearly  becoming  more  and  more 
complete.  Traffic  springs  up  in  regions  till  recently  desert,  and  large  cities  rise 
like  a  mirage  in  the  midst  of  the  solitudes.  Although  the  Federal  capital,  and 
the  most  populous  cluster  of  urban  populations — New  York,  Brooklyn,  and  Jersey 
City — are  found  on  the  Atlantic  slope,  more  than  half  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Union  have  already  crossed  the  A'Ueghanies  and  settled  in  the  Mississippi  basin, 
and  from  year  to  year  |he  numerical  disparity  increases,  to  the  advantage  of  this 
central  section  of  the  Commonwealth. 

Between  the  two  mountainous  escarpments  of  the  great  plain  there  is  almost 

a  complete  absence  of  prominent  rising  grounds.     On  its  west  side  the  Appala- 

t  chian  system  is  flanked  only  by  foot-hills  of  moderate  elevation,  which  in  certain 

places  develop  continuous  ridges,  while  elsewhere  the  surface  presents  nothing  but 


^ 


mmmmsBsmmmmmsmmmm 


mmmmmmsm 


nr 


200 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


i 

ii 
1] 

1 

t 

i 


m 


m 


%m 


fllight  undulations,  or  is  broken  by  a  few  rounded  ominencps.  This  hilly  western 
region,  less  folded  and  fractured  than  the  eastern  slope  facing  the  Atlantic, 
consists  of  rocks  containing  bituminous  coal,  natural  gases,  oils,  salt,  iron  ores, 
much  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio. 

In  the  Ohio  basin  itself  the  chief  prominence  consists  of  a  long,  broad  swell- 
ing designated  by  geologists  the  Cincinnati  Axis,  because  the  metropolis  of  Ohio 
lies  in  its  track.  These  heights  are  connected  with  the  crest  of  the  waterparting 
which  skirts  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie  and  which  trends  thence  south-west- 
wards prrallel  with  the  AUeghanies.  But  in  thair  general  aspect  they  differ 
but  slightly  from  the  other  rugosities  of  the  surface,  while  the  system  is  in  places 
effaced  by  the  intersecting  lateral  valleys. 

Beyond  the  Wabash  the  prairies,  which  are  distinguished  from  the  eastern 
regions  by  the  predominance  of  a  herbaceous  vegetation,  are  altogether  destitute 
of  hills  beyond  those  long  rolling  swells  that  have  been  compared  to  the  ocean 
billows.  The  foldings,  often  imperceptible  to  the  eye,  correspond  to  the  trough 
between  the  waves  of  deep  water ;  they  are  formed  always  above  the  sources  of 
the  rivers  and  gradually  deepen  in  the  direction  of  the  slopes. 

West  of  the  AUeghanies,  properly  so-called,  towards  the  headwaters  of  the 
Oreen  River  in  Kentucky,  the  carboniferous  limestone  strata  assume  the  aspect  of 
rolling  plains  overlaid  by  thin  layers  of  sandstone  and  vegetable  himius.  These 
formations,  which  are  pierced  by  numerous  galleries,  are  continued  south  of  Ken- 
tucky into  Tennessee,  where,  however,  they  are  less  extensive.  West  of  the 
plateau  known  as  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  which  still  form  part  of  the  Appala- 
chian system,  though  separated  from  it  by  the  deep  parallel  valleys  of  the  Upper 
Tennessee  and  its  affluents,  the  ground  falls  and  towards  the  centre  of  the  state 
breaks  into  irregular  undulations.  This  uneven  ground  has  been  designated  by 
the  name  of  "  Highlands,"  although  its  mean  altitude  does  not  exceed  1,000  feet. 

The  "  Great  Basin "  of  Tennessee,  as  this  region  is  called,  has  a  superficial 
area  of  about  6,000  square  miles,  and  appears  at  some  remote  epoch  to  have  formed 
the  bed  of  a  lake.  It  presents  all  the  outlines  of  a  lacustrine  depression,  with 
its  creeks,  inlets,  shores,  capes  and  sandy  points,  while  the  alluvia  filling  all  the 
troughs  and  cavities  make  it  the  most  fertile  tract  in  the  whole  country.  Towards 
the  south  a  region  of  elevated  plains,  presenting  the  same  undulating  ground  as 
the  prairies  of  Illinois,  stretches  over  the  slope  of  the  Tombigbee  valley. 

The  zone  of  limestone  formation  limiting  tV:  Great  Basin  on  the  east  is 
deflected  southwards  parallel  with  the  course  of  the  Tennessee  River,  and  merges 
westwards  in  another  region  of  highlands  even  less  elevated  than  the  first,  stand- 
ing at  a  mean  altitude  of  scarcely  more  than  650  feet  above  sea-level.  This  elevated 
plain,  which  is  overlaid  with  strata  of  Tertiary  origin,  inclines  towards  the  west 
and  terminates  abruptly  in  the  line  of  bluffs  which  skirts  the  alluvial  winding 
valley  of  the  Mississippi  at  a  height  ranging  from  70  to  200  feet.  As  the 
great  river  itself  here  flows  at  an  elevation  of  about  182  feet  (extreme  low  water) 
above  the  sea,  the  crests  of  the  highest  cliffs  skirting  the  east  side  of  ita  valley 
have  an  absolute  height  of  about  350  feet. 


mm^ 


4BL 


THE  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


201 


The  bluffs  evidently  represent  former  banks  eroded  by  the  river  at  a  time 
when  it  sent  down  a  volume  of  water  far  greater  than  at  present.  They  consist 
of  sandy  beds  underlying  clays,  with  traces  of  lignites,  and  higher  up  of  ferrugi- 
nous gravels  thinly  covered  with  grey  or  yellowish  argillaceous  formations  enclos- 
ing calcareous  concretions  and  in  places  the  remains  of  huge  mammals  now  extinct. 
This  formation  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  loess  on  the  banks  of  the  Bhine  and 
in  the  vast  plains  of  the  Hoang-Ho  in  North  China.  >  '-'.       ,"  i^  - 

Between  the  great  river  and  the  base  of  the  Rooky  Mountains  the  surface  of 
the  land  presents  a  far  more  uniformly  inclined  plane  than  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Mississippi.      In   certain  parts  of  this  region  the  slope  is  so  gentle  that  the 

Fig  87.— Obxat  Silubtak  nAsa,  Tsmnsaaa. 
SetO*  t  :  8,500,000. 


eouiiM. 


g^nnd  seems  perfectly  level.  In  the  northern  districts  the  plain  is  now  known 
to  be  interrupted  by  terraces  or  successive  step  formations,  rising  continuously 
from  the  central  level  to  the  base  of  the  Rockies,  but  much  more  distinctly 
marked  in  British  North  America  than  in  the  United  States.  The  Coteau  des 
Fr<iiries,  as  the  first  rise  was  called  by  the  Franco-Canadian  pioneers,  is  extremely 
irregular,  and  dominates  the  Minnesota  Valley  at  a  height  of  800  feet. 

The  second  terrace,  separated  from  the  first  by  the  valley  of  the  James  or 
Dakota  River,  presents  a  continuous  escarpment  of  some  600  miles,  consisting 
below  of  the  clays  and  sands  deposited  by  the  waters  before  their  subsidence, 
above  of  the  drift  gravels  left  by  the  ice-cap  after  its  retreat.  This  is  the  Coteau 
dn  Missouri,  so  named  from  the  river  which  accompanies  it  on  the  west  side. 


202 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


w 


I 


11 


For  a  distance  of  uearly  700  miles  from  Laurcnlian  mountains  Dawson  has 
discovered  erratic  boulders  derived  from  those  Canadian  uplands.  The  first 
explorers  often  wrongly  described  some  of  these  "coteaux"  as  volcanoes.  The 
smoke  enveloping  the  slopes,  the  sulphurous  odour  filling  the  atmosphere,  the 
scorisD  of  burnt  clays  met  in  many  places,  proceed  not  from  the  eruption  of  lavas, 
but  from  the  combustion  of  the  lignites  contained  in  these  formations.  On  the 
other  hand  the  pumice  which  is  found  floating  down  the  Missouri  as  far  as  and 
beyond  Omaha,  is  brought  from  the  distant  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  layers  of  combustibles,  almost  everywhere  horizontal,  may  be  followed  by 
the  eye  along  the  slope  a6  clearly  as  if  painted  with  a  brush.  Ignited  at  some 
unknown  period,  they  continue  slowly  to  smoulder,  gradually  charring  the  soil  and 
transforming  it  to  a  sort  of  pozzuolan ;  hence  the  term  "  Cotes  BrCll^es,"  applied 
by  the  Canadian  trappers  to  several  of  these  smoking  hills. 

In  the  midst  of  the  boundless  prairies  the  monotonous  prospect  is  here  ana 
there  relieved  by  the  irregular  outlines  of  a  few  isolated  heights  or  ridges.  But 
none  are  developed  in  sufiiciently  large  proportions  to  constitute  a  distinct  oro- 
graphic system  except  the  Ozark  Mountains,  which  are  disposed  in  the  direction 
from  south-west  to  norfth-east  in  Indian  Territory  and  the  State  of  Missouri.  The 
range  runs  mainly  parallel  with  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  although  its  outlines 
are  far  more  irregular  than  those  of  the  cis-Mississippi  chains. 

Towards  their  south-west  extremity  the  Ozarks  present  the  aspect  of  a  ravined 
plateau,. surmounted  by  crests  at  an  average  height  of  from  1,000  to  1,300  feet. 
But  farther  uuith  they  are  decomposed  into  parallel  ridges,  whose  peaks  attain  an 
altitude  of  2,000  feet.  Here  and  there  the  crystalline  granite  nucleus  is  seen 
cropping  out  above  the  paleozoic  rocks  covering  the  slopes.  The  remarkable 
ferruginous  masses  occurring  towards  the  north-east  extremity  of  the  Ozark 
Mountains  appear  to  be  of  eruptive  origin.  Iron  Mountain,  one  of  these  eminences, 
although  not  more  than  230  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain,  represented,  when 
discovered,  a  mass  of  230,000,000  tons  of  ore.  Below  the  surface  every  yard  of 
thickness,  even  supposing  the  slopes  to  descend  vertically  into  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  would  add  3,000,000  tons  to  these  mineral  treasures.  The  Pilot  Enob  was 
considerably  higher  (580  feet),  but  the  mineral  mass  was  less  homogeneous,  iron 
ores  alternating  with  layers  of  slates.  Both  mountains  were  formerly  regarded 
as  inexhaustible ;  yet  they  arc  now  but  little  worked,  nearly  all  the  best  ores 
having  already  been  smelted.  To  the  south-west  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the 
Ozarks  in  Missouri  and  south-eastern  Kansas,  lead  is  also  mined  and  smelted  in 
considerable  quantities. 

In  a  line  with  the  Ozarks  other  heights  of  irregular  outline  collectively  desig- 
nated by  the  name  of  the  Wichita  Mountains,  traverse  Indian  Territory  and 
Arkansas.  Like  the  Ozarks  these  heights  have  a  hard  nucleus  on  which  are  over- 
laid Silurian  beds.  Some  of  the  Wichita  masses  are  disposed  in  separate  ridges^ 
while  others  assume  the  aspect  of  plateaux  similar  to  those  of  Texas,  from  which 
they  are  separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Red  River. 

These  Texan  uplands  on    their  part  are  not.  continued  uniformly   without 


%B 


THE  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


208 


some 


iron 


relief  over  vast  space.  They  also  are  disposed  in  a  lino  with  the  Ozurks  and 
Wichitas,  and  present  groups  of  heights,  and  even  isolated  cones,  rising  like 
volcanic  islands  above  the  waters.  The  space,  slightly  inclined  from  west  to  east, 
between  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Texuu  plateaux,  the  Wichitas,  O/arks,  and 
northern  Black  Hills,  foot-hills  of  the  Rockies,  was  formerly  occupied  by  one  or 
more  lacustrine  depressions,  of  which  numerous  traces  still  survive. 
"  The  greater  part  of  Texas  consists  of  plateaux,  which  follow  in  vast  terrace 
formations  from  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Pecos  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  upper 
terrace,  abruptly  escarped  on  the  side  facing  the  river,  attains  in  its  western 
sections  an  altitude  of  nearly  5,000  feet,  and  slopes  gently  towards  the  south  and 
east.  Its  lower  scarp  still  stands  at  a  mean  height  of  about  3,000  feet  above  the 
second  terrace.  Viewed  as  a  whole  it  presents  the  aspect  of  a  prodigious  sand- 
stone block,  with  slightly  rolling  surface,  and  destitute  of  fissures  or  deep  ravines. 

The  vast  plateau,  some  27,000  square  miles  in  extent,  is  uninterrupted  by  a 
single  fluvial  valley.  Fearing  to  lose  their  bearings  in  this  boundless  solitude,  the 
first  Spanish  explorers  erected  posts  as  landmarks,  at  intervals,  to  indicate  the  direc- 
tions to  be  followed  between  the  pools  of  water,  the  wells  and  patches  of  herbage. 
Hence  the  name  of  Llano  Entacado,  *'  Staked  Plain,"  given  to  the  whole  of  this 
desert  region.  > 

The  second  terrace,  standing  at  a  mean  altitude  of  about  2,000  feet,  and,  like 
the  Llano  Estacado,  formed  of  Secondary  strata,  presents  a  more  diversified  aspect 
than  the  first.  The  streams  that  here  have  their  rise  carve  it  into  several  parallel 
valleys,  with  a  south-easterly  trend  at  right  angles  writh  the  coast.  Belts  of  arbo- 
rescent vegetation  fringe  the  banks  of  the  watercourses,  while  the  intermediate 
spaces  oiler  a  little  sparse  verdure. 

The  third  terrace,  with  a  mean  elevation  of  600  or  700  feet,  already  forms  part 
of  the  zone  of  Tertiary  rocks :  it  was  uniformly  covered  by  a  grassy  carpet  before 
the  planters  came  and  brought  much  of  the  ground  under  cultivation. 

Farther  down  the  alluvial  zone  of  the  present  seaboard  forms  the  lowest  level 
in  this  prodigious  flight  of  steps. 

A  considerable  portion  of  Texas  and  of  Oklahoma  Territory,  especially  within  the 
limits  of  the  Staked  Plain,  is  covered  with  a  continuous  layer  of  gypsum,  probably 
the  most  extensive  in  the  whole  world.  It  is  estimated  to  have  a  length  of  370 
miles  and  a  breadth  of  200  miles,  a  territory  larger  than  the  whole  of  England 
and  Wales,  with  a  thickness  of  over  5,000  feet.  In  many  places  this  absolutely 
inexhaustible  deposit  of  gypsum  assumes  the  form  of  transparent  alabaster ;  else- 
where it  takes  the  character  of  crystalline  selenite.  It  also  occurs  veined  and 
striated  in  diverse  colours  derived  from  metallic  oxides.  The  streams  that  have 
eroded  the  plateau  have  carved  it  into  cone-shaped  knolls,  each  surmounted  by  a  cake 
of  gypseous  rocks,  with  vertical  sides. 


II. — Ancient  Glaciers,  Lakes,  and  Riveks. 
The  geographical  features  of  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi  valleys,  have  been  profoundly  modified  by  glaciation. 


Lakes  ha\e 


aiHiililia 


iMW 


I! 


104 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


changed  their  form  ;  rivers  have  shifted  their  courses  ;  water-partings  have  been 
displaced  ;  all  noturo  has  been  remodelled  ;  yet  under  the  present  relief  it  is  still 
possible  in  many  places  to  recognise  the  former  aspect  of  land  and  water. 

South  of  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  the  edge  of  the  glacial  drift,  disposed  about 
parallel  with  the  southern  shores  of  the  lakes,  trends  first  south-westwards,  then 
bending  round  to  the  Simth,  crosses  the  Ohio  River  a  short  distance  above  the  spot 
where  now  stands  the  city  of  Cincinnati.  Glacial  muds  and  erratic  boulders 
are  met  in  northern  Kentucky,  from  600  to  600  feet  above  the  bed  of  the 
Ohio.  But  oust  of  Louisville  the  lower  edge  of  the  glacial  drift  is  again 
deflected  northwards  to  the  "Wabash  Valley,  and  then  describes  a  great  bend  in 

Fig,  88. — BEaioKB  fobxeblt  ootebed  bt  ma  Noutbbbn  Ick-Oap. 

Bool*  1  ■■80,000,000. 


E3 


IS 


Olioua  drift. 


'■''■■^  ;s',  ■''  pv 


Direction  of  the 
ioe  straiima. 


Outer  rliatau  of 
morainM. 


AndMit  take 
Agiraii. 


.eWHOe*. 


the  southern  part  of  Illinois,  crossing  the  Mississippi  below  Saint  Louis  and 
embracing  the  whole  of  the  Missouri  Valley. 

'  '  As  in  New  England,  the  State  of  New  York  and  North  Pennsylvania,  the 
traces  of  the  former  presence  of  ice  are  easily  detected ;  such  are  the  scratched 
surface  of  the  rocks,  erratic  boulders,  frontal  and  lateral  moraines,  kames, 
drumlins,  lake?,  and  kettleholes.  In  certain  districts  of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin 
such  is  the  aspect  of  the  land  that  the  melting  of  the  ice-cap  might  seem  to  be 
quite  a  recent  phenomenon.  Certain  freshwater  lakes  with  the  granite  blocks 
strewn  over  their  margin,  and  the  lower  moraine  still  damming  them  up,  look 
almost  as  if  they  were  but  yesterday  filled  with  ice. 

As  they  advanced  southwards    the  frozen  masses   drove  before    them   the 
fluid  contents  of   the  lakes   that  filled    the    cavities    caused    by  the  folding 


ANCIENT  OLAOIEBS  „HD  LAKES. 


205 


or  cracking  of  tho  crust  of  the  earth.  Thus  various  indiRations  have  enabled 
geologists  to  reconstruct  a  map  of  the  epoch  when  tho  front  of  tho  glucior  filling 
tho  northern  half  of  the  busins  flooded  by  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan,  hud  pressed 
southwards  the  two  united  sheets  of  Erie  and  Ontario.  Collectively  these  inland 
seas,  which  already  existed  long  before  the  Glacial  Epoch,  and  which  were 
inhabited  in  their  lower  depths  by  organisms  of  murine  origin,  formed  a  sheet  of 
water  more  extensive  than  the  present  Lake  Superior. 

Farther  south  stretched  another  scarcely  inferior  lacustrine  basin,  a  basin 
formed  by  the  damming  up  of  the  Ohio  at  the  point  where  now  stuuds  the  city  of 
Cincinnati.  Pent  up  by  this  prodigious  barrier  of  ice  and  rocks,  the  running 
waters  accumulated  back  of  the  obstacle,  penetrating  into  the  lateral  valleys,  and 
transforming  them  to  bays  and  inlets.     At  the  spot  where  at  present  the  waters 

■••    t   . 
¥ig.  80.— Old  Lakb  Ebik-Ontabio. 

Boole  1  :  10.000000. 


188  Mites. 


of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  converge  to  form  the  Ohio,  the  lake,  1,000  feet 
deep,  filled  the  valley  to  the  crest  of  the  fringing  hills. 

According  to  Wright  the  margins  may  be  followed,  round  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  periphery  of  this  ancient  Lake  Ohio,  which  may  be  reconstructed  in  thought. 
But  the  geological  transition  from  the  lacustrine  to  the  fluvial  condition  of  the 
Ohio  was  perhaps  somewhat  protracted,  owing  to  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  ice 
itself,  now  advancing  southwards  far  into  the  inteiior  of  Kentucky,  now  retreating 
northwards  sufficiently  to  leave  a  free  passage  to  the  outflow. 

By  an  effort  of  the  imagination  we  may  conceive  the  overwhelming  effect  of  the 
bursting  of  such  a  reservoir  as  that  of  the  Ohio,  some  20.^  00  square  miles  in  extent, 
sweeping  down  in  its  irresistible  flood  huge  blocks  of  ice  and  vast  moraines,  and 
grinding  the  detritus  to  gravel  and  sands,  with  which  to  fill  up  gulfs  and  valleys 
lower  down.  Doubtless  the  erosion  of  the  hills  right  and  left  of  the  upper  Ohio 
valley  was  caused  by  these  deluges,  themselves  due  to  the  rapid  discharge  of  thr; 


206 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


^alco.     Tho  terraces  thus  crentcd  are  not  horizontal  like  tho  shores  of  a  lake,  but 
are  rogulurly  inclined  in  tho  same  direction  us  the  fluvial  emissary. 

Like  the  hikes,  the  watercourses  also  were  displaced  by  tho  action  of  the  glaciers. 
Some  basins  wore  emptied,  others  filled  up,  while  the  original  course  of  certain 
rivers  was  reversed,   so  that  some  flow  south  or  north  which  hud  formerly  a 

Fig.  90.     DnuMtiNS  OF  Wibcomsik. 

HoiUe  I  ;  IMXI.IWO. 


v.* 


WP7^- 


89*15' 


West  oP  Greenwich 


.  8  MUcf . 


northern  or  southern  trend.  During  the  progress  of  the  glaciers  the  streams 
were  naturally  deflected  in  the  direction  of  the  south.  Thus  the  Red  Biver  of  the 
North,  at  present  the  main  headstream  of  the  Nelson,  which  discharges  into 
Hudson  Bay,  flowed  at  that  time  southwards  to  the  Mississippi. 

So  also  Lake  Michigan  sent  its  overflow  south-westwards  through  the  Des 


*  ""-- 


m> 


rUE^^ENT  lIYDUoaRAPIIlC  8YSTKM. 


207 


le,  but 

aciors. 
sertain 
erly  a 


reams 
of  the 
I  into 

)  Des 


Plai'nea  (Illinois)  River,  and  thus,  like  tho  MinncBotu,  aUo  belongr<i  to  tlie 
MiHBissippi  Klope.  Lastly,  at  the  other  extremity  of  tho  busin  tho  M«uni«<o,  now 
tributary  to  Lake  Erie,  as  well  as  tho  dtncNce  and  Oswego,  affluents  of  Lake 
Ontario,  had  been  doHocted  southwards  to  tho  Mississippi  through  the  Ohio. 

But  then  came  the  great  deb&cle,  which  gave  rise  to  such  vast  liicuatrine 
basins  as,  for  instance,  the  geological  Luke  Agassiz,  of  which  Winnifieg  is  but  a 
feeble  survival.  When  these  basins  were  exhausted,  and  the  huge  accumulations 
of  the  ancient  moraines  broken  up  by  the  floud-wuters,  and  redistributed  in  fresh 
mounds  or  barriers  of  glacial  drift,  then  tho  various  watercourses  had  to  seek 
new  outlets  along  the  lines  of  least  resistance  on  the  convulsed  plains.  Thus, 
since  the  epoch  when  the  immense  ice-cap  was  melted  which  formerly  covered 
this  larger  "Greenland"  to  a  height  of  several  hundred,  possibly  several  thousand, 
yards,  the  relief  of  the  land  has  been  profoundly  modified  by  erosive  action. 

Innumerable  lacustrine  reservoirs,  especially  in  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin, 
have  remained  in  the  bed  of  the  cavities  throughout  the  whole  region  limiied 
southwards  by  the  frontal  moraines.  Such  are  the  "  ten  thousand  "  lakes,  among 
which  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red  River  of  the  North  take  their  rise  ;  such  also 
are  the  sheets  of  water  dotted  over  the  district  south  of  Lake  Superior,  as  well  as 
those  of  south  Wisconsin,  the  deep  Devil's  Lake,  and  those  of  Mendota  and 
Monona,  forming  the  peninsula  on  which  stands  the  state  capital,  Mudison  City. 

In  Iowa  tho  glacial  basins  of  similar  formation  have  received  the  name  of 
"walled  lakes,"  the  lower  moraine  damming  them  up  being  compared  to  an 
artificial  stone  rampart.  The  drumlins  are  no  less  numerous  in  these  Mississippi 
regions  than  in  New  England,  and  have  even  much  better  preserved  their  original 
aspect.  Some  of  them  contain  auriferous  alluvia  derived,  like  the  heaped- up 
boulders,  from  the  northern  granite  reefs.  Here  and  there  the  metal  is  abundant 
enough  for  profitable  mining. 

Present  Hydrooraphic  Systems. 

The  affluents  flowing  from  the  central  plain  of  the  Union  to  the  Great  Lakes 
represent  but  a  very  small  volume  of  water,  b'uch  are  the  Saint  Louis,  source 
of  the  Saint  Lawrence  ;  the  Menominee  and  Fox,  which  reach  Lake  Michigan  at 
Green  Bay ;  the  Saint  Joseph,  the  Grand  River,  the  Muskegon  or  "Swampy," 
flowing  through  the  peninsula  to  the  east  side  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  the 
Maumee,  a  western  tributary  of  Lake  Erie,  all  relatively  small  streams.  The 
Genesee,  one  of  the  minor  affluents  of  Lake  Ontario,  is  noteworthy  for  the  ana1(>gy 
it  presents  to  its  neighbour,  the  Niagara,  copious  emissary  of  Lake  Erie.  It  flows 
at  first  in  a  placid  stream  through  a  somewhat  broken  upland  until  it  reaches 
Portageville,  in  Wyoming  County.  Here  the  Genesee  descends  from  the  plateau 
into  a  deep  gorge,  which  has  been  gradually  excavated  by  the  erosive  action  of 
its  current.  The  first  three  cataracts  have  a  total  fall  of  260  feet,  while  the  rockv 
walls  of  the  lower  gorge  rise  to  a  height  of  nearly  400  feet.  Farther"  on  the 
stream  again  meanders  through  the  plains  as  far  as  the  city  of  Rochester,  where 
it  again  develops  three  successive  falls  with  a  total  height  of  200  feet,  plunging 


iir1iiliriWWMillHllimwtTMMi»Bi  1 1  iiliiii  ■InraMiWlllit 


2(t.S 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I 


ovt?r  tlio  OM'nrpmont  of  Nmgani  liinefetuiu!,  wliU;li  foriiiK  a  viwt  Ih*H(I  houth  of  On- 
Uirio,  north  of  Huron,  and  went  of  Michigan.  The  caxcadeH,  chaflnm,  and  for<!8t 
growfhw,  doHconding  to  the  water'8  odgc  at  the  rocky  lodgoH  and  in  the  glunn,  pro- 
Honted  vintaMof  niarvttiloiiH  U'auty  to  tho  firut  cxphjrt'rn;  l)Ut  all  thin  lovely  tKienery 
18  now  widly  iniirrud  l>y  worknliopH,  HcafToldingH,  factory  chimnoyH,  and  bridges. 
A  few  lakes,  Hooding  the  narrow  valleys  disposed  in  tho  direction  from  soutli 

Fig.  St.— Moirrni  of  thb  Aitalachiooi.a  •  '     • 


Vw»t   oF  Greeni^ich 


Depth* 


UtoS) 
Fathomi. 


9)  to  5 
?«lhom». 


B  Fathoms 
•nd  upwanUb 


3  Milt*. 


to  north,  seudtbeir  surplus  waters  to  the  Genesee.  Thnse  lakes  are  tl^e  remains 
of  ancient  fiords  which  formed  part  of  the  original  Ontario  Sea,  and  which  became 
separated  from  the  main  reservoir  by  the  accumulated  mass  of  moraines  comprised 
politically  within  the  territory  of  New  York,  although  belonging  physically  to 
the  great  central  plain. 

Other  lakes  of  much  larger  size  have  shared  in  the  geological  histor)'  jf  the 
baains  remoulded  by  glaciul  action.    Such  are  the  lakes  of  the  Iroquois,  or  "  Six 


I 


tflK  IRCKiUOIB  LAKE8. 


Nutionn,"  long  windi'n'^  Hhoots  of  water,  in  which  are  mirrorod  tho  verdant  nlopcn 
on  both  Hides.  Viuwed  m  u  whol(^  theie  buNiiiH  presMit  the  uxpoct  of  a  fun  with 
ribi  divcrf^in}^  from  north  to  south-woit,  nouth,  an  1  aouth-oaflt.  Cuntindaiguu, 
the  tirrtt  basin  oust  of  the  Qenewo  Iliver,  is  foUowiul  by  Keuka,  or  "Crooked 
Lake,"  Huueca  and  Cayuga  ("  Hwatnpy,"  in  IroquoiH)  ;  Cayuga  is  tho  longest  of 
all,  stretching  from  south  to  north  a  total  distance  of  nearly  40  miles. 

Then  follow    iu  their  order  from  west  to  east  Owasco,   Skaneuleles,  Otisco, 


■,»i  / 


WM^' 


210 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


East  of  the  Mississippi  the  streams  flowing  in  independent  channels  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  have  a  considerable  extent  of  drainage  area  BOuth*west  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountains.  The  first  river  reaching  the  gulf  west  of  the  peninsula 
of  Florida  is  the  Chattahoochee,  that  is,  "  River  of  the  Hoochees  or  Uchees,"  which 
rises  in  the  southern  Appalachian  group,  and  trends  first  towards  the  south-west, 
along  the  line  of  prolongation  of  the  main  axia  of  the  Appalachian  system. 

Beyond  its  upper  course,  where  it  flows  in  a  shingly  granite  bed  strewn  with 
bright  crystals,  the  limpid  stream  descends  through  a  series  of  cascades  from 
terrace  to  terrace,  down  to  the  lower  plains.  After  its  confluence  with  the 
Flint  it  takes  the  name  of  Appalachicola  from  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
the  district  ("  river  of  the  Appalaches  "  in  the  Creek  language),  and,  like  the 
rivers  of  Carolina  and  Georgia,  enters  the  sea  through  shallow  waters  obstructed 
by  a  bar. 

The  Alabama,  whose  catchment  basin  occupies  nearly  the  whole  space  com- 
prised between  the  Chattahoochee  and  the  Mississippi,  also  has  its  rise  amongst 
the  terminal  Appalachian  groups.  From  its  source  to  its  mouth,  despite  numerous 
extensive  windings  to  right  and  left,  it  maintains  the  normal  course  from  north- 
east to  south-west.  All  the  swellings  of  tbe  ground,  as  well  as  the  border  ridges 
of  the  plateaux  on  either  side  of  the  fluvial  valleys,  are  likewise  regularly  disposed 
in  the  same  direction,  exactly  in  a  line  with  the  main  Appalachian  axis. 

Flowing  at  first  under  the  name  of  the  Coosa,  the  river  takes  towards  its 
middle  course  the  designation  of  the  Alabama.  It  falls  into  Mobile  Bay  through  a 
ramifying  delta,  whose  sedimentary  deposits  are  rapidly  encroaching  on  the  waters 
of  the  bay.  To  the  Alabama  system  now  belongs  the  Tombigbee,  which,  after  its 
junction  with  the  Tuscaloosa  ("  Black  Warrior  "),  communicates  with  the  delta 
through  an  intricate  network  of  lateral  channels.  But  at  a  former  epoch  the 
Tombigbee  was  an  independent  stream,  reaching  the  gulf  in  a  separate  channel. 
Both  watercourses  are  accessible  to  steamers,  which  ascend  their  turbid  currents 
for  a  great  distance  into  the  interior  of  the  plains. 


The  Mississippi-Missouri  System. 

The  Mississippi,  main  artery  of  the  United  States,  may  be  taken  as  the  type 
of  a  great  watercourse.  Unlike  most  rivers  with  extensive  ramifications,  it  does 
not  take  its  rise  in  the  glaciers  of  some  lofty  mountain  range ;  nor.  \  iewed  as  a 
whole,  does  its  current  offer  any  great  changes  of  level.  From  the  lakes  at  its 
source  to  its  terminal  mouths  it  presents  an  almost  uniform  incline,  its  course 
describing  an  extremely  elongated  parabolic  curve. 

Following  the  main  continental  axis,  the  Mississippi  traverses  the  great  cen- 
tral plain  which  divides  into  two  distinct  sections  the  whole  of  this  division  of  the 
globe.  The  Mississippi  is  thus  in  a  pre-eminent  sense  the  fluvial  artery  of  North 
America,  and  the  contour  lines  of  its  catchment  basin  coincide  with  the  main 
features  of  the  continental  relief.  On  the  west  side  the  Rocky  Mountains  with 
the  Utah  plateau,  on  the  east  the  parallel  foldings  of  the  Appalachian  system,  con- 
stitute the  outer  rims  of  the  central  depression,  which  stretches  from  the  Arctic 


....« 


THE  MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI  SYSTEM. 


Sll 


Dels  to  tlie 
rest  of  the 
3  peninsula 
ees,"  which 
south-west, 
stem. 

trewn  with 
Bcades  from 
e  with  the 
.abitants  of 
id,  like  the 
3  obstructed 

space  com- 
ise  amongst 
be  numerous 
from  north- 
rder  ridges 
rly  disposed 
s. 

towards  its 
y  through  a 
n  the  waters 
ch,  after  its 
bh  the  delta 
r  epoch  the 
ate  channel, 
bid  currents 


as  the  type 

ions,  it  does 

iewed  as  a 

lakes  at  its 

e,  its  course 

18  great  cen- 
vision  of  the 
ry  of  North 
th  the  main 
untains  with 
system,  con- 
a  the  Arctic 


Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  southern  section  of  which  is  watered  by 
the  Mississippi  and  its  lateral  branches. 

Whether  below  the  confluence  the  united  waters  of  the  great  central  depres- 
sion of  North  America  should  not  bear  the  name  of  Missouri,  is  a  question  which 
has  long  been  discussed,  and  is  even  still  the  subject  of  academic  debates.  The 
geographers  who  would  like  to  re-baptise  the  Mississippi  keep  their  eyes  shut  to 
every  consideration  except  a  fact  of  secondary  importance,  that  is,  the  distance 
from  source  to  mouth  expressed  in  so  many  leagues  or  miles. 

But  geography  is  not  a  question  of  figures ;  nor  are  length  of  course  or 
volume  of  water  the  primary  facts  in  the  classification  of  rivers.  IliHtory  tells 
us  that  the  displacement  of  tribes  or  nations,  and  the  general  movement  of  traffic 
along  main  trade-routes  are  the  chief  factors  to  be  considered  in  retaining  the 
names  of  rivers  traversing  a  great  extent  of  country.  But  these  historic  and 
commercial  movements  are  determined  especially  by  the  lay  of  the  land,  the 
direction  of  the  fluvial  basins,  the  general  slope  and  the  consequent  facilities 
afforded  for  migrations  and  international  intercourse. 

From  this  standpoint  the  lower  Mississippi,  and  not  the  Missouri,  obviously 
forms  the  continuation  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  For  the  United  States,  viewed 
as  a  whole,  the  natural  parting-line  for  climate,  economic  plants  and  populations 
is  that  traced  by  the  Mississippi  from  its  source  to  its  delta.  On  one  side  stretches 
the  East,  on  the  other  the  Far  "West  of  the  North  American  Union,  with  all  their 
endless  contrasts  of  soil,  temperature  and  natural  resources. 

From  Lake  Itasca  to  the  sea,  the  great  watercourse,  a  "meridian  in  motion," 
follows  the  median  depression  of  the  basin,  whereas  the  Missouri  descends 
obliquely  to  the  main  continental  axis.  Moreover,  the  valley  of  tbe  Mississippi 
preserves  throughout  the  same  physical  characters,  or  at  least  the  changes  are 
effected  by  extremely  slow  transitions.  Whether  flowing  through  savannas  or 
prairies,  pine  or  "  cypress  "  forests,  the  same  horizon,  allowing  for  differences  of 
latitude,  iff  everywhere  presented  to  the  traveller  sailing  down  the  great  artery. 

On  the  other  hand  a  totally  distinct  and  far  more  diversified  physiognomy  is 
imparted  to  the  Missouri  by  the  h)fty  ranges  where  its  farthest  headwaters  have 
their  source,  by  its  gloomy  canons  and  swirling  rapids,  by  the  eruptive  rocks, 
scoriee  and  lavas  skirting  its  banks.  Geologically  speaking,  the  Missouri  is  a 
river  of  entirely  different  character  until  it  reaches  the  central  depression. 

Thus,  all  things  considered,  popular  usage  has  done  well  to  retain  the  name  of 
the  central  branch  for  the  whole  system.  This  name,  however,  has  been  slightly 
modified  from  the  Algonquin  Mist  Sepa,  Misi  Sipi,  an  expression  also  applied  by 
the  natives  to  several  rivers  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  This  designation 
appeared  too  simple  to  Chateaubriand,  who  changed  it  to  Mcschoribi,  with  the 
imaginary  meaning  of  "  Father  of  Waters,"  often  recurriug  in  poetic  diction. 

After  the  glacial  and  lacustrine  epochs  the  upper  Mississippi  must  have 
frequently  changed  its  main  headwaters  according  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
climate,  the  desiccation  of  meres  and  lakes,  landslips,  growth  of  morasses  and 
forests,  the  operations  of  the  beaver,  and  the  thousand  phenomena  which  tend  to 


MmimiiiiiiiiirM 


IMiii 


.yc  ; 


212 


TUB  UNITED  STATES. 


modify  the  slope  of  tbe  lund  in  a  region  of  uncertain  drainage  and  partly  under 
water.  Since  18-i2  tbe  farthest  headstream  is  known  to  have  its  r  se  on  the 
northern  slope  of  one  of  the  southern  spurs  of  the  scarcely  perceptible  divide 
bearing  the  Canadian  name  of  Hauteur  dcs  Terres,  usually  translated  the  "  Height 
of  Land."  Various  lakelets  which  have  given  rise  to  angry  discussions  connected 
with  claims  of  priority  of  discovery,  are  tbe  farthest  reservoirs  where  are  collected 
the  young  waters  of  tbe  Mississippi  properly  so  called.  Winding  sedge-grown 
channels  flow  from  these  meres  to  a  ramifying  lake  known  to  tbe  Ojibways  by 
the  name  of  Omochkos,  a  term  which  the  Canadian  trappers  translated  by  the 
French  "  La  Bicbe,"  whence  the  English  designation,  "  Elk  Lake  ;  "  Schoolcraft, 
its  first  scientific  explorer,  calls  it  Itasca,  a  word  which,  like  muny  other 
geographical  names  of  like  ending,  appears  to  be  of  Algonquin  derivation. 

On  tbe  crest  of  the  highest  sources  the  elevation  of  the  land  is  estimated  at 

-    Fig.  93  —  SotmoEB  of  the  Mibsissifpi. 

Scale  1 :  4,IK)0,000. 


60  Mile*. 


1,6*0  feet,  although  Itasca  itself  is  only  1,575  feet  above  sea-level.  The  little 
emissary,  which  flows  first  in  the  direction  of  the  north  as  if  to  join  the  Red 
River  of  the  Hudson  Bay  basin,  forms  the  first  distinct  current  of  the  Mississippi, 
which  over  3,000  miles  farther  south  falls  into  tbe  Gulf  of  Mexico,  being  an 
average  incline  of  about  seven  or  eight  inches  to  tbe  mile. 

At  its  origin,  tbe  Mississippi,  unnavigable  even  for  canoes,  >nd  scarcely  more 
than  12  or  13  feet  wide,  trickles  through  n  Tsby  meadow-lands  overgrown  with 
wild  rice,  reeds,  and  flags,  and  skirted  by  moderately  elevated  pine-clad  dunes. 
Other  lakes  follow  in  the  fluvial  valley,  which  bends  round  to  the  oast,  and  then 
to  the  south,  according  to  the  normal  direction  of  the  North- American  divide. 

On  both  banks  converge  several  other  watercourses,  which  are  also  affluents 
from  the  lakes  and  meres  dotted  over  the  granite  plateau.  This  is  the  region  of 
tbe  portages,  where  the  Indians  and  half-breeds  passed  with  their  boats  from  the 
Mississippi  slope  to  that  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  or  else  to  that  of  the  great 


THE  UPPER  MISSISSIPPI. 


218 


Fig.  94.— Lakb  Itasoa. 
Soale  1  :  130,000. 


lift  •         •••  •  •  .• 


Canadian  lakes,  but  which  is  now  traversed  by  railways.  Till  recently  the  suc- 
cessive terraces  of  the  plateau  were  indicated  by  a  number  of  little  cataracts  a  few 
yards  high,  such  us  the  Pokegania  and  Little  Falls.  But  the  general  aspect  of  the 
river  was  little  affected  by  these  obstructions,  which  scarcely  ruffled  the  tranquil 
surface  of  the  stream.  At  present  all  these  inequalities  of  level  have  been  effaced 
by  means  of  dams,  which 
retain  the  waters  in  f/ 
tensive  reservoirs,  whci"-' 
they  are  husbanded  for  the 
dry  season.  The  two  chief 
basins  are  those  of  Lakes 
Winnibigoshish  and 
Leech,  and  all  four  reser- 
voirs, completed  in  1890, 
have  a  collective  area  of 
about  3,000  square  miles, 
with  a  capacity  of  some  70 
billion  cubic  feet. 

The  limit  of  the  upper 
course  is  distinctly  indi- 
cated by  the  St.  Anthony 
Falls,  which  are  not  so 
much  falls  as  a  series  of 
rapids,  with  a  total  incline 
of  65  feet,  and  a  breadth 
of  about  1,000  feet.  The 
ledge  over  which  the 
stream  tumbles  consists  of 
slate  slabs  resting  on  a 
friable  sandstone.  Hence 
this  rocky  barrier  can  offer 
but  slight  resistance  to 
the  action  of  the  current, 
and  till  recently  the  falls 
were  in  fact  retreating 
very  rapidly  upstream. 
Huge  blocks  detached  from  the  upper  strata,  and  strewn  in  disorder  amid  the  seeth- 
ing waters,  attested  the  rapidity  with  which  the  work  of  erosion  was  being  accom- 
plished. The  industrial  c!ty  of  Minneapolis,  and  its  eastern  suburb.  Saint  Anthony, 
which  utilise  the  motive  power  supplied  by  the  falls  on  both  sides  of  the  stream, 
would  consequently  have  also  had  to  retreat  northwards  with  the  cataracts,  had  not 
the  work  of  erosion  been  arrested  in  the  year  1856  by  means  of  ^ykes  and  sluices. 
Hennepin,  the  first  white  who  visited  the  falls  176  years  previously,  has  left  a 
sufficiently  clear  description  to  determine  their  position  at  that  date,  when  the  crest 


10 


i'y^  '■  '••'■   . 


1471 

10' 


95"5'  Weal  oF  Greenwich  95* 


I  8  HUM. 


HMMi 


wmiimmsmtlimmmimsmmitmamastamB 


-  -/;"««lt'.Jt«'3g'!T 


ga<twi'ninf>iiiiMl.f<:aiiiii>ir 


-'i' 


ii 


S14 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


of  the  cataract  stood  1,025  feet  lower  down  than  at  present.  If  the  -retreat  lias 
always  proceeded  at  the  same  rate,  7,800  years  must  have  passed  since  the 
Mississippi  joined  the  Minnesota  by  plunging  over  a  rocky  ledge  n.t  the  foot  of  the 
cliff  on  which  now  stands  Fort  Snelling. 

At  tho  Saint  Anthony  Falls,  head  of  the  navigation,  begins  the  industrial  and 
commercial  life  of  the  Mississippi.  Below  this  point  the  muin  stream  is  joined 
by  numerous  affluents,  such  as  the  Minnesota,  "  Whitish  Water  "  or  "  Cloudy,"  or 
Suint  Peter,  the  Wapsipinicon,  Cedar,  Turkey,  Iowa,  Skunk,  and  Desraoines  on  the 
right  bank ;  the  Suint  Croix,  Chippewa,  "Wisconsin,  or  "  Brown,"  the  Rock,  and 
the  Illinois,  the  "  riviere  des  Illinois  "  of  the  early  French  explorers,  on  the  left. 

By  the  contributions  of  all  these  streams  the  Mississippi  is  swollen  to  such  a  size 
that  fur  above  the  Missouri  confluence  it  flows  iu  as  broad  a  channel  as  it  does  from 
Saint  Louis  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Amongst  the  affluents  of  the  main  stream, 
three  especially  recall  the  ancient  lacustrine  period,  which  was  characterised  by  a 
discharge  of  running  waters  in  opposite  directions.  These  rivers  are  the  Minne- 
sota, the  Saint  Croix,  and  the  Illinuis.  The  Minnesota  rises  at  an  altitude  of 
nearly  1,000  feet  on  the  divide  between  Big  Stone  Lake  to  the  south,  and 
Traverse  Lake  draining  northwards  through  Red  River  of  the  North.  The  general 
aspect  of  the  Minnesota  vuUey,  far  too  broad  for  the  stream  winding  through  its 
lowest  depression,  seems  to  show  that  at  a  former  epoch  it  formed  the  bed  of  a 
far  larger  river  descending  from  the  north,  perhaps  from  the  Canadian  Lake 
Winnipeg  basin.  The  present  parting  line  is  formed  exclusively  of  glacial  drift 
redistributed  by  the  running  waters.  In  point  of  fact,  the  Minnesota,  or  "  Cloudy 
Water,"  was  formerly  the  main  stream,  of  Tvhich  the  present  Mississippi  was  only 
Rn  affluent.  The  Minnesota  is  the  original  waterway  of  the  country,  while  the  Missis- 
sippi, still  unfinished  and  obstructed  by  rocky  ledges,  dates  from  post-glacial  times. 

The  Saint  Croix,  also  a  modest  stream  in  a  vast  river  bed,  was  the  emissary  of 
Lake  Superior  at  the  time  when  this  basin,  pressed  southwards  by  the  ice-cap,  but 
still  closed  in  the  direction  of  the  east,  sent  its  overflow  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  Des  Plaines  River  also,  that  is,  the  main  branch  of  the  Illinois  (the  river  of 
the  mini,  or  "  Men  "  in  a  pre-eminent  sense),  belongs,  one  may  say,  as  much  to  the 
basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  as  to  that  of  the  Mississippi ;  its  upper  valley  for  a  space 
of  nearly  100  miles  is  an  old  fluvial  channel  communicating  with  Lake  Michigan. 
A  small  ridge,  formerly  pierced  by  water  gaps,  now  separates  this  narrow  guUey 
from  the  present  dtpression  of  the  great  lake,  and  from  the  whole  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  hydrographic  system.  On  reaching  the  transverse  depression,  of  which 
the  extremity  is  occupied  by  the  city  of  Chicago,  the  Des  Plaines  River  hesitates 
between  the  two  almost  horizontal  slopes  before  deciding  to  join  the  Mississippi 
basin.  Till  recently  it  expanded  into  vast  marshes  with  uncertain  'i-Iine,  and 
the  Calumet,  one  of  its  branches,  even  flowed  eastwards  to  Lake  Michigan. 

At  present  a  navigable  canal  excavated  in  this  depression  at  less  than  ten 
feet  below  the  lacustrine  level,  and  little  more  than  580  feet  above  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  connects  the  port  of  Chicago  with  the  lower  course  of  the  Illinois,  which 
is  accessible  throughout  the  year  to  vessels  of  average  draught.     Even  before  the 


THE  UPPEB  MISSISSIPPI. 


216 


coustruction  of  these  hydraulic  works  light  craft  were  able  after  protracted  rains 
to  pass  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Mississippi  by  the  Chicago  river. 

About  23  miles  below  the  Illinois  confluence,  and  some  1,850  miles  from  its 
sources  on  the  lacustrine  plateau,  the  Mississippi  is  joined  by  its  great  western 
branch,  the  Missouri,  or  Missisouri,  which  was  also  called  Petikanui,  or  the  "  Muddy 
River,"  by  the  natives  visited  by  the  first  French  explorers.  The  Missouri 
itself  rises  about  3,000  miles  above  the  couflueuce,  in  the  hourt  of   the  Rocky 

FTg.  96. — Saint  Anthony  Falls,  on  the  Upper  Missisaippi. 


_r=="i^s^T^  ^fr^^^H 


Mountains  ?nd  west  of  several  of  the  ranf^es  ;  hence  to  reach  the  Mississippi  it  has 
to  force  its  way  in  deep  cafLons  through  the  intervening  mountain  barriers. 

The  fluvial  valleys  nowhere  present  the  appearance  of  having  been  originally 
formed  to  allow  the  stream  to  escape  eastwards,  or  through  the  natural  depres- 
sions  or  primitive  foldings  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.  They  seem  rather  to  be  gaps 
or  openings  disposed  in  a  direction  absolutely  independent  of  the  main  orographic 
axis,  excavated,  in  fact,  transversely  to  the  original  granitic  nucleus  and  to  the 


(-\\ 


210 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


in' 


i^ 


Fig.  96.— Sill  of  thk  iLLiKoia  RrvEn  betobe  thb 
Foundation  of  Cuicaoo. 

Scale  1  :  l.AOO.OOO. 


Buccessive  strata  of  sedimentary  rocks,  which  were  afterwards  deposited  and  still 
later  covered  here  and  there  by  discharges  of  erupted  mutter. 

The  farthest  headstreum  rises  in  a  little  lake  o:i  the  upland  plateau,  not  fur 
from  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Snake  Eivcr,  which  belongs  to  the  Columbian 
fluvial  system.     But  this  headstream   takes  the  name,  not  of  the  Missouri  or 

"  Mad  River,"  but  of  the  Red 
Rock  River,  which  joins  the 
Big  Hole  and  other  torrents  to 
form  the  Jefierson,  chief  branch 
of  the  main  stream.  But,  fol- 
lowing the  precedent  set  by 
Lewis  and  Clarke,  who  dis- 
covered this  region  of  the  Mis- 
souri headwaters  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  century,  the 
inhabitants  of  Montana  do  not 
apply  the  general  designation 
of  Missouri  to  the  Jefferson 
fork  until  it  reaches  the  alluvial 
plains  and  is  swollen  by  the 
contributions  of  two  other 
rivers,  the  Madison  and  Gal- 
latin, both  converging  on  its 
right  bank.  v, ''  1    .;  :;' 

East  of  the  confluence  lime- 
stone cliffs,  piled  like  towers 
one  above  the  other,  dominate 
the  united  stream,  outlet  of 
an  old  lake  where  the  current 
glides  along  between  clusters 
of  wooded  islets.  Of  the  three 
forks,  the  Gallatin,  or  eastern 
branch,  is  the  only  one  that 
has  its  ri-e  east  of  the  main 
range.  The  other  two — Madi- 
son in  the  middle,  and  Jefferson 
in  the  west — draw  their  farthest 
supplies  from  western  slopes.  But  the  three  fluvial  valleys  consist  all  alike  of  a  series 
of  long-vanished  lacustrine  basins  connected  by  gorges  which  have  been  excavated 
by  the  running  waters.  The  liquid  masses,  far  more  copious  formerly  than  at 
present,  have  scooped  out  theuppet  cirques,  leaving  in  the  old  depressions  a  few 
terraced  beaches,  which  indicate  the  successive  retreat  of  the  glacial  waters.  The 
sediment  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  lacustrine  basins  represents  the  remains 
of  the  eroded  rocks,  and  in  many  places  are  formed   of  auriferous  strata     The 


0tol2 
fathomi. 


Depths. 


12  to  50 
Fathoms. 


60  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

•  88  Miles. 


THE  Uri'ER  MlSSOlJlil  BASIN. 


217 


Alder  Qulch   alone,   which   drains    to    the   upper  Jefferson,  has  yieldod  over 
^;J0,000,000  of  pure  gold. 

The  region  of  the  Missouri  heudwufeis,  however,  owes  it  celobrity  not  to  this 
Eldorado,  but  to  the  natural  phenomena,  such  as  thermal  waters,  fumoroles, 
silicious  and  calcareous  sedimentary  deposits,  geysers  or  intermittent  jets  of 
vapours  or  boiling  waters,  which  have  earned  for  it  the  name  of  "  Wonderlund," 
and  which  have  caused  it  to  be  reserved  as  a  "  National  Park,"  the  common  inheri- 
tance of  the  whole  nation.      Vague  rumours  had  long  been  current  regarding  the 

Fijf.  97— Thb  Tiibeb  Forks  of  thk  Missoubi. 
Potle  1  ;  rsn.oiio. 


Hf^ 


nrw 


reenwich 


iiriQ- 


laMUeii. 


marvellous  springs  and  fountains  of  this  district.  On  the  maps  of  their  itinera- 
ries published  by  Lewis  and  Clarke  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the  words 
"  sulphur,  hot  springs,"  indicate  the  position  of  the  region  which  has  now  become 
so  famous.  Its  wonders  were  seen  by  a  trapper  named  Coulter  about  the  year 
1810,  but  his  statements  found  little  credit,  and  were  soon  forgotten. 

At  last  a  first  special  exploration  was  undertaken  by  Cook  and  Folsom  in  1869, 
and  two  years  afterwards  a  body  of  naturalists,  under  the  geologist  F.  V.  Hayden, 
prepared  a  full  description  of  the  springs  and  other  natural  curiosities,  and  at  the 
same  time  made  the  first  accurate  survey  of  the  whole  region.    Their  return  with 


M 


V^ 


./,j 
-^*- 


sss^,,^|,^,^i;.^,«S  -msmmm^^^^^.^^-'^-'-^---^- 


218 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


their  albums  of  photographs,  plans,  and  drawings  was  hailed  by  the  American 
public  with  a  universal  cry  of  admiration,  to  which  practical  effect  was  given  by 
a  vote  of  Congress,  reserving  the  territory  as  the  common  property  of  the  nation. 
This  territory  occupies  several  upland  valleys,  at  a  mean  altitude  of  7,500  feet,  on 
the  watorpurting  btttween  the  Missouri  and  Columbia  basins. 

Below  the  junction  of  the  Three  Forks  the  Missouri  first  trends  northwards, 
following  the  direction  of  the  converging  affluents,  but  still  on  this  side  of  tho 
main  range  of  the  Rookies,  here  called  the  Snow  Mountains.  The  "  Gate  of  the 
Kocky  Mountains,"  as  Lewis  and  Clarke  have  called  the  gorge  through  which  the 
united  waters  escape  to  the  plains,  is  flanked  by  granite  walls,  rising  nearly  1,350 


Fig.  98.— Oath  of  thb  Rockibs  and  Missousi  Faua. 
Soale  1  :  7ft().0U0. 


\\\'*5  West   oF  Greenwich 


18  Mllw. 


feet  sheer  above  the  stream.  The  bed  of  the  Missouri,  pent  up  between  these 
gloomy  ramparts,  is  scarcely  500  feet  wide,  and  ledges  large  enough  to  afford 
standing  room  between  the  cliffs  and  the  current  occur  only  at  long  intervals. 

But  even  at  the  outlet  of  this  caflon  the  mountain  barriers  have  not  yet  been 
pierced  through  and  through.  The  foot  hills  of  the  main  range  have  still  to  be 
traversed  by  other  romantic  ravines,  by  which  the  Missouri  descends  to  the  plains 
in  a  succession  of  foaming  cataracts.  The  series  of  falls  and  rapids  has  a  collective 
incline  of  160  feet  in  a  distance  of  about  11  miles.  At  the  Great  Falls,  las.',  and 
finest  of  the  series,  the  stream  is  precipitated  in  a  single  sheet  a  height  of  8C  feet 
'  During  the  floods  boats  ascend  to  the  very  foot  of  these  falls^  and  above  the 


THE  UPPER  MISSOURI  BASIN. 


219 


portage  tlio  main  stream  is  also  accessible  to  small  craft  as  far  as  the  Three  Forks 
confluence.     But  at  ordinary  times  the  head  of  the  navigation  lies  00  miles  lower 


Fig.  99, — LowKR  Falls  or  tiii  Ykllowbtoni. 


!/'■■ 


down,  at  Fort  Benton,  near  the  junction  of  the  Teton  and  Marias,  or  Bear  Eiver ; 
here  the  Missouri  describes  a  last  bend  towards  the  north-east,  through  the  "  Bad 


220 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Lands"  und  platcuux  ubutting  ou  the  Hookies,  and  then  begins  to  (rend  in  the 
direction  uf  the  MiHsisHippi.  In  this  purt  of  its  course,  above  the  Yellowstone 
confluence,  it  is  joined  by  several  streams,  such  us  the  Milk,  White  Mud,  I'oplur 
and  Dig  Muddy,  uU  of  which  take  their  rise  in  Canudiun  territory. 

The  copious  streuni  to  which  the  Cunudiun  trappers  gave  the  name  of  "  Pierre 
Jaune,"  whence  the  Anglo-American  form,  Yellowstone,  constitutes,  after  the 
Jellerson  and  the  "  Three  Forks,"  the  n)ain  headstreaui  of  the  upper  Missouri 
ramifying  system.  It  is  also  better  known  than  the  others,  thanks  to  the  wonders 
of  the  "National  Park,"  partly  comprised  within  its  basin.  The  Yellowstone  is 
further  distinguished  from  the  Jeiferson,  inasmuch  as  it  has  its  source  on  a 
plateau  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  forms  a  well-marked  centre  of  dispersion 
for  running  waters  flowing  in  opposite  directions. 

Explorers  even  speak  of  fenny  tracts,  whence  the  sluggish  waters  diverge  east 
and  west  towards  the  two  opposite  marine  basins.  The  so-called  Tiro-Ocean  Puhh 
is  one  of  these  eroded  valleys,  with  a  scarcely  perceptible  double  incline.  The 
nearly  horizontal  summit  of  the  pass,  8,000  feet  high,  is  occupied  by  spongy  herb- 
age under  water  during  the  rainy  season,  and  standing  east  and  west  small  rivulets 
which  flow  from  a  common  source,  but  which  lower  down  ramify  in  such  a  way 
as  to  develop  a  network  of  running  waters  round  about  the  swampy  summit.  In 
the  north  rises  Atlantic  Creek,  which  is  tributary  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  through 
the  Yellowstone,  Missouri,  and  Mississippi ;  in  the  south  flows  Pacific  Creek, 
which  drains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  through  the  Snake  and  Columbia  Rivers. 

Still  further  south,  that  is,  in  the  Wind  River  Range,  the  river  of  like  name 
takes  its  rise,  and  forms  with  the  Big  Horu  one  of  the  chief  headwaters  of  the 
Yellowstone.  Close  by  are  also  the  farthest  sources  of  the  Colorado,  here  called 
the  Green  River,  which  descends  southwards  to  the  Gulf  of  California,  while  other 
streamlets  trend  westwards  to  the  Columbia.  Union  Peak,  as  the  intermediate 
crest  has  been  named  by  Reynolds,  must  be  regarded  as  the  chief  central  point 
of  the  United  States  for  the  dispersion  of  its  running  waters  to  the  surrounding 
marine  basins ;  here  is  the  true  continental  divide. 

The  main  branch  of  the  upper  Yellowstone  flows  north-westwards  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Yellowstone  Lake  (7,738  feet),  a  lacustrine  basin  which  is  encircled  by 
mountains  on  all  sides,  and  which,  from  its  form,  seems  rather  to  be  a  group  of 
lakes  ramifying  like  the  ribs  of  a  fan  towards  the  south  and  south-west.  The 
Eustis,  placed  by  Lewis  and  Clarke  in  this  region,  lies  very  nearlj'  on  the  spot 
really  occupied  by  the  Yellowstone.  Several  verdure-clad  islands,  some  flat,  some 
hilly,  present  a  charming  contrast  to  the  blue  waters  of  the  lake,  whose  sandy 
margin  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  granular  or  sharp  fragments  of  obsidian, 
and  of  the  little  crystals  known  as  "  Culifornian  diamonds."  The  lake,  which  is 
yOO  feet  deep,  contains  no  fi^h  except  trout. 

At  the  outlet  towards  the  northern  extremity  the  overflow  escapes  through  a 
narrow  gorge  between  the  plateaux  of  lava  where  the  hot  springs  emit  smoky 
vapours  Farther  on  this  Yellowstone  emissary  rolls  along  an  inclined  plane, 
tumbling  over  a  auccessirm  of  superb  cataracts  on  the  bed  of  the  Grand  Cauon, 


■-.•.f'" 


* ^i»lll.' 


■w;  »■-■ 


,  !-■»  III,!!. 


THE   UPPER  MISSOURI   BASIN. 


221 


wliich  cuts  (loejKT  ntid  (l<'P|)<>r  info  tlio  volcnnio  platofiii,  niitil  it  rcftdioH  n  depth 
of  froni  1,2<K>  to  l,r)(»0  fi'ct.  The  river,  which  Aowh  in  the  sharp  notch  at  the 
bottom,  is  here  joined  by  several  atHiientfl  which  are  preoipitatetl  over  lateral  chh- 
eades  into  the  gloomy  cha.sm.  At  the  Upper  Kail  the  mftin  stream  elutotrt  over  a 
rocky  ledge  112  feet  in  heiglit,  and  alumt  half  a  mile  farther  on  it  wuddenly 

Fig.  100.— Two  OcKAN  Paw). 
tk-ale  t  :  TK.imH). 


mm 


■IIO'i? 


West   oF  Greenwich 


II0*8' 


.  U  MUe. 


rolls  over  a  steep  precipice  300  feet  in  height  into  the  depths  of  the  abyss,  dowti 
whose  sinuous  course  it  roars  and  tears  along,  an  emerald-green  baud,  flecked  with 
snowy  foam,  between  the  highly  coloured  walls  of  the  caiSon. 

Below  the  Yellowstone  confluence  the  Missouri,  still  1,250  miles  from  the 
Mississippi,  has  already  acquired  the  aspect  whic'i  it  retains  throughout  the  whole 
of  its  middle  course.     Its  proportions  remain  everywhere  much  the  same,  except 


s 


M 


'III; 


222 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


tlmt  it«  depth  iiicreaflOH  with  t)io  incliiio  iiiitil  it  rearhoH  some  05  feot  at  thn  conflu- 
crioo.  Tho  l)r<»iitl('f  Ih-iI,  whicli  in  thMxIuU  only  (hiring  tho  iniindatioiiH,  and  which 
iH  iiidicuti'd  by  parallel  ItaiikH  over  half  u  mile  a{>art,  wirulH  thr(>n<<;h  tlie  boutidletiH 
prairie,  crieloHiiig  a  secund  and  much  narrower  channel,  the  normal  lH)d  of  tho 
stream.  In  thJH  bod  the  MisHuuri  nieunders  from  side  to  Hide  of  tho  wider  valley, 
in  one  place  dcHcribing  roguliir  cnrvcH,  in  another  developing  eccentric  sinuositieN, 
accoui|iiin'ed  by  Htitgnant  pool**,  backwaters,  false  riverN,  and  channels;  islands  and 
sandbanks  follow  iti  long  Muccefsion  ;  the  banks,  shaded  here  and  there  with  clumps 
or  a  fringe  of  tall  trees,  ure  flooded  by  a  perennial  stream  for  years  together,  while 
elsewhere  the  scrub  or  atinual  growth  of  herbage  is  swept  down  by  tho  spring 
freshets.  The  relief  of  tho  alluvial  river  banks  is  subject  to  yearly  change  by  the 
sands  and  clays  wanheddown  with  the  torrents  flowing  from  the  plateaux  abutting 
on  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  water,  which  issues  pure  and  limpid  from  the 
upland  gorges,  becomes  turbid  and  yellow  with  tho  muddy  sediment  curried  away 
froon  the  upper  reaches  and  dopqsitcd  lower  down. 

The  direction  of  the  Missouri  atHuents  is  determined  by  the  general  tilt  of  the 
land.  Between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  great  central  depression  of  the 
continent  there  is  a  double  incline :  on  the  one  hand  the  ground  slopes  from  west 
to  east,  in  the  direction  of  tho  Mississippi ;  on  the  other  it  falls  from  north  to  south, 
that  is,  from  tho  crest  of  the  general  waterparting  towards  the  Oulf  of  Mexico. 

Tho  Missouri  itself  at  first  follows  the  former  direction,  but  is  then  arrested  by 
the  long  escarpment  of  tho  Cotcau  du  Missouri,  and  thus  deflected  south  and 
south-east  parallel  with  the  course  of  the  Mississippi,  but  at  last  resumes  the 
normal  direction  from  west  to  east.  The  few  affluents,  such  as  the  Dakota  or 
James  River,  and  the  Big  Sioux,  which  join  its  loft  bank,  descend  like  the  Missi- 
sippi,  from  the  north.  The  more  numerous  watercourses  joining  its  right  bank, 
within  tho  vast  semicircle  described  from  Fort  Bonton  to  Kansas  City,  all  flow  from 
west  to  cast,  except  the  Little  Missouri,  which  runs  parallel  with  the  Yellowstone. 

Amongst  the  latter  is  the  Cannon  Ball,  whiuh  has  received  this  eccentric  desig- 
nation from  the  globular  sandstone  concretions  which  are  rolled  down  by  its 
current  and  strewn  along  its  banks.  The  "  balls  "  are  of  all  sizes,  from  that  of  u 
pistol  bullet  to  enormous  boulders  several  yards  in  circumference,  and  often  as 
round  as  if  wrought  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  White  River,  another  of  these 
Missouri  affluents,  is  so  named  from  the  milky  colour  that  it  takes  whilst  traversing 
the  "  Bad  liands."  Above  its  confluence,  and  especially  at  Mandun,  destructive 
floods  are  often  caused  when  the  ice  breaks  up  at  the  end  of  winter,  and  the  drift- 
ing musses  are  arrested  and  piled  up  at  the  sharp  windings  of  the  river. 

With  the  single  exception  of  the  Platte  or  Nebraska,  whose  northern  head- 
waters rise  on  the  inner  plateaux  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  desert  wastes 
and  "  parks  "  limited  eastwards  by  the  Colorado  peaks,  all  these  Missouri  afiluents, 
Big  Cheyenne,  White  River,  Niobrara,  Kaw  or  Kansas,  that  is,  the  "  Smoky," 
have  their  origin  at  the  east  foot  of  the  main  range.  In  their  general  aspect  they 
also  resemble  each  other,  flowing  at  a  uniform  incline  in  long  shallow  beds. 

The  Nebraska,  or  "  Platte  "  as  the  Algonquin  term  has  been  translated  by  the 


-:;  Jm'<v-imm,!<ftmiKmmm0fmfff». 


Wll'  I' 


THE  LOWEll  MiSSOUllI  HASIN. 


22a 


Canadian  trapporH,  in  a  typo  <.f  these  "  flat  "  rivers,  whoso  Blender  volumo  expandu 
over  a  very  wide  ehunnel,  forming  a  broud  zone  of  verdure,  gruH«y  along  tlio 
murgino,  arborescent  in  the  cuviliost,  enclosed  between  two  bordering  pluiiiH  with  11 
more  stunted  uud  sparse  vcgotution.     In  ni  uiy  pkcoj  the   Platte  has  1  width  of 

Fig,  101.— MBAirDBBiKoa  amd  Falsm  Rivbbs  o»  tub  Missoirni  at  Atouihon. 

a<nl«  1 !  iflo,ooo. 


We  at  or  breenwich 


'  a|  HUes. 


nine  or  ten  miles  from  bank  to  b.mk,  and  its  channel,  over  500  miles  long,  forms 
the  great  highway  running  from  the  lower  Missouri  in  the  direction  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  This  route  was  formerly  followed  by  the  emigrants  with  their  long 
convoys  of  mules  and  teams  of  oxen.  At  present  one  of  the  transcontinental 
trunk  lines  of  railway  skirts  the  margin  of  this  river.  ;    .  ,  >;:      ,      , 

Sparsely  fed  by  these  watercourses,  some  of  which  in  summer  are  mere  chains 


:,  #■:. 


w^mn^immm»0mmi^ 


224 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


n' 


of  swamps  or  lagoons,  t)ie  Missouri  itself  is  not  as  copious  a  stream  at  the  Missis- 
sippi confluence  as  might  be  expected  from  the  great  length  of  its  course  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  other  affluents.  Its  catchment  basin  represents  half  of  the 
Mississippi  area  of  drainage,  whereas  its  discharge  does  not  much  exceed  one-fifth, 
say,  about  120,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  though  even  this  is  double  sucli  a  river 
as  the  Rhone,  or  sixfold  that  of  the  Seine.  Despite  this  considerable  volume,  the 
Missouri  is  scarcely  available  for  navigation  except  in  its  lower  reaches.  Owing 
to  the  ice  in  winter,  and  occasionally  to  the  long  summer  droughts,  steamers  are 
at  times  unable  to  ascend  beyond  its  junction  with  the  Niobrara.  » 

The  Missouri-Mississippi  confluence  presents  a  magnificent  prospect  during  the 
season  of  floods,  when  the  swift  currents,  both  nearly  a  mile  broad,  clash  together 
and  mingle  their  waters  in  vast  whirlpools.  The  undulating  parting  line  between 
the  yellow  Missouri  and  blue  Mississippi  shifts  its  curves  and  spirals  according  to 
the  force  and  direction  of  the  eddies. 

For  a  long  distance  both  streams  flow  side  by  side  without  losing  their 
identity,  and  far  below  their  confluence  the  relatively  pure  water  of  the 
Mississippi  is  seen  skirting  the  left  bank.  At  last  they  merge  in  a  single 
current,  v/hich  is  so  heavily  charged  with  sediment&ry  matter  that  it  rolls  sea- 
wards almost  like  liquid  mud.  During  the  present  century  the  confluence  of  the 
two  rivers  has  been  displaced  about  eight  miles  southwards. 

Below  their  junction  the  united  waters  are  still  entangled  in  the  intricacies  of 
the  hilly  region.  After  passing  beneath  the  great  steel  arch  railway  bridge  at 
Saint  Louis,  the  mighty  stream,  still  1,200  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  pent  up  in  a 
narrow  bed  by  limestone  cliffs,  some  of  which  rise  200  feet  above  low- water  mark. 

The  cliffs  on  the  right  bank,  which  the  Mississippi  is  continually  eroding,  are 
the  extreme  escarpments  of  the  Ozark  Hills,  this  range,  it  is  supposed  by 
some  geologists,  formerly  continued  eastwards  and  connected  with  the  ridges 
traversing  the  states  of  Illiuois  and  Indiana,  but  it  has  been  gradually  pierced 
by  the  river  forcing  its  way  seawards.  At  Great  Tower,  a  bluff  rismg  like  a 
watch-tower  in  midstream,  the  circular  line  of  erosion  traced  by  the  waters  may 
be  seen  at  a  height  of  130  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  Mississippi. 

Since  the  time  of  Schoolcraft  some  geologists  have  accepted  the  hypothesis  that 
the  current,  formerly  dammed  up  by  this  rampart  of  the  Ozark  Hills,  expanded 
higher  up  in  a  vast  lake  covering,  as  far  north  as  the  city  of  Prairie  du  Chien  in 
Wisconsin,  the  plains  of  the  Missouri,  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  lower  Wisconsin 
Rivers.  This  basin  probably  communicated  with  the  great  lakes,  Michigan, 
Huron,  and  Erie,  which  on  their  part  were  limited  eastwards  by  the  still  un- 
pierced  rocky  barrier  of  the  Niagara.  There  was  a  time  when  the  watc-s  of  the 
great  inland  sea,  instead  of  escaping  through  the  channel  of  the  Saint  awrence, 
were  drawn  off  by  nnother  Niagara,  the  "  Mississippi  Falls,"  caused  by  the  barrier 
ot  the  Ozark  Hills.  These  falls  would  appear  to  have  gradually  receded  up 
stream,  just  as  those  of  Niagara  are  gradually  retreating  towards  Lake  Erie.  At 
the  same  time  the  level  of  the  lacustrine  basin  must  have  gradually  fallen,  until 
it  became  separated  from  Lake  Michigan,  after  which  the  eii'acement  of  the  Ozark 
bari'ier  equalised  tho  slope  and  transformed  the  Mississippi  Lake  to  a  river. 


air  njAJM-hmei^immm^ 


:'im^f^l,fi»,l^w>¥^fr^:^^rKm>^f•^r'^'^*.yr<^'m^:^^^^^ 


THE  OHIO  BASIN. 


225 


»e  Missis- 
irse  com- 
ilf  of  the 
one-fifth, 
ih  a  river 
lume,  the 
Owing 
amers  are 

luring  the 
L  together 
e  between 
iording  to 

iing  their 
r  of  the 
L  a  single 
rolls  sea- 
ice  of  the 

ricacies  of 
bridge  at 
it  up  in  a 
iter  mark, 
oding,  are 
>posed  by 
he  ridges 
ly  pierced 
ng  like  a 
iters  may 
i.        ,■-.■■"■■ 
thesis  that 
expanded 
Ohien  in 
Wisconsin 
Michigan, 
still  un- 
jrs  of  the 
awrence, 
he  barrier 
seeded  up 
rie.     At 
Hen,  until 
the  Ozark 
er. 


On  the  right  bank  stands  Cape  Girardeau,  last  bluff  of  the  Ozark  range, 
immediately  below  which  the  bayous  *  of  the  Mississippi  escape  towards  the  low- 
lying  lands  of  the  Saint  Fruncis.  On  the  left  side.  Commerce,  an  obscure  village 
with  an  ambitious  name,  indicates  the  point  where  the  Mississippi  washes  the  foot 
of  the  southernmost  Illinois  hill,  and  flows  for  the  last  time  over  a  rocky  bed. 
Lower  down,  the  plain,  for  a  moment  interrupted  by  the  rocks  of  Herculanum  and 
Grand  Tower,  expands  to  far  larger  proportions  than  above  Suint  Louis,  develop- 
ing for  a  distance  of  over  1,000  miles  a  dreary  succession  of  sombre  woodlands. 

The  beginning  of  this  immense  alluvial  plain  is  fittingly  indicated  by  the 
Ohio  confluence.  Here  the  traveller  might  fancy  himself  transported  to  an 
island-studded  sea.  In  whatever  direction  his  gaze  is  turned  he  beholds  vast 
expanses  of  water  spreading  away  beyond  the  horizon — in  the  nonh-west 
the  Mississippi,  in  the  east  the  mighty  Ohio,  in  the  south  the  vast  channel  of 
the  main  stream,  where  are  intermingled  the  waters  of  the  converging  aflluents. 

Of  all  the  streams  belonging  to  the  Mississippi  basin,  the  Ohio  most  resembles 
the  rivers  of  West  Europe.  Hence  the  French  pioneers,  delighted  at  the  sight 
of  sylvan  scenery  which  recalled  that  of  their  native  land,  gave  the  name  of 
"Belle  Riviere"  to  this  watercourse,  which  was  long  confounded  with  the 
Wabouskigon  or  Wabash.  The  hills  skirting  its  banks  are  gently  inclined  and 
overgrown  with  trees  of  the  same  genera  as  those  of  Europe.  The  riverine  tracts 
are  now  studded  with  pleasant  towns  and  villages,  while  cultivated  fields,  gardens, 
and  orchards  complete  the  picture  of  a  charming  landscape. 

The  Ohio  valley  is  divided  into  three  sharply-defined  sections.  In  the  upper 
region  of  its  basin  the  two  forks,  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  (the  "  Mai 
Engueulee  "  of  the  early  French  explorers),  are  regarded  as  having  equal  claims 
to  the  title  of  main  stream.  The  Alleghany,  which  is  the  longer  of  the  two,  and 
which  is  here  and  there  narrowed  by  artiflcial  banks  of  scoriaB  thrown  up  by  the 
local  factories,  rises  in  the  plateau  west  of  the  mountains  bearing  its  name, 
and  receives  from  the  north  the  emissary  of  the  little  Chautauqua  Lake  near 
Lake  Erie,  but  726  feet  above  its  level.  The  Conewango,  or  upper  course  of  the 
Alleghany,  descends  from  this  basin  through  a  series  of  narrow  valleys  southwards 
to  its  confluence  with  the  Monongahela,  second  branch  of  the  upper  Ohio.       <, ,  ■:,-_ 

The  Monongahela  draws  its. farthest  supplies  from  the  rains  and  melting  snows 
of  the  upland  Alleghany  valleys.  After  its  junction  with  the  Youghiogheny, 
it  winds  through  a  valley  composed  entirely  of  carboniferous  rocks.  Till  recently 
the  exposed  beds  of  coal  were  developed  in  long  black  lines  on  the  very  banks  of 
the  river,  and  could  be  worked  within  a  few  yards  of  the  landing-stages.     ,.  ..,.-> 'v 

A  study  of  the  glacial  drifts  in  the  upper  Ohio  basin  has  shown  that  the 
parting  line  between  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  Mississippi  basins  was  probably 
modified  by  the  action  of  the  ice-cap.  At  present  the  crest  of  the  divide  between 
the  running  waters  skirts  the  south  side  of  Lake  Erie  within  a  distance  of  not 

*  The  term  bai/ou,  which  has  come  into  such  general  use  throu-'hout  the  lower  course  of  the  Missis- 
Rippi,  properly  'Qdicates  any  stream  flowing  from  a  lake,  or  branchin!:;  ofT  from  another  stream,  or  con- 
necting the  ir  -"tha  of  a  delta.  It  appears  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  French  word  Aoya«,  a  gut,  channel, 
or  passage.— 


■I: 


%v  -, 


5i26 


TUli  UNiraD  STATES. 


more  than  from  10  to  20  miles  of  the  sliore,  whereas  hofore  the  glaciul  epoch 
it  stood  two  or  three  times  as  far  from  the  lake.  At  that  time  Chautauqua  Lake 
itself  was  tributary  to  the  Sjint  Lawrence. 

Below  Pittsburg  begins  the  middle  course  of  the  Ohio,  which  here  winds 
through  plains  overlying  Devonian  and  Silurian  formations.  Flourishing  cities 
have  sprung  up  along  its  banks,  foundel  for  the  most  part  at  the  issue  of  lateral 
fluvial  vtilleys.  The  nouhern  affluents,  such  as  the  Muskingum,  the  Scioto,  and 
the  two  Miamis,  descend,  like  the  Alleghany,  from  the  lake-studded  terrace  which 
skirts  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  and  which  extends  westwards  as  far  as  the 
region  south  of  Lake  Michigan.  V- 

On  the  other  hand,  the  southern  affluents  rise,  like  the  Monongahela,  in  the 
longitudinal  upland  glens  of  the  Appalachians,  or  at  least  in  tlie  plateau.  The 
Great  Eanawba,  most  cop^ou^  of  these  rivers,  traverses  salt-yielding  regions,  us  does 
also  the  L'cking,  which  joins  the  Ohio  at  the  great  city  of  Cincinnati.  The  very 
word  Licking,  like  the  -Indian  term  Mahoning,  of  which  it  is  a  translation,  recalls 
the  lickings  or  salt  licks  formerly  visited  by  the  mastodon  and  bison. 

Amongst  these  southern  affluents  of  the  Ohio  is  the  Kentucky  River,  which 
gives  its  name  to  one  of  the  federal  stated.  It  joins  the  main  stream  above  the 
Louisville  Fulls,  Avhich  mark  the  natural  division  between  its  middle  and  lower 
course.  Here  a  coral  reef,  sharp  and  ramifying  as  if  built  up  but  yesterday, 
obstructs  the  stream  by  a  series  of  dangerous  rapids  with  a  total  incline  of  rather 
more  than  20  feet  in  a  space  of  about  three  miles.  During  the  floods  these  rapids 
disappear  altogether,  but  at  low  water  all  navigation  is  arrested  in  the  river  itself, 
and  the  falls  have  to  be  turned  by  one  or  other  of  the  lateral  riverine  canals. 

Along  its  lower  course  the  Ohio  valley  broadens  out,  and  becomes  com- 
pletely alluvial.  The  skirting  hills  retire  to  a  great  distance  from  its  banks, 
while  the  mouths  of  the  converging  streams  become  masked  behind  wooded  islands 
and  peninsulup.  In  the  north  the  chief  tributary  is  the  Wabash,  a  placid  stream 
often  navigated  by  the  bark  canoes  of  the  eaily  Canadian  voyageu?'s. 

From  the  south  comes  the  Green  River,  which  is  swollen  both  by  surface  waters 
and  underground  currents  derived  from  innumerable  subterranean  reservoirs,  and 
from  the  famous  Mammoth  Cave.  Green  River  has  its  source  in  "  the  Knobs  " 
of  central  Kentucky;  but  the  other  two  streams,  which  lower  down  join  the 
same  left  bank  of  the  Ohio,  draw  their  farthest  supplies  from  the  region  of 
the  Appalachians.  The  Cumberland  takes  its  rise  in  the  mountains  of  the  same 
name,  while  the  Tennessee,  which  gives  its  name  to  one  of  the  United  States, 
rises  much  farther  back,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  hills  in  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina.  Its  chief  head-streams,  the  Clinch,  Holston,  and  French  Broad,  are 
fed  by  the  snows  of  the  Roan  Mountains  and  other  lofty  crests.  After  its 
junction  with  these  affluents  the  Tennessee  continues  to  flow  for  some  distance 
in  the  same  south- westerly  direction ;  then  instead  of  entering  the  valley 
occupied  by  one  of  the  Alabama  affluents,  it  trends  sharply  round  to  the  west 
and  north,  thus  describing  a  vast  semicircular  curve  which  encloses  the  much 
smaller  bend  of  the  Cumberland.  ^ 


^ 


THE  MAM  Mora  CAVE  OF  KENTUCKY. 


227 


'■13 


il  epoch 
iiu  Lake 

•e  winds 
)g  cities 
f  lateral 
oto,  and 
L-e  which 
r  as  the 

a,  in  the 
lu.  The 
s,  us  does 
The  very 
n,  recalls 

Br,  which 
bove  the 
nd  lower 
esterday, 
of  rather 
3se  rapids 
ver  itself, 
als.  ■■■r---r'  ■' 
nes  cora- 
ls banks, 
3d  islands 
id  stream 

ce  waters 

'•oirs,  and 

Knobs" 

join  the 

region  of 

the  same 

ed  States, 

id  North 

Iroad,  are 

After  its 

i  distance 

le  valley 

the  west 

he  much 


The  basins  of  the  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and  especially  the  Green  River  have 
hecome  famous  for  the  carboniferous  limestone  formations  in  which  the  running 
waters  have  excavated  a  labyrinth  of  the  most  extensive  and  most  ramifying 
underground  galleries  yet  discovered.  Some  only  of  these  caverns  have  been 
explored,  but  the  partial  researches  already  made  have  sufficed  to  show  that  the 
subterranean  passages  excavated  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Indiana  have  a 
total  length  of  many  hundred  miles. 

The  excavation  of  these  galleries  was  certainly  accelerated  by  the  presence 
of  the  forests  which  formerly  covered  the  whole  country.  The  rainwater 
filtering    through  the    accumulated  layers  of  decayed  foliage  became  saturated 

Fig.  102.— Rojln  MoniTTAiMa 

Scale  1  :  SSo.OOO. 


unaiM. 


with  carbonic  acid  gas  (carbon  dioxide),   which  exercises  a  most  potent  action  in 
dissolving  limestone  and  ferruginous  rocks.     -  'v  ' 

Of  all  these  grottoes  the  hirgest  and  the  best  known  is  the  so-called  Mam- 
•  moth  Cave  of  Kentucky,  which  lies  on  the  Green  River  affluent  of  the  Ohio. 
A  portion  of  the  water  of  this  river,  escaping  through  fissures  in  the  rock, 
disappears  in  the  underground  galleiies.  The  main  avenue  of  the  Mammoth 
Oave  has  a  length  of  about  nine  miles ;  but  the  labyrinth  of  passiges  known  since 
the  year  1856  comprises  more  than  two  hundred  alleys  with  a  total  length  of  150 
miles,  while  the  eroded  space  represents  a  cube  of  some  390  billions  of  cubic  feet. 
Here  are  concentrated  all  the  marvels  cf  the  subterranean  world — halls  with 
lofty  domes,  pointed  or  semicircular  aisles,  pendant  ceilings  as  in  the  Alhambru, 
stalagmite  colonnades,  gigantic  statues,  delicately-embroidered  fretwork,  narrow 
ohaimols,  and  dangerous  flights  of  steps,  thundering  waterfalls^  lakes  and  torrents. 


228 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


At  present  the  Mammoth  Cave  is  inhabited  by  the  siredon  or  axolotl,  analo- 
gous to  those  of  the  Mexican  lakes,  ai  d  various  species  of  blind  fishes.  Amongst 
the  chologaster-  '^  Mndness  is  not  always  complete,  and  some  are  occasionally  found 
in  the  southern  basins  which  can  see  imperfectly,  but  in  the  caverns  the  eye,  hav- 
ing become  useless,  is  entirely  atrophied.  The  ambl\  opsis,  of  a  pale  colour,  about 
four  inches  long,  and  probably  of  marine  origin,  h&s  the  visual  apparatus  so  little 
developed  that  it  can  be  detected  only  by  removing  a  thick  membrane  by  which  it 
is  now  covered.  But  sight  has  been  replaced  by  another  sense,  and  the  papillary 
nerves  centred  in  the  head  are  so  sensitive  that  they  warn  the  animal  of  the  least 
movement  occurring  in  its  watery  environment. 

A  similar  compensation  has  been  observed  in  all  the  organisms  of  the  inverte- 
brate fauna  discovered  in  the  Mammoth  Cave.  Thus  the  sense  of  touch  has 
been  abnormally  developed  in  the  crustaceans,  insects,  arachnidse,  worms,  and  myria- 
pods  that  have  lost  the  faculty  of  vision.  Certain  species,  especially  those  living 
in  the  parts  of  the  grottoes  farthest  removed  from  the  rays  of  light,  still  preserve 
rudimentary  eyes  or  optic  nerves,  the  gradual  obliteration  and  final  disappearance 
of  the  visual  organ  taking  place  differently  in  the  different  species.  In  their 
g'  omy  abodes  these  organisms  also  gradually  lose  their  coloured  pigments,  eyes 
and  bright  hues  being  alike  useless  in  such  dark  surroundings. 

In  its  general  behaviour  the  Ohio  is  characterised  by  great  irregularity.  In 
the  same  month  of  two  successive  years  the  volume  of  its  discharge  has  varied 
as  much  as  eightfold.  The  floods  also  are  often  of  a  formidable  nature,  and  the 
current,  2,000  feet  broad  and  66  deep,  has  at  times  been  seen  to  sweep  under  the 
suspension  bridge  at  Cincinnati  with  a  velocity  of  six.  miles  an  hour.  In  the  same 
year  the  level  of  the  stream  has  been  known  to  vary  as  much  as  from  50  to  65 
feet,  and  in  1887  the  difference  between  high  and  low  water  marks  exceeded  70 
feot,  so  ereat  is  the  reaction  of  the  extremes  of  temperature  and  humidity  on  the 
hydrolog]y  of  the  Ohio  basin.  During  long  droughts  the  current  is  often  reduced 
to  a  depth  of  not  more  than  two  feet. 

The  disastrous  effects  of  such  variations  may  readily  be  imagined.  From  day 
to  day  the  navigation  of  the  Ohio  and  its  a£9uents,  a  total  waterway  estimated  at 
about  2,300  miles,  is  liable  to  be  interrupted.  Hence  the  vagaries  of  the  stream, 
always  dreaded  by  the  riverine  populations,  caused  the  greatest  anxiety  in  trading 
circles  before  the  usefulness  of  rivers  as  highways  of  transport  had  been  some- 
what diminished  by  the  construction  of  numerous  railways. 

Below  the  Ohio  junction  the  alluvial  plain  of  the  Mississippi  expands  to  a 
great  width,  and  so  numerous  are  the  chanaels  here  ramifying  between  the  fluvial 
islands  that  the  river  looks  as  if  it  were  already  striving  to  create  a  delta.  As  far 
as  the  Red  River  confluence  there  occur  over  a  hundred  of  these  large  islands,  which, 
to  save  the  trouble  of  giving  them  special  names,  were  formerly  indicated  by  their 
number  in  regular  order.  But  the  islands  are  not  "  constant  quantities,"  and  the 
numeration  becomes  so  confused  that  it  would  have  to  be  annually  revised.  The 
insular  tracts  are  subject  to  changes  and  displacements,  according  to  the  height  of 
the  waters  and  the  direction  of  the  currents.     At  one  time  a  tongue  of  land  is 


it 


"'!. 


THE  LOWEB  AUSSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


220 


swept  away,  at  another  is  transformed  to  an  islet,  or  else  r.iised  by  alluvial  deposits 
to  a  temporary  headland.  A  willow  branch  or  a  snag  is  arrested  by  a  sandbank, 
fresh  sediment  and  seeds  are  deposited  with  every  inundation,  and  tlie  bunk  thus 
created  is  in  a  few  years  overgrown  with  willows  or  poplars,  whose  upper  foliage  is 
disposed  in  successive  stages,  enabling  the  observer  to  determine  exactly  the  ago 
of  each  recurrent  growth.  Elsewhere  an  island  of  recent  formation  is  suddenly 
washed  away,  or  else  of  a  wooded  tract  all  is  submerged  except  a  few  green 
branches  waving  wildly  on  the  surface. 

An  example  of  the  rapid  formation  of  these  alluvial  lands  and  of  their  still 

Fig.  103. — Meetinq  of  the  Wateb3  in  the  Cbntbe  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Scale  1  : 3,600,000. 


>  eOiilUei. 


more  rapid  effacement  is  afforded  by  the  history  of  the  steamer  America,  which 
foundered  in  the  river.  100  miles  below  the  Ohio  ferry,  and  which  was  scon 
covered  with  a  sandy  deposit.  The  ground  ticquired  consistency,  trees  took  root 
and  developed  into  thickets,  which  for  nearly  twenty  years  supplied  fuel  to  passing 
steamboats.  A  farmstead  had  even  been  established  on  the  spot,  when  two  suc- 
cessive freshets  swept  away  all  trace  of  the  island.  The  hull  of  the  vessel,  thus 
again  exposed,  was  found  at  a  depth  of  40  feet,  no  longer  close  to  the  bank  where 
it  had  stranded,  but  in  the  middle  of  the  current  half  a  mile  from  the  shore. 


'm^msmj^MafgaggBitmiK^:'' 


^IWIWM^^I!^' '  f  I'^i ' 


WW 


280 


?:he  united  states. 


The  whole  region  of  low-lying  plains  which  stretches  west  of  the  Missitisippi 
below  Cairo,  and  for  a  distance  of  about  123  miles  uorth  and  south,  is  studded  with 
lagoons  and  morasses,  and  traversed  by  sluggish  streams,  which  any  casual  snag 
suffices  to  arrest,  and  which  cut  themijelves  fresh  channels  in  the  luoje  soil  right 
and  left  of  the  obstacle.  It  is  commonly  asserted  that  this  "S  iik  Country,"  as 
these  half -submerged  lands  are  called,  suddenly  subsided  during  the  earthquake  of 

Fig.  104.— Sunken  hAima. 

euile  1  '  flSfifUOO. 


.^'-^y  •;••*.  .  •:   .• 


89'30'      t1>a»t    eF  Greenwich 


89'lO' 


Dyke. 


>  18  Miles. 


'•:>i1l" 


1812,  which  overthrew  the  settlementof  New  Modi  id,  the  Nueva  Madrid  founded  by 
the  Spaniards  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  perhaps  in  tu;;  hope  of  one  day 
liere  establishing  the  metropolis  of  their  North  American  possessions  beyond 
Mexico.  According  to  the  traditional  accounts  of  the  local  seismic  disturbances, 
the  shocks  felt  on  this  occasion  were  amongst  the  most  violent  ever  recorded. 
Hills  are  said  to  have  been  swallowed  up,  while  fissures  several  leagues  long  were 
suddenly  opened  in  the  ground,  and  filled  with  water. 


>'*fflW^<WBBlJiSte'^ 


* 


TUB  SUNK  COUNTUy.— AKKAN«AS  UlVlIR. 


881 


si^sippi 
)d  with 
al  snag- 
1  right 
TV,"  as 
uake  of 


dedby 
ne  day 
jeyond 
)anceB, 
jordod. 
g  were 


These  accounts,  however,  which  were  handed  down  from  mouth  to  mouth,  b<it 
which  were  confirmed  by  no  Berious  observation  in  u  district  at  that  time  almoac 
uninhabited,  may  well  be  suspected  of  great  exaggeration.  Nevertheless,  one  fact 
is  certain.  At  the  north-west  angle  of  the  State  of  Tennessee  the  landslips  whiclv 
blocked  the  course  of  the  lleelfoot  River  caused  the  rapid  formation  of  a  lake 
over  40  square  miles  in  extent,  and  this  basin  still  exists,  encircled  partly  by 
woods,  partly  by  mtirshlands. 

Even  before  the  earthquake  of  1812  the  Sunk  Country  was  a  region  wf  lakes 
and  swamps,  a  kind  of  inland  delta,  whose  thousand  branches  served  as  natural 
regulators  of  the  river  between  the  high  and  low  water  seasons.  The  overflow 
expands  laterally  over  this  low-lying  district,  all  the  flooded  depressions  thus 
becoming  temporary  reservoirs,  where  the  current  is  extremely  slow.  On  reaching 
the  marshlands  it  continues  to  fall  towarls  the  lower  levels;  but  being  arrested 
by  f>nags  and  matted  vegetation,  it  loses  all  its  initial  force,  returning  after 
several  weeks,  or  perhaps  months,  to  the  Mississippi  or  some  of  its  affluents,  when 
the  main  stream  has  fallen  to  its  normal  level. 

The  common  emissary  of  all  these  floodwaters  spread  over  the  Sunk  Country 
and  other  low-lying  tracts  is  the  Saint  Francis  River,  which,  throughout  the  whole 
of  its  lower  course,  is  nothing  more  than  a  bayou  of  the  ramifying  Mississippi 
M'aters.  The  extent  of  alluvial  lands  and  muddy  tracts  enclosed  between  the  two 
watercourses  is  estimated  at  about  4,000  square  miles.  Thanks  to  the  controlling 
action  of  the  temporary  reservoirs  the  floodwaters  are  gradually  diminished,  so 
that  during  the  inundation  the  Mississippi  discharges  a  much  smaller  volume 
near  its  mouth  than  it  does  at  the  Ohio  confluence,  1,250  miles  higher  up. 
Despite  the  contributions  of  the  affluents  on  both  sides,  it  loses  one-fifth  of  its  total 
mass  during  its  seaward  course,  and  at  New  Orleans  the  discharge  at  high-water 
level  is  less  thun  at  Saint  Louis.* 

The  Arkansas,  which  its  discoverer,  Joliet,  had  named  the  Riviere  Bazire,  joins 
the  Mississippi  about  midway  between  the  Ohio  and  Red  River  confluences.  It 
is  by  no  means  such  an  imposing  watercourse  as  might  be  supposed  I'rom  its  tracing 
on  the  map.  Although  over  2,000  miles  long,  it  is  not  copious  enough  to  remain 
navigable  throughout  the  whole  year,  and  steamers  are  often  arrested  even  at  its 
mouth.  The  rains  that  fall  on  the  thirsty  western  prairies  are  insufficieut  to 
maintain  a  large  body  of  water  at  all  times. 

Like  the  Missouri,  the  Arkansas  takes  its  rise  in  the  heart  of  the  Rockies, 
west  of  "  South  Park."  an  elevated  valley,  which  is  dominated  by  the  boldest 
summits  of  Colorado,  Lincoln  in  the  north-east  and  Harvard  in  the  south-west. 

Flowing  at  first  south  and  then  east  through  deep  gorges,  the  Arkansas  has 
already  descended  two-thirds  of  its  total  incline  wlisu  at  Pueblo  (4,700  feet)  it 
escapes  from  the  highlands,  and  winds  through  the  western  prairies  to  the  con- 


*  Discharge  of  the  Mississippi  durin>.'  the  floods : — 

At  Cape  Girardeau  above  the  Oliio  confluence 

At  Belmont  below  the  Ohio  coufluence    . 

At  New  Orleans     .        .        .       v-v   ><i  i  .^^ 


Cublf  feet.  .      . 

1,200,000 

(more  tlian)  1,223,000 

-i^.-^  ~  «■  v3-     995,000  (EUett). 


I 


3.!f*i 


'^,']'". 


S88 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


fluonce.  TravcTsing  a  region  analogous  in  formation,  slope  and  climate  to  that 
of  the  Missouri,  it  also  describes  a  curve  rouglily  parallel  with  that  of  the  grout 
■  river  of  the  northern  plains ;  its  affluents  also,  the  red  Cimarron  and  the  Cana- 
dian River,  which  rises  amid  the  lavas,  resemble  such  tributaries  of  the  Missouri 
as  the  Platte  and  Kansas.  Like  them,  they  ramify  as  shallow  streams  through 
a  sandy  bed  between  banks  wide  apart  from  each  other,  and  also  encWitig  fertile 
and  naturally  wooded  bottom  lands. 

Those  flat  watercourses  are  navigable  only  for  canoes,  and  before  the  spring 
rains,  the  traveller,  IJoone,  found  the  bed  of  the  Canadian  quite  dry  7o0  miles 
from  its  source,  that  is  to  say,  a  distance  equal  to  that  on  the  Danube  from  its 
headwaters  to  Buda-Pest.  The  explorer,  Gregg,  wandered  about  for  several 
days  in  search  of  the  Cimarron,  aptly  named  the  "Fugitive"  by  the  first  Spanish 
travellers,  because  it  often  disappeared,  leaving  little  trace  of  its  presence. 

Fig.  105. — CaSon  of  the  Arkansas. 
Scale  1  :  l,3fiO,000. 


West  of  Greenwich 


ISMilea. 


One  of  the  affluents  of  the  Canadian,  which  owes  its  name  to  the  Frunco-Oana- 
dian  trappers,  has  been  called  the  Dry  River,  because  the  stream  flows  invisibly 
beneath  the  sands  of  its  broud  bed.  At  night  a  few  sheets  of  water  may  be  found 
in  the  cavities,  but  they  soon  evaporaie  in  the  heat  of  the  sun.  In  certain  places 
the  sands  are  dangerous  to  cross,  being  almost  as  liquid  as  the  underground 
current.  AVest  of  10U°  west  longitude,  and  thence  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
nearly  all  the  watercourses  are  slightly  brackish. 

As  it  approaches  the  Mississippi,  the  Arkansas  enters  a  low-lying  district 
similar  to  the  Sunk  Country,  and  is  here  joined  by  the  ramifying  channels  of 
a  stream  descending  from  the  north  which  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  White 
and  Black  Rivers.  Here  also  in  a  delta  common  to  the  Mississippi,  Arkansas  and 
AVhite  River,  an  equilibrium  is  established  between  the  several  confluent?  accord- 
ing to  the  relative  rise  and  fall  of  the  floodwaters  in  the  three  basins. 


LOWER  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


288 


On  the  opposite  aide  of  the  Mississippi  tho  pitiins  facing  the  confluenoa  belong 
to  tho  basin  of  tho  Yuzoo,  which,  though  of  small  extent,  is  two-thirds  as  copious 
aa  the  Arkunsus."  The  Yuzoo  is  formed  by  tho  junction  of  numerous  sluggish 
buyous,  wandering  over  u  district  which  appears  to  have  formerly  been  tho  bed 
of  a  lake.  One  of  these  bayous  formerly  branched  off  at  an  opening  in  the 
Mississippi  buak  known  as  Yazoo  Gate,  and  joined  the  Sunflower  ulHuent  of  tho 

Fig.  106.— Upper  Vali-ey  op  the  Canadun  Rivbu. 

Scale  1  :  a2a,000. 


104-15' 


1,A.-..iJ 

..:f''-55s 

••Si 


18  Milea. 


Yazoo,  and  then  the  Yazoo  itself,  doubling  itsA'olume  and  ultimately  returning  to 
the  Mississippi  some  300  miles  below  the  Gate.  But  in  order  to  reclaim  and 
bring  under  cultivation  the  enclosed  district  from  above,  some  planters  closed 
this  Gate  by  an  enormous  embankment,  the  strongest  along  the  whole  course  of 


*  Yazoo  mean  discharge 
Aikitnaad  „        „ 


43,000  cnbio  ft.  pnr  8co. 
63.000     „     „       „ 


2S4 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I 


tho  ^Hssissippi.     Since  tht  t  time,  however,  the  streams  further  down  huvo  become 
80  shallow  thttt  all  navigation  is  nearly  ob-itructed  for  moutliH  together. 

Semicircular  and  evi  »  almost  completely  circular  windings  are  very  numcv  un 
along  tho  whole  course  of  the  Mississippi ;  but  they  nowhere  form  a  more  regular 
und  continuous  (^ystem  than  in  the  lower  section  of  its  middle  course  between 
the  Arkansas  and  lied  River  confluences.  It  often  happens  that  vessels  sailing 
with  the  current  for  a  long  detour  of  several  leagues  find  themselves  not  far  from, 
and  still  in  sight  of,  the  point  they  may  have  left  hours  before.  Meanderings  of 
15  or  even  20  miles,  such  us  those  of  Terrapin  and  Puhnyra  bends,  leave  a  space  of 
less  than  500  yards  to  the  isthmus  separating  tl.e  upper  from  the  lower  loop. 

Hence  the  narrow  stem  has  often  been  pierced  through  and  through  by  the 
stream  itself,  which  thus  suddenly  completes  the  unfinished  ring.  Then  the 
current,  causing  to  describe  a  groat  bond,  rushoj  swiftly  through  the  new  channel. 
The  ends  of  tho  old  channel  are  quickly  filled  with  silt  and  the  old  bed  is  left 
a  mere  crescent-shaped  lake  of  stagnant  water.  To  such  lakes  Shuler  has 
given  the  name  of  moaU,  comparing  them  to  the  abandoned  ditches  enclosing 
some  ancient  fortress.  The  cutting  of  the  isthmus  is  usually  completed,  not 
from  the  side  of  the  upper  curve,  whence  the  stream  descends,  but  from  tho 
lower,  whence  the  water  plunges  over  an  abrupt  full.  On  this  lower  side  the 
erosion  is  accomplished  with  amazing  rapidity  by  the  excavation  of  the  bank 
cleared  of  all  support  from  above ;  when  it  gives  way  many  acres  of  land  dis- 
appear in  a  few  seconds,  with  a  thundering  noise  like  a  salvo  of  artillery. 

But  several  days  pass  before  steamers  are  able  to  stem  the  powerful  current 
of  the  short  cutting.  Most  of  the  new  beds  thus  formed,  since  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi  have  been  known  to  Europeans,  have  been  opened  without  any  artificial 
aid.  Such  is,  for  instance,  the  Horseshoe  Cut-off,  which  was  formed  in  1839,  some 
distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas,  and  which  saved  a  detour  of  80  miles. 

Other  channels  have  partly  an  artiiicial  origin.  Such  are  in  Louisiana,  the 
cuttings  which  still  bear  their  !Fronch  namep,  "  Pointe-Coup^e  "  and  "  Raccourci." 
At  first  sight  it  might  seem  simpK,  enough  in  this  way  to  rectify  ihe  sinuous  course 
of  tho  Mississippi,  and  thus  shorten  its  nrivigation.  But  the  equilibrium  of  the 
-.^i-eam  is  regularly  established  on  both  sides  of  the  valley,  so  that  the  windings 

oressed  in  one  place  reappear  elsewhere,  and  the  short  cuts  gained  at  one 
.ut  are  soon  lost  at  another.  It  is  evident  from  the  general  aspect  of  thq 
Mississippi  depression,  with,  its  living  current  flowing  between  numerous  extinct 
lateral  streams,  that  the  river  has  never  ceased  to  oscillate  from  right  to  left,  with 
a  continuous  undulating  movement.  Islands  are  transformed  to  pcninsulud, 
which  are  then  shifted  from  side  to  side,  and  consequently  also  transferred  from 
one  political  territory  to  another.  Thus  the  island  No.  92,  forming  part  of 
Arkansas,  was  removed  by  the  action  of  the  river  to  the  opposite  state.  Still 
more  curious  is  the  hippy  condiiion  of  No.  74,  some  4,000  acres  in  extent,  which 
belongs  neither  to  the  one  nor  to  the  other,  so  that  its  owner  pays  no  taxes. 

This  shifting  character  of  the  stream,  like  a  snake  continually  coiling  and 
uncoiling  itself,  explains  the  appearance  of  its  bunks.     The  traveller  who  has 


"J '  '■'in'i>ffu!i.i.i,ii  I  ii^-;^.»  I  n~'j«ir'<y*"y 


LOWEB  MISSISSirPI  BASIN. 


IM 


tmveracd  tlio  primeval  forest  can  ulono  form  some  idoii  of  tho  silonco  tliut  roitfoa 
ulong  tho  iniddlo  course  of  the  iMirtsissippi.  It  is  gciierully  supposod  in  Kurope, 
and  even  in  New  Knglund,  thut  the  riverine  tracts  are  cultivated,  and  (h)t((  d  over 
with  an  uninterrupted  lino  of  hamlets  and  villiigea.  Hut  it  is  not  so.  Forenfs, 
willow-grown  islands,  spits  of  sand  follow  in  wearying  monotony,  and  the  travellei 
may  journey  fur  days  together  without  seeing  a  trace  of  human  habitation  on  the 

Fig.  107.— Misna^iprt-ABKANBAS  Cokfluenob. 
Benin  1  :  47iv.(irjn. 


Wot  oF  GreefiNwich 


Drke. 


'r^;' 


The  old  lite  ot  Napoleon  i*  now  under  water. 
6  MUei. 


lifeless  shores  of  the  great  artery.  Puffing  steamers  are  met,  with  their  crowds 
of  passengers,  for  a  moment  filling  the  void  with  stir  and  noise,  and  heightenintr 
by  contrast  the  stillness  of  the  mysterious  riverine  woodlands. 

The  banks  themselves  are  stable  only  in  few  places,  and  rarely  offer  a  firm 
footing  to  man  and  his  works.  Ever  since  the  scientific  exploration  of  the 
Mississippi  has  begun,  all  travellers,  and  especially  Lyell,  have  noticed  that  the 
right  bank  below  the  Ohio  is  formed  excluBively  of  alluvial  deposits,  whereas 


/ 


U(i 


THE  UNITKD  STATES. 


the  left  Hulo  is  Hkirted  by  blulTs.  At  one  point  aloiio,  not  fur  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Suiiit  Fruncis,  the  rivor  upprouchcs  ihn  hills  on  its  right  side  nour  enough  for 
the  ohserver  to  <liNtin'>;ui8h  the  foreBt-clud  heights  in  the  distunco. 

Ou  the  east  side,  on  the  eontrary,  tho  current  impinges  fifteen  times  on  roo' 
of  eoeeuu  origin,  tliu  so-culled  "  t'cores  "  of  tho  curly  French  pioneers.     Euch  of 

¥\)f.  108.— WnroixaB  or  trr  Miisiaiin>pi  abovr  OiiKBNviLr.R. 

Hoala  I  :  iUIU.UM. 


,  6  MUe*. 


these  bluffs,  with  their  red  escarpments  furrowed  by  the  rains,  has  afforded  a 
solid  foundation  for  farmsteads,  villages,  and  towns.  Here  and  there  occur  a  few 
ruins,  ancient  military  stations  of  the  Indians  or  whites,  to  which  the  present 
inhabitants  give  the  general  name  of  Solo  camps,  as  if  to  credit  all  these  works 
to  Hernando  de  Soto,  the  first  European  who  crossed  the  Mississippi. 


"* 


-^■'•s»»*sr^|gi^ 


iM^^Mi.^. 


m 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


■■HI 


LOWEE  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


287 


It  mig'ht  seem  natural  for  tlie  Mississippi  to  encroach  rather  on  its  right  bank, 
for  the  simple  rotatory  movement  of  the  earth  round  its  axis  should,  in  fact, 
unless  neutralised  by  influences  acting  in  the  opposite  direction,  tend  to  deflect 
the  course  of  the  river  to  the  right,  as  it  does  that  of  the  Volga  in  Europe  and  of 
the  Indus  in  Asia.  Such,  however,  ia  not  the  case,  and  the  Mississippi  delta  is, 
in  fact,  displaced  some  six  degrees  to  the  east  (left)  of  the  lake  at  its  source. 

Fig.  109.— "CuT8-orp"  or  the  Mississippi  at  the  Red  Eiveb  Confluence. 

Scale  t  :  260,000. 


/ntasf 


51' 


irr^^^^^ 


(301 

50 


51' 


50* 

50- 


West  oF  Greenwich 


.  8  Milei. 


The  cause  of  this  apparent  anomaly  must  be  sought  in  the  original  structure 
of  the  continental  mass  itself.  In  their  general  incline  rivers  necessarily  follow 
the  slope  of  the  land  through  which  they  flow.  Thus  the  Alabama  trends  south- 
westwards  in  a  line  with  the  terminal  valleys  of  the  Appalachian  system,  while 
all  the  Texan  watercourses  follow  the  tilt  of  the  plains  skirting  the  foot  of  the 
Eocky  Mountains.  In  the  same  way  the  Mississippi,  confined  to  the  central 
depression  of  North  America  between  the  two  lateral  orographic  systems 
(Appalachianc  and  Rockies),  has  been  most  powerfully  influenced  in  its  general 


■  .V."::  '  ■■'  .f  ..,■  'Cy.  y}'.- 


V^mr» 


28d 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


^ 

r 


1 

I 


r 


course  by  the  more  powerful  of  these  two  systems.  The  whole  space  comprised 
between  the  Rockies  and  the  main  stream  may  be  regarded  as  a  vast  talus  or 
sloping  mass  of  detritus,  the  base  or  eastern  scarp  of  which  is  skirted  by  the 
Mississippi  on  its  course  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Some  300  miles  from  the  sea  the  beginning  of  the  delta  region  is  indicated  by 
the  confluence  of  the  Red  River.  This  great  affluent,  which  flows  parallel  with  the 
Canadian,  Cimarron,  and  Arkansas,  and  which  was  formerly  confused  with  a  Rio 
Colorado  tributary  to  the  Canadian,  does  notnise,  like  these  watercourses,  in  an 
upland  valley  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  in  a  fissure  of  the  Llano  Estacado  (Staked 
Plain).  Here  it  rises  in  the  bed  of  a  canon,  at  an  absolute  height  of  2,600  feet, 
and  about  650  feet  below  the  encircling  wall  of  overhanging  rocks.  Flowing 
eastwards,  the  stream  escapes  through  this  gorge  to  the  open  plains,  where  it  is 
joined  by  several  other  rivulets  which,  like  it,  are  nearly  all  brackish. 

Occasionally  its  oandy  bed  remains  quite  dry  for  some  hundred  miles  from  its 
source.  But  after  the  junction  of  the  False  Washita,  the  Red  River  becomes  a 
perennial  watercourse,  although  not  yet  navigable.  After  receiving  several  other 
tributaries,  it  trends  round  to  the  south,  and  here  enters  a  low-lying  region,  which 
is  studded  with  large  depressions,  and  which  is  at  times  covered  by  the  flood-waters. 

The  barrier,  however,  by  which  river  and  lakes  are  here  dammed  up  is  not  a 
rocky  ledge  or  sill,  but  a  prodigioi  ^  quantity  of  snags  jammed  together  in  an 
impenetrable  rampart.  This  vast  accumulation  of  driftwood,  the  "  embarras  "  of 
the  French  Creoles,  is  called  by  the  Anglo-Americans  a  "  raft,"  although  it  does 
not  float,  but  blocks  the  river-bed  through  its  entire  depth,  leaving  the  water  to 
escape  right  and  left.  It  consists,  in  fact,  not  of  a  continuous  compact  rampart, 
but  of  some  fifty  or  sixty  solid  heaps,  each  several  hundred  or  even  thousand 
yards  long,  with  intervening  stretches  of  stagnant  water.  With  every  recurrent 
inundation  the  stream  brings  down  fresh  trees,  which  are  intercepted  by  the 
"  raft,"  the  accumulated  mass  thus  continually  growing  larger  on  the  upper  side, 
while  lower  down  a  few  snags  are  detached  from  time  to  time. 

Thus  the  obstruction,  increasing  upwards,  advances  incessantly  up  stream,  like 
a  floating  embankment.  In  1858  the  upper  front  had  ascended  the  main  stream 
a  distance  of  390  miles  above  the  Red  River  and  Mississippi  confluence,  having 
advanced  30  miles  since  1833,  or  at  the  mean  rate  of  \\  mile  a  year.  The  pent-up 
lakes  are  in  their  turn  also  pressed  upwards,  flooding  prairies  and  woodlands  as 
they  advance  inland.  The  vast  space  now  occupied  by  Caddo  Lake,  about  the 
north-west  corner  of  Louisiana,  was  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  still  prairie, 
over  which  the  Indians  hunted  the  bison. 

Thus  the  whole  aspect  of  the  land  has  been  permanently  modified,  and  in 
certain  places  the  decayed  snags,  having  lost  their  woodj'  texture,  became  trans- 
formed to  vegetable  humus,  which  supported  a  fresh  growth  of  forest  trees.  In 
order  to  restore  the  navigation,  the  Louisiana  Government  began  in  1828  a 
project  for  clearing  away  the  barriers,  which  at  that  lime  obstructed  the  river  for 
a  distance  of  about  125  miles.  These  had  been  gradually  reduced  to  one-tenth  of 
their  original  length  when  operations  were  interrupted  by  the  Civil  War.     After 


omprised 

talus  or 

by  the 

icated  by 

with  the 

ith  a  Rio 

es,  in  an 

0  (Staked 
,(500  feet, 

Flowing 
here  it  is 

from  its 
becomes  a 
eral  other 
ion,  which 
od-waters. 
3  is  not  a 
Lber  in  an 
barras  "  of 
igh  it  does 
le  water  to 
jt  rampart, 

1  thousand 
y  recurrent 
ted  by  the 
upper  side, 

stream,  like 
lain  stream 
nee,  having 
rhe  pent-up 
oodlands  as 
3,  about  the 
It  ill  prairie, 

Red,  and  in 
came  trans- 
it trees.  In 
I  in  1828  a 
the  river  for 
one-tenth  of 
War.     After 


LOWER  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


239 


tlie  war  the  oix'rations  were  resumed,  but  restricted  to  the  work  of  cutting  a 
direct  navigable  channel  through  the  solid  mass  of  snags.  This  work  was  oni- 
pleted  in  the  fall  of  1873. 

In  the  Mississippi  itself  old  beds  completely  obstructed  by  trees  have  been 
abandoned  by  the  river,  which  has  opened  new  passages  elsewhere.  IJut  no  fresh 
barriers  are  here  formed,  although  the  trunks  of  trees  still  continue  to  drif* 
down  during  the  floods.  But  all  the  larger  stems  are  captured  by  the  saw-mills 
established  at  intervals  along  the  banks,  and  in  the  lower  regions  nothing  remains 
except  branches,  herbage  and  reeds.  Thus  the  bed  of  the  river  is  kept  clear  of 
the  snngs  or  "  sawyers,"  as  they  are  locally  called,  which  formerly  grounded  and 
became  embedded  in  the  mud,  half  hidden  by  the  turbid  waters,  and  a  constant 
source  of  dunger  to  passing  vessels. 

Below  the  raft  the  Red  River  still  develops  near  Alexandria  some  little  rapids, 
which  are  difficult  to  surmount  during  the  dry  season.  Farther  on  it  is  joined 
by  the  Washita,  or  Black  River,  a  short  distance  above  the  point  where  its 
brownish  current  intermingles  with  the  yellow  waters  of  the  Mississippi  in  a 
labyrinth  of  channels.  But  in  geological  history  the  Red  River  is  only  a 
temporary  affluent  of  the  ^lississippi.  At  a  former  epoch  it  probably  failed  to 
reach  the  right  bank  of  the  main  stream,  but  flowed  at  a  distunce  of  about  60 
miles  to  the  west  directly  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  broad  bed  which  is 
at  present  occupied  by  the  T^che  bayou. 

The  Washita,  with  its  lower  course,  the  Black  River,  also  flowed  in  an  independent 
channel  southwards,  reaching  the  sea  through  the  bed  of  the  Atchafalaya  bayou. 
But  the  incessant  shifting  of  all  these  watercourses  ended  by  uniting  them  in  a 
vast  network  of  bayous.  Like  a  knot  gathering  up  the  stems  of  three  ramifying 
branches,  this  intricate  system  of  channels  connects  the  Mississippi  with  the 
neighbouring  rivers,  and  marks  the  precise  spot  where  the  waters  of  the  three 
streams  again  diverge  in  separate  beds  towards  the  sea. 

Nevertheless,  the  three  watercourses  have  not  become  absolutely  intermingled, 
but  still  show  a  tendency  again  to  resume  their  former  independent  courses. 
Thus  the  Red  River  no  longer  communicates  with  the  Mississippi,  except  through 
a  broad  passage,  which  has  received  the  name  of  the  *'  Old  River,"  and  which 
would  soon  become  unnavigable  but  for  the  incessant  labour  of  the  engineers. 
Even  so,  mudbanks  have  frequently  closed  the  entrance  of  the  Red  River  to 
steamers  from  the  Mississippi.  It  has  been  proposed  to  arrest  the  Atchafalaya 
affluent  by  means  of  an  embankment,  and  thus  divert  the  waters  of  the  Red 
River  into  the  junction  canal.  But  all  calculations  are  upset  by  the  uncertain 
character  of  the  inundations.  Occasionally  the  Mississippi  discharges  a  portion 
of  its  flood- waters  through  the  Atchafalaya,  as  if  the  river  were  in  quest  of  the 
shortest  route  seawards. 

The  number  of  bayous  in  the  Mississippi  delta  which  flow  directly  seawards 
without  returning  to  the  fluvial  bed  changes  from  century  to  century.  Besides 
the  main  stream  itself,  the  present  branches  of  the  delta  above  the  group  of 
terminal  mouths,  or  "  passes,"  are  the  Atchafaluya,  Pluquemine,  and  Lafourche 


>   I     !   P^«|in»i^il 


'''''^T'"^',^''W'^''^''''^'''W^  " 


■',  *.■  r\ 


240 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


bayous.  Others  have  been  effaced  by  the  riverine  populations  anxious  to  reclaim 
the  land,  and  make  it  suitable  for  cultivation  by  drainage  works.  The  Atchafalaya 
branch  is  the  largest  of  the  three  still  open,  all  of  which  ramify  to  the  right  of 
the  main  stream,  winding  from  lake  to  lake,  from  swamp  to  swamp,  on  their 
sluggish  courses  to  the  shallow  waters  of  the  gulf,  west  of  the  passes. 

Formerly  another  large  atHueiit,  the  IberviUe  bayou,  ramitied  on  the  opposite 
(east)  side  of  the  Mississippi,  flowing  seawards  through  Lakes  Maurepas  and 
Pontchartrain,  and  discharging  a  large  volume  of  water  during  the  winter  season. 
This  channel  might  have  acquired  some  importance  as  a  commercial  highway  had 
care  been  taken  to  keep  it  open  ;  but  it  is  now  obliterated,  except  during  the 
periodical  floods.  It  had  already  been  partly  obstructed  by  the  "  embarras  "  of 
snags,  wlien  General  Jackson  had  it  closed  some  time  before  the  battle  of  New 
Orleans,  to  prevent  the  English  from  penetrating  through  this  branch  into  the 
Mississippi,  and  then  descending  with  the  current  on  the  capital  of  Louisiana. 

From  Cairo  to  its  delta  the  Mississippi  steadily  diminishes  in  width  according 
as  it  approaches  the  gulf.  Between  the  Ohio  and  Arkansas  confluences  the  mean 
width  is  about  1,500  yards  between  banks;  between  the  Arkansas  and  Red  River 
the  width  is  reduced  to  1,370  yards;  between  the  Red  River  and  the  Lafourche 
bayou  to  1,000  yards;  lastly,  from  the  Lafourche  bayou  to  the  head  of  the  passes, 
the  Mississippi  shrinks  to  a  width  of  800  yards. 

On  the  other  hand  the  depth  continues  to  increase  in  the  same  direction 
throughout  the  whole  of  its  course.  In  the  section  from  the  Ohio  to  the  Arkansas 
the  river  bed  rises  here  and  there  to  less  than  1 0  feet  at  the  reefs ;  but  the 
mean  depth  ranges  from  50  to  85  feet,  and  in  the  lower  reaches  between  the  Yazoo 
and  the  passes,  from  110  to  120  feet.  At  the  foot  of  the  Grand  Gulf  bluff  (a 
corruption  of  the  French  "  Grand  GoufPre  ")  the  lead  reveals  a  depth  of  no  less 
than  200  feet.  Thus  the  increase  of  depth  about  suffices  to  compensate  for  the 
decrease  in  width,  so  that  the  volume  remains  the  same. 

On  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Mississippi  nothing  is  visible  except  water,  mud, 
and  the  rich  loam  deposited  by  the  freshets.  Humphreys  and  Abbot  believed  that  the 
bed  of  the  fluvial  plain  below  the  overlying  alluvia  consists  of  a  tenacious  clay 
"  nearly  as  hard  as  marble,"  and  probably  dating  from  a  time  anterior  to  the  eocene 
epoch.  According  to  them  the  broad  expanse,  70,000  square  miles  in  extent, 
stretching  from  Cape  Girardeau  to  Baton  Rouge  above  New  Orleans,  has  not 
been  formed  by  later  deposits,  but  would  appear  to  belong  to  an  older  formation. 

Nevertheless  the  numerous  soundings  and  borings  made  in  the  bed  and  along 
the  banks  of  the  river  show  that  this  clay  is  of  the  same  origin  as  the  overlying 
sedimentary  matter.  Both  formations  are  alike  the  creation  of  the  Mississippi, 
though  geologists  have  not  yet  been  able  to  say  how  many  long  ages  have  elapsed 
since  the  first  deposits  were  made.  An  artesian  well  sunk  at  New  Orleans  to  a 
depth  of  580  feet  has  penetrated  exclusively  through  alluvial  strata,  clays,  and 
sands,  with  trunks  of  trees  embedded  in  the  mud.  The  great  marine  depths,  also, 
that  have  been  revealed  by  the  soundings  taken  south  of  the  passes  make  it 
evident  that  the  quantity  of  silt  brought  down  by  the  Mississippi  is  far  greater 


MMMMiMMiilkui^l^liiMgUliHii 


MdUdHMUMailul 


reclaim 
hafalaya 
right  of 
on  tLeir 

opposite 
epas  and 
r  season, 
iway  had 
iring  the 
irras"  of 
B  of  New 
1  into  the 
iiana. 
according 

the  mean 
Led  River 
Lafourche 
:he  passes, 

direction 

Arkansas 

but  the 

the  Yazoo 

ilf  bluff  (a 

1  of  no  less 

ate  for  the 

vater,  mud, 
/ed  that  the 
acious  clay 
)  the  eocene 
in  extent, 
as,  has  not 
formation. 
I  and  along 
le  overlying 
Mississippi, 
lave  elapsed 
Orleans  to  a 
X,  cluys,  and 
depths,  also, 
ises  make  it 
1  far  greater 


-ii'i.  'i'<i.J,yi  lnmMii<ni|*i(,^^'i|>l  ii'ii     H" 


/ 


MiaSlSSim  DELTA. 


241 


than  that  determined  by  the  borings.  Collectively,  tho  delta  may  perhaps 
represent  an  alluvial  mass  1,600  feet  thick. 

Other  boring's  undertaken  for  the  construction  of  some  gasworks  have  revealed 
ten  successive  strata  of  ancient  fosest,  and  in  one  of  these  a  human  skeleton  was 
found  associated  with  bits  of  charred  wood  at  a  depth  of  16  feet.  The  naturalists 
who  have  examined  the  fossil  shells  and  plants  brought  up  from  the  lower  cluys 
have,  with  some  doubtful  exceptions,  identified  them  with  organisms  still  living  in 
the  surrounding  waters ;  they  were  obviously  deposited  in  front  of  the  delta  before 
the  Mississippi  had  advanced  its  mouths  farther  seawards. 

Till'  fine  clays  of  the  delta  region,  being  less  friable  than  the  coarser  sands 
higher  up,  serve  for  the  construction  of  lateral  levees  or  embankments ;  these 

Fig.  110.— Flooded  Reoion  buttken  thk  Arkansas  and  Yazoo. 
t-cale  1  :  l,70u,0(iu. 


.80  Miles. 


works  hold  out  well  against  the  pressure  of  the  inundations,  so  long  as  the  top  is 
not  reached  by  the  waters,  or  pierced  by  the  crayfish,  or  the  base  eroded 
by  the  underwash  of  eddies.  All  attempts  must  have  failed  to  bring  the  low- 
lying  alluvial  plains  under  cultivation  had  they  not  been  first  protected  by  such 
works.    The  first  ramparts  thrown  up  around  New  Orleans  date  from  1717. 

These  dykes  or  levees,  ranging  in  mean  height  from  10  to  16  feet,  but  higher 
and  strengthened  by  advanced  earthworks  at  the  dangerous  points,  skirt  both 
sides  of  the  river  for  a  total  distance  of  some  thousand  miles.  Along  the  right  or 
lower  bank  they  form  an  almost  continuous  rampart  from  Cape  Girardeau  to  and 
beyond  New  Orleans.  On  the  left  bank,  which  is  here  and  there  flanked  by 
bluff's,  the  line  of  levees  scarcely  extends  northwards  beyond  Tennessee. 


:'J 


■  III  L    "    PI  I    III  il.iii.  .Ill,  •••   •  '  •iri'Tjiii     injntn 


I" 


?' 


242 


THE  UNITED  STATE?. 


Fig.  111.— Mississippi  Alluvia. 

Roiile  1  :  9,<i00,000. 


But  those  dykes,  till  recently  constructed  by  the  different  states  without  any 
general  plan,  are  themselves  the  cause  of  disjsters.  They  prevent  any  overflow 
into  the  marshy  riverine  tracts,  so  that  in  exceptionally  wet  seasons  the  swollen 
floodwaters  never  fail  to  find  some  weak  point  at  which  they  break  through  into 
the  surrounding  plantations.      Forty-five  crevasses  occurred  in  the  embankments 

below  the  Saint  Francis  in  18-j8. 

The  history  of  these  "  crevasses,"  as  they 
are  locally  called,  is  the  history  of  the  public 
calamities  of  Louisiana.  How  often  has  the 
Mississippi  burst  its  artificial  fetters,  and  laid 
the  low-lying  arable  lands  under  water  while 
seeking  fresh  channels  for  its  overflow  !  Thus 
the  Bonnet  Curr^  crevasse,  which  was  formed 
in  18d0,  was  reopened  in  1859,  when  the  stream 
rushed  through  at  the  rate  of  106,000  cubic  feet 
per  second,  a  volume  greater  than  the  normal 
discharge  of  the  Rhone. 

The  freshet  of  1874  opened  fifteen  crevasses, 
and  in  Louisiana  over  2,500,000  acres  under 
cotton,  sugar,  and  maize  disappeared  beneath  the 
floods.  Above  Louisiana  the  plain  has  also  at 
times  been  inundated  from  bluff  to  bluff,  and  in 
1890  the  whole  valley  of  the  Yazoo  was  trans- 
formed to  a  temporary  lake.  The  inundations 
,  covered  a  space  of  about  68,000  square  miles, 
10,000  square  miles  more  than  the  whole  of 
England  and  Wales,  and  the  mounds  raised  by 
the  vanished  Indian  tribes  were  the  only  places 
of  refuge  for  the  peasantry  and  their  cattle. 
Similar  disastrous  floods  took  place  in  May, 
1892,  when  the  Mississippi  at  some  points 
expanded  to  an  inland  sea,  from  ten  to  twenty 
miles  wide. 

The  levees  cease  with  the  arable  lands, 
beyond  which  the  tracts  lying  too  low  to  be 
cultivated  have  no  need  to  be  protected,  at 
least  until  they  are  raised  by  the  yearly  deposits  of  the  floods.  Mean- 
while the  Mississippi  already  flows,  one  may  sny,  in  the  Mexican  Gulf 
beyond  the  shore  line  of  the  mainland.  The  narrow  alluvial  peninsula  which 
here  serves  to  form  its  banks  tapers  continually  southwards,  so  that  the 
two  fluvial  banks  become  simple  marine  beaches,  washed  by  the  waves.  From 
the  deck  of  a  passing  steamer  the  traveller  easily  perceives  that  he  is  following 
the  course  of  a  freshwater  stream  flowing  in  the  open  sea,  while  the  true  coastline, 
left  far  behind,  at  last  disappears  altogether. 


Alluvia. 


186  HUe& 


JOiM^ri 


M 


MISSISSirPI  DELTA. 


248 


Further  on  the  channel  of  the  MisMssippiexpundHoveru  p()lyj?onul  busin,  where 
it  ramifies  into  several  branches  forming  the  so-culled  path'  d'oie  (Goosofoot).  All 
these  pu88et<,  as  they  are  locally  culled,  ure  separated  by  intervening  buys  or  inlets, 
whose  shores  are  much  nurrower  than  those  of  the  main  stream  above  the  point 
where  they  ramify  in  all  directions.  In  some  places  the  beach  is  scarcely  a  hun- 
dred yards  wide,  so  that  in  rough  weather  the  waves  dash  over  these  slender 

Fig.  n2.-8TBAJC  Fkbby  on  tub  MiausBiPPi. 


barriers  into  the  fluvial  channels.  On  the  banks  nothing  grows  except  tall  reeds 
{Miegea  macroi>pertna),  whoeie  fibrous  roots  give  a  little  cohesion  to  the  mud.  Far- 
ther on  even  these  growths  disappear,  and  then  the  fluvial  channels  can  be  followed 
only  by  the  lines  of  their  brownish  mud  banks  which  are  continually  modified  by 
the  action  of  waves  and  currents. 

Above  the  diverging  point  of  the  passes  there  has  already  been  formed  a  small 
lateral  mouth,  which  branches  off  from  the  right  bank,  and  which  has  been  called 
the  "  Jump,"  from  the  rapidity  with  which  the  current  forced  ita  way  through  its 


£ 

n 


>■'*'■mv^'Jmm^M^^SL'^^!l$l0'^ 


'/■uiiiipmini 


■WT^'* 


2ki 


THE  UNITED  .STATES. 


Iw 


i.  < 


ontli't.  Hut  excluding  the  Jump,  utiliBcd  by  the  fishermen  cngn^cd  on  the  oyster 
h.ds  of  the  m-iyhbouniigliurutuiiii  iJuy,  und  ii  few  smaller  oponings  u  little  higher 
up,  thoro  are  only  five  passes  properly  so  culled,  Smith-Wost  Puss,  South  Puss, 
South-Must  Puss,  North-Kust  Puss,  and  Puss  &  I'Outre,  tliis  lust  u  ramifioution 
of  the  North-l'just  Pass.  They  have  ull  u  soincwhiit  swifter  normal  current  than 
that  of  the  main  stream  between  New  Orleans  and  the  point  of  divergence. 

As  long  as  the  river  was  left  to  itself  without  the  interference  of  man,  each  in 
its  turn  became  the  true  mouth  or  navigable  waterway  of  the  Jlississippi.  The 
main  stream  shifted  incessantly  from  one  to  the  other,  according  as  it  became  and 
again  ceased  to  bo  the  shortest  and  most  rapid  scawurd  channel.  During  the  early 
essays  at  colonisation  in  Louisiana  the  South  Pass  was  the  chief  branch ;  then 
followed  North-East  Puss,  where  was  founded  the  villuge  of  Balize.  But  this 
mouth  became  in  course  of  time  so  obstructed  that  it  ceased  to  be  navigable  except 
by  vessels  of  light  draught.  After  1845  the  South-west  Pass,  where  the  pilots  had 
also  "  moored  "  a  village  to  the  shifting  mudbanka,  remained  for  over  thirty  years 
the  chief  entrance  for  largo  vessels,  while  the  Pass  &  POutre  became  the  naturul 
waterway  for  smaller  craft  plying  between  New  Orleans  and  Havana.  Now, 
however,  engineering  operations  have  restored  the  pre-eminence  of  the  South 
I'ass,  which  henceforth  remains  the  principal  appi'oach  to  the  fluvial  basin. 

The  bars,  or  submarine  banks  of  alluvial  matter  deposited  between  the  river 
mouths  and  the  marine  depths,  vary  constantly  in  form  and  elevation  according  to 
the  force  and  abundance  of  the  currents  wbii  h  here  meet,  and  which,  by  the  col- 
lision, cause  the  sediment  to  be  precipitated.  Long  observations  have  established 
the  fact  that  to  the  marine  currents  is  due  the  deposit  of  the  fine  particles  of 
clay  contained  in  the  Mississippi  waters.  Being  heavier  than  the  fresh  water  of 
the  river,  the  marine  currents  penetrate  beneath  its  yellowish  stream,  constantly 
purifying  it  by  causing  the  clayey  particles  to  fall  in  a  continuous  shower.  The 
sediment  thus  precipitated  is  at  first  of  but  slight  consistency,  so  that  vessels  have 
often  succeeded  in  crossing  the  bar,  though  their  draught  greatly  exceeded  its 
depth,  sometimes  by  as  much  as  from  six  to  seven  feet.  Even  sailing-vessels  have 
thus  succeeded  in  forcing  their  way  through  the  obstacle  into  the  river  under 
the  influence  of  a  favourable  wind.  But  for  many  years  the  work  has  been  accom- 
plished mainly  by  the  aid  of  steam.  The  tugs  engaged  on  this  service  are  continu- 
ally darting  out,  taking  stranded  vessels  in  tow,  and  drawing  them  with  much 
snorting  and  puffing  through  rather  than  over  the  bar.  In  the  river  large  vessels 
may  be  seen  lashed  together  in  fours  and  stemming  the  current  apparently  under 
the  influence  of  some  mysterious  force.  But  the  puffs  of  smoke  and  the  muffled 
rumblings  of  groaning  engines  betray  the  power  by  which  they  are  propelled. 

On  various  occasions  the  normal  condition  of  the  bars  has  been  suddenly  dis- 
turbed by  the  appearance  of  the  so-called  "  mud-lumps,"  cone-shaped  mounds  of 
clay,  some  approaching  the  surface,  others  rising  as  high  as  18  or  20  feet  above 
it,  and  covering  a  space  of  about  30  acres.  Their  formation  is  due  to  the  fermen- 
tation of  the  organic  remains  brought  down  by  the  current  and  then  covored  by 
sedimentary  matter. 


mfmm 


be  oyster 

0  hijfhor 

th    1*US8, 

lifioation 
ent  than 
e. 

,  each  in 
pi.  The 
mine  and 
the  early 
ih ;  then 
But  this 
le  except 
)ilot8  hud 
rty  years 
e  outurul 
i.  Now, 
be  South 
1. 

the  river 
ording  to 
f  the  col- 
itublisheil 
rticles  of 

water  of 
onstantly 
er.  The 
jsels  have 

eeded  its 
ssels  have 
er  under 

n  accom- 

1  continu- 
ith  much 
3;e  vessels 
tly  under 
e  muffled 
lied. 

enly  dis- 
lounds  of 
eet  above 
0  fermen- 
jvored  by 


AllSSlSSiri'I  DELTA. 


The  salt  and  sulphur  beds  that  have  bren  discovered  in  the  islands  noiir  tlie 
delta  are  perhaps  connected  with  the  choinicul  reactions  to  which  is  due  the  for- 
mation of  the  argillaceous  conus.  In  one  of  the  rocksalt-niines  worked  by  the 
inhabitants  of  I'etite  Anse,  near  Vermilion  Ihiy,  a  reed  mat  associated  with  the 
remains  of  a  mastodon  was  found  at  a  depth  of  20  feet  below  the  surface.  The 
sulphur  beds  of  Calcassieu,  near  the  river  of  like  name,  lie  ut  a  depth  of  440  feet, 
resting  on  the  chalk ;  the  shaft  here  sunk  pierced  through  oil-bearing  strata. 


M5 


'i  At  present  the  South  Pass,  chosen  by  the  engineer  Eads  as  the  chief  permanent 
entrance  to  the  Mississippi  basin,  is  continued  seawards  by  means  of  parallel 
jetties.  The  murine  bed,  which  had  an  average  depth  of  not  more  than  eight 
feet,  has  been  maintained  for  several  years  at  a  depth  of  over  30  feet,  and  now 
gives  access  to  vessels  of  the  heaviest  tonnage.  Thus  the  port  of  New  Orleans, 
formerly  of  very  difficult  approach,  has  become  one  of  the  safest  in  the  New  "World. 
Since  the  completion  of  the  works  the  ballast  discharged  by  vessels  in  large 
quantities  along  the  jetties  has  been  utilised  to  form  in  the  midst  of  the  slush 


.^iVm'ffmii.'iitwm 


'^'^'•^rmmiimil' 


210 


TUE  UNITKD  8TATK9. 


f 


'n 


i 


-i: 


and  water  a  solid  jfrmiito  •"  undiition  for  tlio  orrction  of  a  now  town,  which  hai 
Iwwri  named  Tort  KiuIm  in  Imnour  of  the  onj^inocr. 

The  Mississippi  cutthmont  Imsin  comprisos  a  HUporficiul  area  cstimatod  iit  abuut 
1,244,000  square  niilo«,  over  ten  times  that  of  the  IJritiHh  Isles,  and  very  nearly  nwen 
times  that  of  France  Fiom  the  mnin  source  of  the  Missouri  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  at  Port  Kuds  the  total  distance  is  approximately  given  at  4,200  miles, 
or  as  far  as  from  the  equator  to  the  centre  of  Greenland.  The  volume  varies 
with  the  seasons,  but  the  (ihange  of  level  and  consequently  the  discharge  follow, 
gonerally  speaking,  a  normal  course  throughout  the  year. 

Towards  the  Ist  ot  December  the  river  begins  to  rise,  and  its  volume  continue* 

Fig.  114.— Mfsnaairn-MiafiovBi  Basin. 

Boale  1  :  ao,00(),UUI). 


^3cr 


.  eaoHilia. 


to  increase  till  about  the  middle  of  January,  that  is,  the  time  of  the  first  floods. 
Then  the  level  fulls  slowly,  remaining  about  stationary  in  February  and  March. 

In  April  and  May  the  Mississippi  again  begins  to  swell,  and  during  the 
month  of  June  attains  its  highest  level  with  the  great  floods.  These  are  much 
dreaded,  and  are  more  sudden  at  present  than  they  were  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  owing  to  the  destruction  of  the  surrounding  woodlands  and  the  draining  of 
the  arable  riverine  lands. 

Immediately  after  reaching  high-water  mark  the  floods  begin  to  subside 
rapidly  till  the  end  of  September,  the  river  reaching  its  lowest  level  in  November. 
Between  Cairo  and  the  Red  River  confluence  the  difference  of  level  varies  from 
about  51  to  40  feet,  whereas  at  New  Orleans  it  is  scarcely  more  than  14  feet. 


i/*'?-. 


;;'";•*■,. 


'm-m 


MIHSISHII'I'I  DKLTA.  847 

According  to  the  j^^outor  or  lc«s  abiinduticoof  th<>  riiitifull,  tho  total  (liM'lmrpc  juuy 
iiKTi'UHo  or  (liiiiiuiHli  in  tlu'  proportion  of  oiio  to  four,  iay  from  ;{■)(), (100  to  1,400,000 
cubic  foot  por  Hccond.  Tlio  uvor  ijife  i«  uOout  (57'), 000  cubic  foot,  rcpri-HCMtinfif  one- 
fourth  of  the  total  ruin  full  in  tbu  vunt  i-paco  Htretcbing  from  the  Uocky  Mountainn 
to  tho  Appulucbiuna. 

According  to  IIumphreyH  und  Abbot's  chart,  which  embodies  tho  results  of 
tho  meteorological  obticrvutious  recorded  in  every  \)uri  of  tho  MiHsiNsippi  slope,  tho 
ruinfull  of  tho  whole  ureu  is  estimated  ut  8'J,tJ'J0  billions  of  cubic  feet,  equivalent 
to  u  shoot  of  water  ilO  inches  deep.* 

Of  all  tho  great  rivers  of  the  world  tho  Mississippi  is  the  most  utilised  for 
internal  navigation  und  general  traffic.  Nevertheless  it  has  already  been  deprived 
of  more  than  throe-fourths  of  its  normal  carrying  business  by  tho  railways  con- 
necting tho  riverine  towns  with  tho  Atlantic  seaports.  Ilonco  much  smaller 
wutercourseM,  such  as  tho  Hudson  and  tho  Rhine,  are  navigated  by  o  relatively 
larger  number  of  ve^^sels  than  the  Mississippi.  In  178<?,  when  tho  first  vessel, 
u  heavy  flat-bottomed  barge  called  "  Noah's  Ark,"  descended  tho  Ohio  and  the 
main  stream  from  Pittsburg  to  New  Orleans,  the  custom-house  officers  at  the  latter 
place  had  never  even  heard  of  the  city  whore  tho  goods  had  been  shipped. 

With  tho  varying  volume  of  water  corresponds  u  varying  quantity  of  alluvial 
matter,  though  this  is  always  sufficient  to  continue  the  steady  encroachments  of 
the  land  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  On  an  uvcrugo  the  Mississippi  waters  are 
charged  with  sediment  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  the  thousand.  Taking  into 
consideration  the  periods  when  the  river  is  most  turbid,  and  adding  to  this  floating 
silt  the  heavier  detritus  rolled  down  the  fluvial  bod,  the  quantity  of  solid  matter 
washed  down  from  the  mainland  and  deposited  on  the  coast  or  in  the  gulf  is  esti- 
mated at  the  l,430th  part  of  the  liquid  mass. 

The  line  of  demarcation  separatinsf  the  fluvial  from  the  marine  current  is 
straight  and  rigid,  as  if  drawn  with  a  ruler  from  horizon  to  horizon.     Seen  from  the 

•  D!f  charge  of  the  MisHiMiippi  and  chief  affluents  per  second,  according  to  Humphreys  and  Abbot : — 

fiainfall  of  biutn. 

Cnbio  feet.  loobea.  PropArtion. 

Upper  Mississippi lO.'i.OOO  36  Oiil 

Missouri 120,000  21  016 

Ohio 168,000  42  024 

Saint  Frsnois  .         .       •.         .         .        .      ,..          31,000  41  0-90 

Arkansiis 63,000  29  015 

Yhz'O 43,000  46  0  90 

Hod  River 67,000  K9  0  20 

MisHHsippi 675,000  30  0-25 

Mean  extent  of  the  n  ■vigaWa  waters  in  the  Mississippi  basin  accirding  to  Abert : — 

Milei. 

Upper  Mississippi  and  its  affluents 1,365 

Missouri  and  its  affluents 3,900 

Saint  Francis,  Big  Bluck,  Yuzoo,  affluents  and  b  lyous     ....  600 

Ohio  and  its  affluents 3,630 

Arkansas  affluents  and  bayous 1 ,620 

Red  River  affluents  and  bayous 2,455 

Mississippi  and  its  bayous 4, !  80 

Total        .        .        .      17,760 


m*m^"9'mfmpt.m^»t,>,fflt\\mY  >  Wl  PWyifHif  111^11  "(WjlPim'iy'yijIi'll'M^WiWW  "Ifl^flf  j<|>jy|ljywu'|i  lyTI"  '8:i'MW'n'^»H-'''B|W^WllW-ai»W'l'ir<WW 


248 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


(.- 


Mississippi  the  expanse  of  blue  marine  waters  contrasts  so  sharply  with  the  yellow 
fluid  discharged  by  the  river  that  it  looks  like  some  distant  land.  On  the  high 
sea  the  turbid  surface  of  the  Mississippi,  which  borders  the  saline  waters  on  the 
north,  presents  the  aspect  of  a  dense  fog  resting  on  the  surface. 

The  estimates  made  by  various  geologists  since  the  time  of  Ijyell  regarding 
the  growth  of  the  delta  can  have  but  a  hypothetical  value;  for  we  still  know 
little  or  nothing  of  the  quantity  of  silt  deposited  on  the  bars,  of  the  extent  of 
the  erosion,  of  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  climate  and  in  the 
hydrographic  regime.      An  attempt,   however,  may   be  made  to   compare   the 

Fig.   116.— DiSCHAEOK  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI   AND   ITS  AFFWrENTS. 


0  5  10 
Thonsemdo  of  CaUo  Metres  per  aeoond. 

yearly  proportion  of  alluvial  matter  with  the  formations  known  to  be  of  fluvial 
origin.  The  quantity  of  sediment  annually  washed  down  by  the  Mississippi 
exceeds  the  fifth  part  of  a  cubic  kilometer  (35,316-6  cubic  feet),  a  mass  equivalent 
to  an  island  about  four  square  miles  in  extent,  and  70  feet  high,  or,  according  to 
Humphreys  and  Abbot,  "  a  mass  one  square  mile  in  area  and  241  feet  deep."  But 
estimating  the  alluvial  loam  of  the  middle  Mississippi  at  not  more  than  160,  and 
that  of  the  delta  at  660  feet  in  depth,  the  whole  of  the  alluvial  formations  from 
the  Ohio  to  the  delta  would  represent  a  mass  equal  to  no  less  than  10,545  cubic 
kilometers  (10,545  by  35,316  6  cubic  feet),  a  quantity  equivalent  to  all  the  sedi- 
ment brought  down  by  the  river  in  a  period  of  50,000  years.    Such  calculations, 


ril-d 


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itfyt-v^;'<i."ir'iyr;'r<r"w;;'n»iy~» 


M  ISS  ISSI  P 


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51 


NEW  YO  R  K 


'fTiiT'^Ti'  iT  "irHiliiii  iliiiMUlWiiiiii  i  ii|i  i 


wmc'mmmiilifflf' 


M  ISS  ISSI  PPl!         DELTA 


ff  IR# 


NEW  YORK,  D.  APPLETON  & CV 


0^»; 


SOftri  OQO. 


1.C00  apwawvU. 


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,wi'.i',n;';i5"i'r«iiiiirii!ri'i«.iiWiii>Mi»..i  m^rf 


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MISSISSIPPI  DELTA. 


21U 


however,  based  on  averages  and  asauraptlona,    yield    widely  different    results, 
according  to  the  estimates  of  different  writers.* 

In  any  case  from  the  charts  prepared  since  the  epoch  of  colonisation  it  is 
evident  that  great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  contour  lines  of  the  delta.  A 
compat-ison  of  Pauger's  chart,  made  in  17^3,  with  that  executed  by  the  American 
Ilydrographic  Commission  in  1861,  reveals  the  fact  that  during  this  period  the  bar 
advanced  some  seven  miles  seaward,  or  say,  at  the  yearly  rate  of  about  285  feet. 

Fig.  116. — Mi8SisaiFPi  Delta  at  diffebent  Epochs. 


But  this  rate  of  progress  cannot  be  accepted  as  indicating  the  average  annual 
growth  of  the  delta,  for  as  already  seen,  the  current  has  shifted  from  one  pass  to 
another,  making  each  in  its  turn  the  chief  mouth. 

All  things  considered  the  actual  encroachment  of  the  Mississippi  delta  can 
scarcely  be  estimated  at  more  than  60  or  70  feet  a  year,  or  about  1|  mile  a  century. 
Moreover,  this  seaward  advance  itself  must  eventually  be  arrested,  for  the  Missis- 
sippi mouths  will  soon  reach  the  scarp  of  the  deep  abyss  traversed  by  the  Gulf 

*  Probable  age  of  the  delta  ncco?ding  to  Ljell,  100,900  jears ;  according  to  EUet,  22,220  years. 


'< 


,; 


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250 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


currents.  At  a  distance  of  11  miles  from  the  entrance  to  the  river  the  marine 
bed  lies  148  fathoms  below  the  surface,  and  this  depth  rapidly  increases  to  over 
820  fathoms.  Here,  therefore,  all  further  invasion  of  the  sea  by  the  land  must 
cease,  as  the  matter  carried  down  by  the  river  will  be  swept  away  by  the  Gulf 
currents  without  depositing  any  appreciable  quantity  on  the  marine  bed. 

The  South  Texan  Rivers.— The  Rio  Grande. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  delta  properly  so  called,  the  gulf  is  reached  by  a 
few  bayous,  which  belong  rather  to  the  Washita  and  Red  River  hydrographio 
systems,  and  which  flow  with  deadened  current  through  a  labyrinth  of  coast 
lagoons  and  marshes.  The  first  independent  river  of  ^any  importance  is  the 
Subine  (formerly  Sabiual),  so  named  by  the  Mexicans  from  the  sabinos,  that  is,  the 
"  cypress  "  trees  of  the  French  Creoles,  which  fringe  its  banks.  The  Sabine, 
which  long  was  the  political  frontier  of  the  United  States  towards  Mexico,  is  joined 
by  the  Neches  in  the  shallow  estuary  of  Lake  Sabine.  Both  rivers,  like  the  other 
Texan  watercourses — Trinadud,  Brazos,  Colorado,  Nueces — flow  in  the  direction 
from  north-west  to  south-east  according  to  the  general  slope  of  the  land,  which 
inclines  from  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  towards  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Drawing  their  farthest  supplies  from  regions  which  have  but  a  slight  rainfall, 
these  Texan  rivers  have  a  correspondingly  slight  volume,  and  are  consequently  of 
but  little  economic  value  as  navigable  highways.  In  their  upper  reaches  both 
the  Brazos  and  Colorado  are  useless  even  for  irrigation  purposes,  owing  to  the 
saline  and  gypseous  character  of  their  afiluents.* 

In  one  section  of  its  course  the  Colorado  is,  so  to  say,  paved  with  pearl  oysters, 
some  of  which  still  contain  pearls  of  marketable  value.  All  of  these  Texan  rivers 
are  obstructed  at  their  mouths  by  difficult  bars ;  nor  are  any  of  them  sufficiently 
copious  for  inland  navigation  to  acquire  any  serious  importance  in  this  region. 

The  river  whose  lower  course  forms  the  parting  line  between  the  conterminous 
North  American  and  Mexican  republics  has  retained  both  its  Spanish  names,  Rio 
Grande  and  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte.  The  former,  by  which  it  is  best  known  in  the 
United  States,  is  fully  justified  by  the  length  of  its  course.  Its  basin  also  is  very 
extensive,  being  about  half  as  large  again  as  the  whole  of  France.  But  here 
ceases  all  claim  to  the  title  of  "  Grande  ; "  in  its  annual  discharge  it  falls  behind 
many  rivers  which  are  greatly  inferior  to  it  in  length  and  drainage  area. 

The  farthest  headstream,  which  retains  to  its  very  source  the  name  of  Rio 
Grande,  rises  in  a  cirque  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  whose  snowy  crests  here  attain 
a  mean  altitude  of  over  13,000  feet;  the  culminafing  point  is  Pole  Creek  Peak, 
13,400   feet.     The  nascent  stream  is  separated  by  narrow  ridges  from  other  fluvial 

•  Chief  rivers  of  Texas  : — 

Dwinnge  area  accord-  Approximate  (Kitelutrge 

inpr  to  Oannett.  peraeonnd. 

"'^*''-                                                            I«ngth.                  Square  rail' 1.  Cubic  feet. 

Sabine 450         .              20,400  17,700 

Trinity 630                        18,000  7,000 

Brazos 910                       69,600  15,900 

Colorado 840                       41,200  10,600 

Nueoes.        .        .        .        .        .        386                       19,000      ,.      '     .  3.S00 


-' «' 


I'S^ 


fJm 


1  .'^WWWnWMW^li^TOWl 


-ni 


TUB  BIO  QBANDE  DEL  NORTE. 


251 


valleys,  which  slope  westwurds  to  the  Ciilifoniiun  Colorado,  and  north  towards 
the  Arkansas.  After  sweeping  round  the  western  and  southern  slopes  of  the  Pole 
Creek  mass,  the  Rio  Grande  escapes  eastwards  through  a  succession  of  deep  gorges. 
Farther  on,  while  still  at  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet  ahove  sea-level,  it  outers  the 
so-called  San  Luis  valley,  a  vast  basin  of  lacustrine  origin. 

After  leaving  the  desert  plain  of  the  San  Luis  valley,  a  strange  and  monoto- 
nous arena  in  an  amphitheatre  of  mountains  of  varied  outline,  the  Rio  Qrande  trends 
round  to  the  south.  Hero  it  flows  in  a  longitudinal  valley  between  parallel  ranges 
of  heights,  and  descends  over  a  few  slight  fulls  by  which  its  general  altitude  is  but 

Fig.  117.— SoTTBoes  of  thb  Rio  Obandb. 

Scale  1  :  340,000. 


l6  Milei. 


slightly  lowered.  At  the  confluence  of  the  Galisteo,  it  still  flows  at  a  height  of 
5,300  feet.  ,-  :  ' 

Paso  del  Norte  (3,800  feet)  marks  the  point  where  the  Rio  Grande  assumes 
the  character  of  a  frontier  stream,  forming  for  the  rest  of  its  course  the  boundary 
between  the  contiguous  Anglo-American  and  Mexican  republics.  Below  Paso  del 
Norte  or  £1  Paso,  as  it  is  more  usually  called,  the  Grande  bends  round  to  the  south- 
east, and  here  pierces  the  Sierra  Blanca  (White  Mountain),  through  a  series  of 
narrow  caHons  excavated  in  the  live  rock.  It  thus  reaches  a  lower  level  of  the 
plateau,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Rio  Conchos,  its  chief  Mexican  tributary. 

Lower  down,  the  Rio  Grande  is  joined  by  the  Pecos,  called  also  Puerco,  or 
"  Pig,"  from  the  turbid  nature  of  its  muddy  saline  waters.  This  affluent  descends 
from  the  highest  plateaux  of  New  Mexico,  and  flows  throughout  the  whole  of 


. 


I 


i 


252 


THE  UNITED  8TATE8. 


its  course  In  a  south-easterly  direction,  roii^lily  puruUd  with  the  Rio  Grande. 
BoU)w  the  contiuonoo  the  cuflon  ussuines  a  still  more  gloomy  and  suvuge  aspect, 
becoming  narrower,  with  steopor  limostono  walls,  which  rise  in  8uci'e>s.>sive  layers 
to  a  height  of  1,000  feet,  terminating  in  fantastic  crenellated  parapets. 

After  surmounting  the  last  barriers  on  its  seaward  course,  the  Rio  Grande 
aHsumes  a  placid  as[)ect,  its  tranquil  current  developing  a  series  of  long  moamier- 
iugs  on  its  way  to  the  Gulf  cf  Mexico.  But  instead  of  entering  the  sea  directly 
through  a  broad  estuary,  it  ramifies  into  a  number  of  lateral  bayous,  expands  in 

Fig.  118.— Monrns  of  the  Rio  OnAJfnK. 
Scale  1  :  !HXi.niin 


^ 


Bands  nqmaed 

at  low  w<tt«r. 


0  to  S 
Feet. 


Depthii. 


StolO 
Feet. 


Levee. 


18  to  89 
Feet. 


«2Feet 
and  upwitfde. 


.  3  Milea. 


stagnant  lagoons,  glides  sluggishly  between  long  lines  of  sandhills,  and  is  then 
intercepted  by  a  shallow  bar  inaccessible  to  vessels  drawing  over  six  feet. 

The  river  itself  is  navigable  only  for  steamers  of  light  draught,  and  only  in 
its  lower  course,  that  is,  for  a  distance  of  350  or  at  most  625  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Hence  in  the  national  economy  its  value  is  limited  mainly  to  irrigation  ;  but  in 
this  respect  its  importance  is  considerable,  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many 
now  desert  regions  will  be  transformed  to  fertile  plains  by  the  waters  of  the  Rio 
Grande  and  its  Pecos  affluent.  The  superabundant  floods  of  spring  help  largely  to 
compensate  for  the  scarcity  of  water  in  autumn.  So  enormously  is  the  discharge 
affected  by  the  seasons  that  in  the  canons  the  fluvial  level  may  vary  as  much  as  a 


m>   iiiiyiiiifi 


CLIMATE  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


8«8 


hundred  foot.  Even  at  Kl  Paso  tho  Kio  (irando  wan  completely  dry  for  uovcrul 
weeks  in  the  your  1H>1,  though  ut  other  tiiiuH  it  hi'ikIh  down  u  volumo  of  nuiiiy 
thousand  cubic  feet  per  aecuud,  Hooding  its  vuUey  wiih  u  copious  strcuni.* 


III. — Ci-iMATE,  Flora,  and  Fauna. 

A  buhmce  between  the  climate  of  tho  Atlantic  81o(m)  and  that  of  the  North 
American  central  busin  is  effected  by  iuHciisiblo  traiiMitions.  Tho  trend  of  tho 
Appalachian  system,  which  is  disposed  puruUel  with  the  normal  course  of  tho 
wiiids,  facilitates  the  circulation  of  the  aerial  currents,  which  thus  puss  without 
abrupt  deviation  from  one  climatic  zone  to  tho  other. 

In  the  Mississippi  vulley  and  along  the  eastern  seaboard  tho  oseillutions  of 
temperature  present  analogous  phenomeiui.  Thus  in  both  /ones  tho  deflections  of 
the  curves  of  equal  tomporaturo  for  winter  and  summer  differ  strikingly  from 
the  isothermal  lines  for  tho  whole  year.  On  both  sides  of  tho  Alloghanies  the 
summers  of  the  northern  regions  are  warmer  and  tho  winters  of  tho  southern 
regions  colder  thon  aro  the  same  seasons  respectively  under  corresponding  isothcr- 
mals  in  regions  such  as  France  and  the  British  Isles,  which  enjoy  un  insular 
climate.  In  this  respect  the  central  part  of  the  United  Slatt-s  presents  equilibria 
even  far  superior  to  those  of  the  Atlantic  coastlands.f 

Towards  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and  on  tho  Height  of  Land  in  JMinnesota 
and  Wisconsin,  the  summer  heats  are  greater  than  in  tho  average  of  tropical 
regions.  Thus  at  Fort  Snelling,  near  Suint  Paul,  records  are  reported  of  118*^  Fuhr. 
in  the  shade,  which  is  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the  Suharan  furnace.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  cold  in  these  northern  regions  is  often  exeossive,  and  fur  more 
intense  than  that  of  Western  Europe  under  the  correspoiidiiij/  isotherinuls. 

According  to  Henry's  researches  the  discrepancy  shown  between  the  real  annuul 
temperatures  and  those  yielded  by  the  calculation  bused  on  the  rotundity  of  the 
globe,  increases  gradually  in  the  direction  from  south  to  north.  Near  the  mouth 
of  the  Bio  Grande  under  25'^north  latitude  the  true  and  tho  calculated  line  coincide, 
whereas  on  the  United  States  frontier  towards  Canada  the  abnormal  lowering  of  the 
mean  temperature  amounts  to  over  14  degrees  Fuhr.  At  the  Mississippi-Missouri 
confluence,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  meteorological  centre  at  once  of  the 
Mississippi  basin  and  of  the  whole  Union,  the  mean  (53°  Fahr.)  of  tho  annuul 

*  Length  of  the  Rio  Grande,  1,800  miles ;  drainage  area,  156,200  square  miles ;  approximate 
discharge  per  second,  26,400  cubic  feet. 

t  Mean  and  extreme  temperatures  in  the  central  basin  of  the  United  States : —  .  r.     i 


Extremes 

Mean 

laf. 

temp. 

SumtiiCT. 

Winter. 

Heat.        C;old. 

Range 

Diiluth  (12  years)   . 

.     46"48' 

40''F. 

63' 

10° 

99°          -38° 

137' 

Saint  Paul  (12)  .     . 

.     44°53' 

44" 

67° 

9° 

100°         -SO' 

139° 

Chicago  (12)  .     .     . 

.     4r52' 

49" 

68° 

22' 

99°         -13° 

112° 

Saint  Louis  (13) 

.     38''37' 

S.V 

74° 

29° 

106°        —17° 

123° 

Cairo  (12) .... 

.     37' 

68' 

76° 

36° 

103°        —7° 

110' 

Memphis  (12)      .     . 

.     35''8' 

61» 

78'' 

42° 

98'         +  2° 

96' 

Vickaburg  (12)    .     . 

.     32''24' 

e-y 

81° 

50° 

101°         +10° 

91° 

NtiW  Orleans  (12)    . 

.     29^67' 

69' 

82° 

6ts° 

96°         + 15° 

81° 

m\  1' 


If? , 


254 


THE  UNITKI)  STATES 


!.. 


tt'inponiturt'H  OHcillaltH  hotwocn  20  mid  '^'>i  dogroon  ;  horn  the  range  btlwi't-n  tlio 
two  oxtn'iiu'H  of  \\ty.il  uiul  <m»1(1  reacht's  120  dogroi-i  in  onliuary  yeuri. 

Tlii'Md  «xfroiiifH,  wliirli  would  bo  tryin}»  t-noiigh  if  producod  rogulurly  by  a 
gmduiil  niovoiiiunt  fr  )m  wintorto  Nurniner  and  from  sununcr  to  wiittor,  uro  uU  tbo 
more  Novi>r«'ly  felt  that  the  cbungeH  of  tuniporaturo  uro  ut  titncH  ahnont  abrupt. 
According  to  LcMimiH  vuriutionn  of  ir)  dogreoH  have  bcon  rocordod  in  a  iiinglti  day. 
At  Dcnvor,  which  in  commaud»'d  on  tbo  west  by  tho  chain  of  tho  Ilocky  Mountains, 
tho  morcury  fell  in  u  Hinglo  hour  52  degrees  on  January  tJth,  IHT/i,  and  tho  fall 
would  appear  to  havol)ocn  uh  much  an  3ii  degrees  ia  five  minutes  while  u  fierce 
Htorm  wuH  raging  some  dintanco  to  the  oust. 

Those  Hudden  tran«ition8  from  one  extreme  to  tho  other,  prod-ioing  as  it  were  u 
shifting  of  the  northern  climate  to  tho  south,  or  of  tbo  soutberu  to  tho  north,  are 
caused  by  the  displacement  of  tho  aerial  "waves"  in  the  atmospheric  ocean. 
Ilonco  tho  exproHHions  /lot  Harm  and  ro'd  iraven  are  usually  o"|.'i)licd  by  the  Ameri- 
cans to  the  complexity  of  the  meteorological  phenomena  assiociafod  with  all  such 
abrupt  traiiHitiims  often  succesHively  experienced  over  wide  expanses.  In  January, 
lHHt),a  cold  wave,  accompanied  by  northern  wiiidn  which  hero  and  there  assumed  tho 
character  of  u  g  do,  swept  over  all  the  Central  States  as  far  as  tho  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  nil  the  southern  cities  situated  in  u  region  actually  bordering  on  tho  trofnos 
found  their  temperature  suddenly  lowered  to  below  freezing  point.  At  New 
Orleans  the  mercury  stood  at  lo°  Fuhr.,  at  Mobile  it  indicated  11°,  and  the  same 
at  Galveston,  where  in  eighteen  hours  the  atmosphere  cooled  down  64  ('iv;grecs. 

It  is  commonly  assumed  that  tho  severe  winters  of  tho  United  States  corre- 
spond to  mild  seasons  in  "West  Europe,  and  hot  to  moderately  warm  summers 
respectively.  But  this  view  is  not  always  justified.  Such  compensating  of  the 
balance  between  the  climates  of  the  two  hemispheres  has  certainly  been  often  ob- 
served ;  but  on  the  other  hand  a  remarkable  coincidence  in  the  oscillations  of  tho 
thermometer  has  also  been  occasionally  recorded  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

In  tho  central  bosin  of  the  United  States  a  special  climatic  zone  is  formed  by 
the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes,  which  are  vast  enough  to  exercise  a  moderating 
influence  on  the  surrounding  lands,  and  thus  to  some  extent  diminish  the  range 
between  the  two  extremes.  In  summer  the  temperature  is  lowered,  and  in 
winter  correspondingly  raised  several  degrees  along  their  east  margin.  The  great 
volume  of  water,  where  the  oscillations  between  heat  and  cold  can  only  take  place 
very  slowly,  gradually  influences  the  whole  of  the  circumambient  atmosphere  for 
a  distance  of  some  hundred  miles.  Nevertheless,  Lake  Michigan  froze  in  the 
winter  of  1871-72,  and  although  this  is  of  very  rare  occurrence,  thoSault  Sainte- 
Marie  Canal  between  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron  is  regularly  closed  by  ice  for 
about  130  days  every  winter. 

The  remarkable  contrast  between  the  summer  and  winter  isothermals  shows 
in  a  striking  manner  how  greatly  the  normal  climate  is  modified  by  the  vast 
freshwater  basins  of  these  inland  seas.  In  January  the  strata  of  low  temperature 
are  regularly  intercepted  round  about  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  while  two 
isolated  zones  of  cold  occupy  the  centre  of  the  Michigan  peninsula  and  the  plains 


WIHWJIDlllliUlj 


mmm 


CLIMATE  OF  TIIK  MISSISSIITI. 


2S5 


of  Tow*  1>etir«»on  tho  MiMiMippi  mul  tlH>  MiMouri.  In  mimnior  ihn  rovorno  taltfl* 
|.laci>,  und  tlu-m-  cdd  /onm  of  Miclii^im  iiiid  lowii  uro  ropliict*!  I»y  /oium  of  Nultry 
h(>ut,  whilo  ilio  iM)tli(>riiiulN  are  dctloctiHl  Nouthwurdrt  on  l^otli  HJdoH  of  liiiko 
Micbigun  in  aiirh  u  way  us  to  di'scribo  in  tho  air  lineH  corrospondiii^^  to  tlie 
contouM  of  tliiH  liicUHtrine  busin.  Tbo  iHOtbi>rmiil  of  UH"  Fubr.,  wbi(;b  in 
July  piisHos  ovfr  tbo  Houtborn  nhoroH  of  Liiko  Siiporior,  in  (b'floctt'd  about  Kvu 
di-giecH  of  bititudo,  or  «onin  <\iW  nuluH,  by  tho  pnmonoj  of  tbo  Miobi^jun  rnnorvoir  ; 
an  u  rulo  tbu  Rununor  tumporuturo  i8  tbo  «anio  all  round  the  wot<t  nidu  of  tbo  luko 
froH)  Milwuukeo  to  tbo  eiitmuco  of  Oroon  Hay. 

As  on  the  Atlantic  soubourd,  tbu  ruinfull  is  beuviir  in  tbu  Houtbern  Htaton, 
in  direct  proportion  to  tbo  mean  toinperaturo.  Thus  it  docreasos  from  'OO  incbos  ut 
Now  Orleann  iind  (iO  ut  liuton  Ilouge  to  :i9  at  Haint  LouiH  and  W  ut  Milwaukee. 
Hut  in  tbf  direction  from  east  to  west  the  docreuKe  is  even  more  rapid  than  from 
south  to  II  irtb.  liutween  New  Orli'anH  and  Lake  Krio  throughout  the  whole 
zone  from  the  Appulucbiuns  to  tho  MirtHi-iHippi,  tbo  nioau  annual  ruinfull,  which 
ranges  from  about  51  to  2S  inches,  may  bo  ostunuted  at  40  inches;  but  in  the 
corrcHponding  zone  which  skirts  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  Texua  to 
Dakota  the  average  is  not  much  more  than  10  inches. 

The  most  copious  rains  occur  ut  tbo  beginning  of  summer,  from  Muy  to  Juno, 
tbrougliout  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Mississippi  region,  except  towards  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Red  River  with  tlie  main  stream  ;  but  oven  bore  Juno  is  also  a  rainy 
mouth,  ulthough  the  great  downpours  tuko  place  in  December ;  rain,  however, 
falls  in  every  month  of  the  year.  Tbo  longest  periods  of  drought  have  been 
recorded  in  January  and  February. 

In  exceptionally  wet  seasons  the  rain  gauge  has  often  measured  over  4  inches 
at  a  time,  and  in  18B9  the  liquid  column  rose  in  the  valley  of  the  Concmaugh, 
which  flows  through  the  Alleghany  and  Ohio  to  the  Mississippi,  as  high  as  &'<i 
inches ;  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  city  of  Johnstown  was  swept  away  by 
a  deluge  of  water.  A  far  heavier  downpour  has  been  recorded  at  Alexandria,  a 
city  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  River  in  Louisiana,  where  the  rainfall  amounted  to 
22  inches  in  a  single  day  ;  this  is  the  heaviest  quantity  reported  in  the  meteoro- 
logical  annals  of  North  America. 

The  abundance  of  the  precipitation  is  by  no  means  in  direct  ratio  to  the 
number  of  rainy  days.  On  the  contrary,  Louisiana,  the  wettest  region  in  the 
Mississippi  basin,  has  on  an  average  not  more  than  92  wet  days,  whereas  the 
drier  states  of  the  upper  Mississippi  and  of  the  Great  Lake  region  have  about  100, 
rising  at  Buffalo  to  169,  and  to  177  at  Erie. 

Nor  can  the  actual  downpour  be  gauged  by  the  proportion  of  atmosphorio 
humidity.  Thus  the  atmosphere  in  the  States  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  is  as 
a  rule  charged  with  far  more  aqueous  vapour  than  that  of  the  Central  States ; 
but  this  vapour  less  frequently  reaches  the  point  of  saturation. 

No  part  ol  the  Mississippi  region  is  entirely  free  from  snow ;  a  few  flakes  have 
fallen  even  at  New  Orleans,  and  at  Galveston  on  the  coast  of  Texas.  But  here  it 
melts  at  once,  whereas  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  basin  it  remains  for  months 


n 


o  .    1 


I 


mi,im~ 


%i 


[i  '.• 


»!'  '^VVi-;^-^"" 


J. 


■:>U 


266 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


on  tlie  ground  to  a  depth  of  two  or  more  feet.  At  the  eaino  time  rivers  and 
Likes  are  bound  in  hard  fetters  of  ice ;  in  1802  the  deputies  from  the  district  of 
Pembinu  in  Minnesota  travelled  to  Saint  Paul,  the  state  capital,  in  sleighs  drawn 
by  dogs.  The  abrupt  changes  of  temperature  cause  the  phenomenon  of  sleet  or 
freezing  rain  to  recur  with  a  frequence  and  intensity  seldom  witnessed  in  Europe. 
Trees  have  often  given  way  under  the  burden  of  sparkling  prisms,  assuming 
the  loveliest  forms,  their  branches  and  foliage  encased  in  heavy  crystal  bonds. 

Evaporation,  especially  ou  the  treeless  Western  prairies,  is  greatly  stimulated 
by  the  extremes  of  temperature  so  characteristic  of  the  American  climate.  Such  is 
the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  in  these  regions  that  the  traveller  rarely  perspires 
even  in  the  full  glare  of  the  sun.  Rain  falls  quite  suddenly  without  being  pre- 
ceded by  any  gradual  accumulation  of  aerial  vapours,  and  the  shower  is  scarcely 
over  when  the  atmosphere  resumes  its  relative  purity.  Fog,  mist,  and  dew  are 
almost  unknown  phenomena.  The  prairie  grasses  wither  and  dry  up  without  losing 
any  of  their  nutritive  qualities,  which  is  not  by  any  means  the  case  in  the  Eastern 
States  ;  meat  also,  when  sliced  and  exposed  to  the  air,  very  seldom  becomes  putrid, 
even  in  rainy  weather.  According  to  one  somewhat  widel}'  accepted  hypothesis 
this  dryness  of  the  air  is  the  chief  cause  of  that  tendency  to  leanness,  combined 
with  a  dry  and  nervous  temperament,  by  which  the  Americans  are  distinguished 
from  their  European  progenitors.  As  in  Europe,  meteorologists  have  recorded 
certain  oscillations  in  the  climate,  cycles  marked  by  an  increase  or  a  decrease  of 
atmospheric  humidity.  From  1886  to  1891  a  deficiency  of  moisture  was  generally 
felt,  and  the  Great  Lakes,  acting  like  a  huge  udometer,  gauged  the  extent  of 
the  desiccation  by  subsiding  nearly  40  inches  below  the  normal  level.* 

In  the  Mississippi,  as  in  the  Appalachian  region,  westerly  winds  predominate. 
The  general  atmospheric  movement  sets  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  trade 
winds,  from  the  North  American  continent  towards  West  Europe,  only  the  qreat 
central  depression,  being  disposed  from  north  to  south,  has  the  consequence  of 
deflecting  the  aerial  currents  in  the  same  direction.  Moreover,  the  presence  of  a 
Mediterranean  (Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Mexico),  south  of  this  section  of  the 
continent,  has  determined  a  certain  alternation  of  monsoons  and  currents  along 
the  main  axis  of  the  same  central  depression.  In  Louisiana  and  Texas  the  Gulf 
monsoons  prevail  on  the  coast  normally  during  the  summer  months  with  a  mean 
velocity  of  from  20  to  25  miles  an  hour.  In  winter  the  northern  gales,  the 
much-talked-of  nortes  of  the  Mexican  seaboard,  descend  with  violence  from  the 
Texan  plateaux ;  these  counter-monsoons  doubtless  owe  something  of  their  fury 
to  the  polar  current,  which  sets  from  the  Frozen  Ocean  without  meeting  along  its 
route  any  heights  sufficiently  elevated  to  deflect  them  from  their  southerly  course. 

In  the  United  States  most  of  the  atmospheric  disturbances  partake  of  the 


•  Mean  annual  rainfall  in  the  central  regions  of  the  United  States : — 

Shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  Cleveland       ..  , 

Ohio  Valley,  Cincinnati    .        ,        .         ;  ; 

Upper  MiHsissippi,  Dubuqne     .        .        .  - »;      ■■»>.:.■    t,.  ■>." 

Month  of  the  Missouri  abive  Saint  Louis  ,  ;•  ^  >  •'  W    ->«..■ 

Mississippi  Delta,  New  Orleans        .        .  -v^T'-y  ♦V^ -.-"i*; 


inches. 
31 

38 

40 

39 

50 


■■''/.■ 


•:H 


as 


mm:-' 


■-  "O-^ir^-K.i 


CLIMATE  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


267 


nature  of  cyclones,  without,  however,  presenting  the  same  regularity  in  their 
spiral  movement  as  those  gyrating  over  the  high  seas.  Storms,  properly 
so  called,  often  sweep  the  surface  of  the  plains,  especially  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  Union.  They  begin  in  the  Far  West  and  follow  an  easterly  course,  develop- 
ing a'  graceful  curve  with  its  convex  side  facing  southwards.  Frequently  they 
traverse  the  States  of  Dakota  and  Minnesota,  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  continu- 
ing their  seaward  march  down  the  Saint  Lawrence  valley  at  a  mean  velocity  of 
40,000  yards  or  25  miles  an  hour,  as  calculated  by  Loomis  for  the  fifteen  years 
from  1870  to  1884.  But  in  winter,  and  especially  in  February,  the  storm  often 
moves  at  a  much  more  rap'd  rate,  at  times  rushing  along  at  a  speed  of  nearly 
45  miles  an  hour.  Even  in  August,  when  the  displacement  is  much  slower,  it 
exceeds  the  velocity  of  European  gales.  In  winter  the  storms  most  dreaded 
in  the  north  are  the  formidable  "  blizzards,"  that  freeze  the  traveller  in  a  moment 
and  often  bury  him  in  a  whirlwind  of  snow. 

Very  many  cyclonic  storms  take  their  rise  in  the  south-west,  south  or  south- 
east, instead  of  in  the  far  north-west,  and  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle  north-east- 
wardly  across  the  central  plains  on  their  career  over  the  Appalachians  to  the 
coast.  They  do  not,  however,  always  fuUow  the  same  regular  course,  but  quite 
generally  pass  over  the  "  lower  lake  "  region  (Erie  and  Ontario)  into  the  Saint 
Lawrence  valley. 

Tornadoes  are  a  common  and  peculiar  phenomena  in  the  Mississippi  valley, 
especially  in  Illinois,  Kansas,  Missouri  and  Iowa,  where  they  occur  most  frequently. 
They  consist  of  a  relatively  small  whirlwind  of  excessive  violence,  and  are  generally 
developed  in  the  south-eastern  quarter  of  some  large  but  moderate  cyclonic  storm. 
They  take  place  especially  in  the  months  of  April,  Ma}',  June  and  July,  though 
they  have  occurred  in  every  month,  but  almost  always  in  the  afternoon.  They  are 
usually  accompanied  by  rain,  and  are  first  seen  in  the  south-west  as  a  funnel- 
shaped  cloud  of  intense  blackness  depending  from  a  dark  and  ghastly  sky.  The 
small  end  of  the  funnel  often  appears  to  touch  the  earth,  along  the  surface  of 
which  it  seems  to  bound  from  place  to  place  as  the  awful  whirlwind  sweeps 
onward  in  its  course  towards  the  north-east. 

The  onward  movement  of  the  tornado  varies  from  15  to  70  miles  an  hour; 
but  the  velocity  of  the  whirling  air  on  the  periphery  of  the  central  funnel  often 
exceeds  that  rate  ten  times,  the  air  sweeping  round  at  a  speed  of  over  620  miles 
an  hour.  Nothing  can  resist  such  a  force.  Trees  are  uprooted,  twisted  and  blown 
about  like  chafi,  houses  fly  to  pieces  in  the  air,  locomotives  aro  hurled  from  the 
rails  to  the  neighboaring  fields,  rivulets  are  left  dry  by  suction,  and  a  lagoon 
two  acres  in  extent,  near  Jamestown  in  Dakota,  was  thus  suddenly  evaporated  and 
reclaimed  for  tillage. 

The  track  of  these  destructive  whirlwinds,  fortunately  seldom  more  than  1,000 
feet  wide,  but  sometimes  10  to  30  miles  long,  is  indicated  by  the  broken 
branches,  fragments  of  beams  and  rafters,  and  the  debris  of  everything  which 
opposed  the  terrific  energy  of  the  tornadp.  After  many  years  the  traveller  may 
still  recognise  in  the  forests  of  Kentucky  the  path  cleared  by  an  ancient  whirlwind, 

88  .v-.;V..,,^,;    ■    ._r.'. 


mmmmjmM0>^'''' 


268 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


and  quite  recently  another  of  these  terrific  storms  swept  away  many  houses  anJ 
destroyed  hundreds  of  lives. 

The  frequency  of  these  disasters  gives  a  practical  importance  of  quite  excep- 
tional  character  to  the  study  of  American  meteorology ;  at  the  same  time  the 
researches  of  observers  have  been  facilitated  by  the  vast  extent  of  the  plains, 
the  simplicity  of  the  general  relief,  and  the  regularity  in  their  order  of  sequence 
presented  by  certain  climatic  phenomena.  In  no  other  region  of  the  globe  have 
weather  forecastings  been  more  successfully  studied.  According  to  the  official 
tables,  the  storm  warnings  announced  a  day  in  advance  are  justified  eighty -four 
times  in  a  hundred.  Those  transmitted  by  cable  from  America  to  Europe  are  of 
lees  value,  for  the  blizzards  and  cyclones  advancing  from  the  Western  prairies 
to  the  Atlantic  coasts  become  lost  or  dispersed  in  the  sea,  and  especially  in  the 
Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland  waters.  Nevertheless,  the  warnings  received  from 
New  York  have  often  enabled  skippers  to  avoid  shipwreck  in  the  European  seas. 

Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  Mississippi  Basin. 

At  the  arrival  of  the  white  man,  the  vast  space  stretching  from  the  Appala- 
chians to  the  prairies  of  the  Illinois  valley  and  to  the  greit  plains  beyoud  the 
Mississippi,  was,  like  the  Atlantic  slope,  still  an  ocean  of  verdure  dotted  over  with 
a  few  isolated  clearings.  The  woodlands,  whose  superficial  extent  was  at  least 
equal  to  that  of  France,  Spain  and  Italy  taken  together,  and  which  were  con- 
tinued beyond  the  Saint  Lawrence  far  into  Canada,  were  composed  almost  exclu- 
sively of  deciduous  trees,  such  as  oaks,  beeches,  and  maples,  the  ash,  elm  and  lime, 
walnuts  and  chestnuts,  the  cherry,  poplar  and  magnolia,  all  following  each  other 
in  a  certain  natural  rotation.  Both  north  and  south  these  diversified  woodlands 
were  limited  by  a  zone  of  uniform  vegetation,  in  which  the  conifers  predominated. 
On  the  one  hand  were  the  white  pines  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  on  the  other 
the  "  balsam  "  pines  [Pinm  bahamifera)  of  the  southern  Appalachians,  and  towards 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  the  yellow  pines  {Pinna  palmtris)  and  the  so-called  "  cypress  " 
{Cupresma  dkticha).  On  the  east  side  an  analogous  contrast  was  produced  by 
the  conifers,  which  here  also  prevailed.  Thus  the  main  axis  of  the  Alleghanies 
formed  the  parting-line  between  the  several  botanic  zones. 

But  this  forest  zone  of  the  Mississippi  regions  did  not  reach  westwards  as  far 
as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Even  in  the  cis-Mississippi  districts  vast  expanses  were 
destitute  of  trees,  and  Illinois  has  received  the  distinctive  title^  of  the  "  Prairie 
State,"  from  the  prairies,*  or  seas  of  natural  grasses  diversified  with  yew  thickets, 
occupying  the  interfluvial  spaces,  while  the  rivers  themselves  were  everywhere 
fringed  by  continuous  belts  of  arborescent  growths.  In  the  State  of  Indiana 
also  occur  immense  grassy  spaces,  where  the  ground  has  preserved  no  traces  of 
any  former  forest  that  may  have  once  existed  there.  When  these  regions  were 
first  traversed  by  the  aboriginal  hunting  tribes  they  were  as  destitute  of  trees  as  at 

*  This  is  Bimply  the  French  word  prairie,  a  meadow,  from  the  Latin  pratum  through  the  debased 
form  pritaria.  It  was  applied  in  a  general  waj  by  the  early  CaoHdian  ^ettler8  to  the  boundless  expanses 
of  level  or  rolling  treeleiis  lands  carpeted  with  coarse  tall  grasses,  and  interspersed  with  many  varieties  of 
herbaoeons  and  other  flowering  plant«.— £d. 


..jt.^.MiMitoMiu;*!!' 


'i,|iiw.  ;.,;i'mini..  I'lM.,  ,.is.H'g^!!gi<«;..i-,.ij.um»jj,u.^im.)]!mnpmii 


•uses  and 

e  excep- 

time  the 
le  plains, 

sequence 
lobe  have 
le  official 
gbty-four 
pe  are  of 
1  prairies 

ly  in  the 
ivedfrom 
Ein  seas. 


Appala- 
lyoud  the 
over  with 
1  at  least 
fere  con- 
>8t  exclu- 
and  lime, 
iach  other 
nroodlands 
ominated. 
the  other 
id  towards 
cypress  " 
>duced  by 
ileghanies 

rds  as  far 

nses  were 

"  Prairie 

thickets, 

^erywhere 

r  Indiana 

traces  of 

[ions  were 

trees  as  at 

the  debased 
ess  expanses 
r  varieties  of 


FLOBA  OF  IHE  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


present.  This  dearth  of  timber  cannot  be  attributed  to  fires,  for  fresh  saplings 
spring  up  in  the  ashes  offer  the  passage  of  the  devouring  element.  In  severul 
places  the  predominance  of  grasses  may  be  explained  by  special  causes.  Thus 
aro(\nd  the  margins  of  old  dried-up  lakes  the  peaty  nature  of  the  soil  harbours 
acids  injurious  to  the  growth  of  woody  tissues,  and  is  consequently  more  favour- 
able to  a  herbaceous  vogetation.  Elsewhere  the  dust  derived  from  disintegrated 
rocks  produces  a  sort  of  fine  paste,  through  which  the  roots  of  trees  have  a  diffi- 
culty in  penetrating.     But  the  great  predominance  of  prairie  grasses  is  most 

Fig.  119. — Rahqb  op  Fobests  in  thb  OsmaiL  Rboioit. 


Ovsrslulf. 


Ovarsqiurttr. 


Ojtt  •  siztesnth. 


Under  a  MZtKnth. 


probably  determined  by  the  climate.  The  eastern  limit  of  these  plains  under  a 
herbaceous  vegetation  coincides  with  that  of  the  regions  where  the  mean  annual 
rainfall  is  about  40  inches.  Doubtless  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  the 
ground  west  of  this  well- watered  zone  might  still  abundantly  suffice,  as  in  many 
other  countries,  for  the  growth  of  continuous  woodlands  with  large  forest  trees, 
and  wherever  the  work  of  man  is  available,  orchards,  groves  and  parks  have 
been  developed.  But  left  to  itself,  nature  adapts  iteelf  more  readily  to  the 
growth  of  herbaceous  plants,  which  spring  up  and  spread  almost  everywhere 
spontaneously.      Here  they  find  a   more  favourable   environment,    whereas  the 


IV  -- 


■«i!ly'lMi"#'»yi*iiiilii'iiipyi''i^'"''»'<'li 


m 


\\ 


260 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


seedlings  of  large  growths  are  choked  by  the  thousands  of  rootlets  which  sproat 
suddenly  in  spring,  and  are  killed  by  the  winter  frosts.  Nevertheless,  in  certain 
districts,  notably  in  the  Green  River  basin,  Kentucky,  the  woodland«<  have 
encroached  upon  the  whole  prairie  domuin.  The  grassy  plains  of  the  Missouri 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Saint  Louis  are  now  also  covered  with  timber  that  bus 
sprung  up  spontaneously. 

Scarcely  any  of  the  prairies  are  now  found  in  their  primitive  condition. 
Thanks  to  the  development  of  agriculture  the  boundless  plains  have  been  to  a 
great  extent  cut  up  into  farmsteads,  bounded  by  roadways  and  enclosad  by  fences. 
Nowhere  can  the  traveller  now  contemplate  those  seas  of  waving  grasses,  which 
stretched  beyond  the  horizon  over  a  rolling  surface,  like  an  endless  succession 
of  billows.  But  here  and  there  certain  isolated  tracts  have  been  preserved,  set 
apart  for  the  growth  of  fodder.  The  prairie  usually  presents  a  somewhat  mono- 
tonous aspect.  Asters,  leguminous  plants,  cereals,  intermingle  their  forms  in 
about  equal  proportion,  though  they  vary  in  size  and  fulness  with  the  greater 
or  less  fertility  and  moisture  of  the  soil.  In  the  bottom-lands  they  shoot  up  to 
such  a  height  that  a  man  on  horseback  disappears  entirely  in  the  midst  of  the 
tall  grasses.  In  spring  the  prevailing  colour  of  the  flowers  is  red,  which  is 
followed  by  blue  in  summer  and  yellow  in  autumn.  Under  the  influence  of  a 
stiff  breeze,  the  foliage  of  the  leguminous  varieties  is  raised,  revealing  a  whitish 
under  side,  clothed  with  velvety  hairs,  then  the  verdant  mass  is  seen  to  heave  and 
die  away  in  long  silver  crested  waves. 

In  certain  rodky  districts  of  the  north  the  woodlands  have  perished  by  con- 
flagrations caused  either  by  lightning  or  the  hand  of  man.  The  granitic  plains 
of  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  whose  surface  has  been  levelled  and 
polished  by  glaciation,  prevent  the  woody  rootlets  from  penetrating  downwards, 
except  in  the  narrow  rifts  of  the  ground.  Heuce  the  trunks,  being  unable  to  .. 
resist  the  fierce  gales,  are  uprooted  and  strewn  in  disorder  over  the  surface.  In 
many  districts  the  wayfarer  meets  barricades  of  trees  thus  piled  up  and  covering 
considerable  spaces.  Some  were  observed  near  Fort  Snelling  which  stretched 
for  a  distance  of  60  miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  fron  10  to  12  miles.  To  get  rid 
of  these  insurmountable  obstacles,  the  hunters  set  them  on  fire,  and  then  the  vast 
pile  becomes  wrapped  in  sheets  of  flame,  the  fierce  heat  of  which  chars  the  under- 
lying rock  itself.  Thus  the  site  of  former  fires  is  still  revealed  from  a  distance' 
by  the  patches  of  bare  rocky  soil. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  the  stretches  of  woodlands  beyond  the  prairies  lack 
the  dense  undergrowths  that  are  seen  in  the  forests  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 
The  species  are  the  same,  but  the  general  aspect  differs.  Enjoying  less  abund- 
ance of  moisture,  the  trees  no  longer  shoot  out  such  luxuriant  and  leafy 
branches  ;  they  no  longer  riot  in  the  same  wealth  of  form  and  irregular  outline ; 
the  underwood  tends  to  disappear ;  the  creepers  coiling  from  bough  to  bough  grow 
less  frequent.  Patches  of  greensward  encircle  the  stems,  and  the  landscape 
gradually  becomes  more  open  and  park-like.  Farther  on,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  western  steppes,  the  trees  themselves  have  no  longer  the  normal  proportions, 


FLOBA   OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  BASIN. 


901 


ch  sproat 

in  certain 

ind*^  have 

Missouri 

that  bus 

condition. 
)een  to  a 
by  fences. 
les,  which 
succession 
Brved,  set 
at  mono- 
forms  in 
e  greater 
oot  up  to 
ist  of  the 
which  is 
9nce  of  u 
a  whitish 
jeave  and 

i  by  con- 
itic  plains 
elled  and 
I  wn  wards, 
unable  to 
'face.  In 
i  covering 
stretched 
ro  get  rid 
1  the  vast 
le  under- 
.  distance* 

ries  lack 
[entucky. 
IS  abund- 
nd  leafy 
outline ; 
igh  grow 
andscape 
bourhood 
portions, 


and  perish  prematurely.  The  irregular  parting-line  between  the  forest  and 
herbaceous  zones,  which  is  indented  with  inlets  or  projects  in  headlands  accord- 
ing to  the  contrasts  of  soil  and  clima^f^,  is  itself  displaced  from  decude  to  decade, 
now  encrouching  on  the  prairies,  now  retreating  before  them.  After  a  year 
of  persistent  drought,  the  traveller  may  at  times  wander  along  the  verge  of 
the  plain  through    a  forest  which  is  still   standing,   but  which  is  now  leafless 

Fig.  120. — Missisaippi  Scknerv;  Vikw  taken  at  Fobt  Sxellino. 


and  dead,  killed  by  the  lack  of  moisture ;  presently  it  is  attacked  by  the  insect 
world ;  it  crumbles  to  dust,  and  the  space  occupied  by  it  merges  in  the  domain  of 
herbaceous  vegetation. 

The  oscillations  of  climate  revealed  in  the  spontaneous  flora  of  the  plains  between 
the  Arkansas  and  upper  Missouri,  also  diversely  affect  the  agricultural  interests 
of  the  country.  During  the  prevalence  of  abundant  rains  the  climate  is  one  of 
the  best  for  tillage,  and  the  population  increases ;  but  a  succession  of  dry  years 
16  inevitably  followed  by  bad  harvests  and  a  displacement  of  the  fanning  element 


mm'l  • 


262 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Thanks  to  the  extension  of  the  range  of  moisture  throughout  the  region  com- 
prised between  the  Arkansas  and  the  Rio  Brazos,  south  of  Indian  Territory, 
a  forest  zone  from  6  to  30  miles  broad  and  rather  over  370  miles  long  has  been 
developed  obliquely  in  the  direction  from  north-east  to  south-west.  This  tract 
bears  the  name  of  the  Cross  Timbers,  and  is  formed  of  various  species  of  small- 
leafed  oaks,  which  grow  in  an  arid  soil,  not  continuously  but  interrupted  by 
extensive  spaces  of  open  or  sparsely  planted  sward.  Before  these  woods  were 
attacked  by  the  axe,  and  before  they  were  cut  up  by  roads,  or  even  railways, 
they  were  already  sufficiently  accessible  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  cattle ;  carts 
could  even  traverse  the  region  in  all  directions,  whence  the  name  of  "  cross  " 
given  to  it  by  the  first  explorers.  The  Cross  Timbers  form  the  natural  frontier 
between  the  fertile  eastern  lands,  suitable  for  tillage  and  settlement,'  and  the 
drier  western  plateaux,  which  is  better  suited  for  pasturage  than  for  agriculture. 
Formerly  this  wooded  zone  indicated  the  parting-line  between  the  settled  and 
nomad  aborigines.  Not  a  single  forest,  not  a  single  wood  is  met  in  the  whole 
region  between  the  Cross  Timbers  and  the  wooded  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
a  distance  of  some  500  miles.  This  lack  of  arborescent  vegetation  is  due  more  to 
the  porous  nature  of  the  soil  than  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 
deficient  rainfall.  All  the  water  precipitated  on  these  plateaux  immediately 
disappears  in  the  fissures  of  the  rocks,  and  winds  its  wuy  to  the  rivers  along 
the  bed  of  canons.  .; ;   ,  .       ,  > 

In  the  Southern  states  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  the  land  is  distributed 
between  three  distinct  forest  zones.  Along  the  less  fertile  tracts  skirting  the  left 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  and  stretching  east  as  far  as  Alabama,  pines  grow  in 
dense  masses,  and  are  regarded  by  the  inhabitants  as  a  protecting  screen  against 
the  malarious  exhalations  of  the  morasses.  During  the  years  when  marsh 
fevers  prevail  the  people  of  New  Orleans  and  Mobile  take  refuge  in  thousands 
in  the  health  resorts  established  in  the  shade  of  these  conifers.  In  spring 
the  pollen,  wafted  on  the  breeze,  is  carried  hundreds  of  miles,  filling  the  whole 
atmosphere  with  a  characteristic  fragrance.  Even  beyond  the  Mississippi  it 
covers  the  ground,  the  swamps,  and  the  very  streams  with  long  streaks,  at  a 
distance  resembling  trails  of  sawdust. 

West  of  the  Pine  Barrens,  as  these  tracts  are  culled,  the  often-floodtd  plains 
bordering  on  the  Mississippi  and  its  bayous  form  vast  cypress  groves  like  those 
of  the  watery  lowlands  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  Then,  still  farther  west, 
the  woodlands  alternate  with  savannas  on  the  comparatively  more  elevated  grounds. 

Tbepe  charming  forest  regions  resemble  those  of  Europe  in  their  sunny  glades, 
their  shady  wii.ding  tracks ;  but  they  surpass  them  in  the  splendour  of  their  foliage 
and  the  picturesque  disorder  of  their  clumps  of  trees.  As  the  wayfarer  saunters 
along  these  leafy  avenues^  the  landscape  varies  incessantly ;  every  fresh  outlet  pre- 
sents a  new  prospect  to  the  guze.  Th--  o;.kj  and  maples,  the  ash,  magnolia,  copal, 
willow,  and  Virginia  poplar  are  grouped  in  distinct  clusters  in  accordance  with 
their  varying  laws  of  association. 

The  latania  palm  spreads  its  broad  fun-shaped  leaves  round  the  stem,  while  the 


WMMtgaBPi'^  ; 


•■.5,1 : 


V,  ■.pi'"/-   'it,'",*";     ,    ' ;'' '    -•■'('■■      •■■-■i  .•-',;  ;   I  .:  '.  '        '.    :'■ 


FLORA   OP   THE  MISSISSIPPI   BASIN. 


268 


gion  cotn- 
Tcrritory, 

huB  been 
This  tract 

of  snittll- 
•upted  by 
oods  were 

railways, 
tie ;  carts 

"  cross  " 
al  frontier 

and  the 

rioulture. 
sttled  and 
the  whole 
lountains, 
le  more  to 
e  and  the 
imediately 
rera  along 

listributed 
Lg  the  left 
8  grow  in 
en  against 
len  marsh 
thousands 
In  spring 
the  whole 
sissippi  it 
ioks,  at  a 

\ 

li  d'  plains 
like  those 
ther  west, 
1  grounds, 
ly  glades, 
dr  foliage 
*  saunters 
utlet  pre- 
lia,  copal, 
uce  with 

while  the 


huge  coils  of  the  soco  or  wild  grape  wavo  to  and  fro  between  the  trees  like  the 
cordage  between  the  masts  of  a  ship ;  but  they  nowhere  form  any  inextricable 
tangle  of  ropcwork,  like  those  of  tropical  America.  Everywhere  the  traveller  moves 
abqut  freely,  except  where  the  acacias  intertwine  their  brunches  armed  with  treble 
knots  of  thorns,  or  in  the  wild  cane  brakes,  where  only  the  snake  can  glide. 

West  of  the  zone  of  Mississippi  woodlands  there  follows  a  region  of  steppes 
completely  separating  them  from  the  Rocky  Mountains.  But  these  stunted 
prairies,  being  less  copiously  watered,  differ  in  aspect  from  those  of  the  Illinois 
region  east  of   the   Mississippi.      They  nowhere  present   the  appearance  of   a 

Fig.  121.— Fine  Babbens  of  thk  Mississippi  Basin. 

Somie  1  :  S,SOO  000. 


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Greenwich 

83-ao'           1 

Pine  Burena. 


.  94  MilM. 


continuous  sea  of  waving  grasses,  but  the  herbaceous  plants  grow  in  separate 
tufts,  and  assume  a  grey  tint.  In  the  zone  immediately  beyonc*  the  forests  the 
dominant  family  is  that  of  the  asters ;  but  here  also  occurs  the  compass  plant 
{Silphium  laciniatum),  a  kind  of  rudimentary  compass,  which  presents  the  edge  of  its 
leaves,  north  and  south,  in  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  meridian,  while  their 
faces  are  turned  east  and  west.  It  thus  serves  in  cloudy  weather  or  dark  nights 
to  guide  travellers,  who  by  feeling  the  edges  of  the  leaves  are  able  to  find  their 
bearings.  But  in  the  vast  expanse  which  rises  gradually  towards  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  plant  which  imparts  to  the  land  its  characteristic  physiognomy  is 


264 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


a  Bpecies  of  wormwood  (Artemisia  tridentata)  ;  it  occurs  on  the  banlcR  of  tho 
lower  KansuH,  but  becomes  more  and  more  common  in  the  direction  of  the  west, 
and  espooiully  in  tracts  covered  by  saline  efflorescences.  For  duys  together  tho 
traveller  traverses  the  boundless  spaces  overgrown  with  this  plunt,  breathing  an 
atmosphere  heavily  laden  with  its  peculiar  odour  of  camphor  and  turpentine. 

Lastly,  the  gramma  or  "  bison  grass  "  forms  a  natural  pasturage  in  tho  vast 
spaces  along  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Rockies.  Thanks  to  iho  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere  the  hay  left  standing  is  preserved  into  the  heart  of  winter,  yielding 
sufficient  fodder  for  cattle.  Further  north,  in  the  Dukotus,  one  of  the  chief 
resources  of  the  natives  is  the  "  white  apple  "  (Psoraka  escnlenta)  ;  in  the  districts 
where  game  has  become  scarce  the  Indians  depend  almost  entirely  on  this  tuber 
during  the  winter  months.  The  "  ground  nut  "  {Apioa  tuheroaa),  which  isi  dug  up 
in  large  quantities  in  all  bottom-lands,  also  supplies  a  much-relished  aliment  to  the 
natives.  The  little  rodents  of  those  regions  store  it  in  considerable  quantities 
in  their  underground  galleries,  and  towards  the  beginning  of  winter  the  native 
women  go  in  quest  of  these  stores,  which  they  plunder  for  their  own  beneBt. 

With  respect  to  economic  plants  the  climate  of  the  United  States,  with  its  great 
range  of  temperature,  its  great  heat  and  heavy  summer  rains,  may  be  said  to 
enjoy  special  advantages.  The  species  which  flourish  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
tropics  are  attracted  northwards  by  the  exceptional  summer  hout,  and  they  are 
thus  propagated  in  regions  where  the  mean  temperature  for  the  whole  }i  ear  is  much 
lower  than  in  other  countries  where  they  cannot  thrive.  This  is  especially  one  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  Here  the  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
maize,  and  other  plants,  which  do  not  occur  in  the  corresponding  isothermal  zones 
of  Europe,  yield  abundant  crops.  Tho  large  cotton  plantations  of  the  United 
States  are  intersected  by  the  isothermal  line  that  passes  through  Lisbon,  Marseilles, 
and  Florence.  These  plantations  extend  at  some  points  even  as  far  north  as  the 
isothermals  of  London  and  Paris. 

The  region  of  the  western  steppes,  from  Texas  to  the  Canadian  frontier  and 
from  the  zone  of  tillage  to  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  has  its  special  fauna, 
represented  chiefly  by  species  that  burrow  in  the  sandy  soil  or  hide  in  the  cavities 
of  the  rocks.  Even  the  "  wolf "  or  coyote,  which,  however,  resembles  a  jackal  more 
than  a  European  wolf,  has  acquired  tho  same  burrowing  habits.  Amongst  the 
numerous  species  of  rodents  the  best  known  is  the  •'  prairie  dog "  (Ci/nomya  ^ 
ludovicianus),  a  species  of  squirrel  which  is  associated  in  the  popular  fancy  with 
much  legendary  matter.  It  lives  on  herbs,  grasshoppers,  and  other  insects,  and 
bears  no  resemblance  to  any  variety  of  dog  except  in  its  bushy  tail,  and  in  its  cry, 
which  is  like  that  of  a  yelping  puppy  ;  bence  it  is  locally  called  the  harking  squirrel. 
Both  natives  and  settlers  are  unanimous  in  asserting  that  the  rattlesnake,  the  little 
burrowing  owl,  tortoises,  frogs,  tarantulas,  and  even  hares,  all  form  a  "  happy 
family,"  dwelling  together  in  the  warrens  of  the  prairie  dog.  Many  travellers, 
Bartlett  amongst  others,  assert  that  they  have  witnessed  this  cohabitation  with 
their  own  eyes.  The  little  hillocks  surmounting  these  underground  galleries 
range  in  height  from  3  to  6  or  7  feet,  and  have  an  average  circumference  of  30 


II 


I 


11.^1  IIKWIir  H 


FAUNA  OP  THE  MISSISSIPPI  15A8IN. 


266 


1  i 


foet;  a  beaten  track  connects  all  the  mounds  with  each  other,  which  is  itself 
a  proof  of  tho  sociublo  character  of  the  little  inmates.  Their  "  towns "  in 
some  places  cover  extensive  plains  stretching  beyond  the  horizon.  They  some- 
times even  cross  the  river  beds,  and  many  watercourses  are  lined  on  both 
sides  by  the  hillocks.  On  Brady's  Creek  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  East 
Colorado,  Bartlett  and  his  companions  took  three  days  to  traverse  one  of  these 
cities,  where  mourn  oUowed  mound  without  interruption  for  a  distance  of  60 
miles.  Assuming  that  this  interminable  settlement  had  a  width  of  not  more  than 
10  miles,  and  that  each  family  of  four  individuals  occupied  a  space  of  abc  l.,000 
square  feet,  the  Brady's  Creek  community  must  have  comprised  some  60,01)0,000 
prairie  dogs. 

But  while  the  smaller  organisms,  secure  in  their  underground  dwellings,  resist 
the  invasion  of  man,  the  large  game  is  everywhere  disappearing.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century  the  bison  still  peopled  over  a  third  of  the  North 
American  continent.  He  roamed  over  the  whole  region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
from  the  shores  of  the  Oreat  Slave  Lake  and  the  Mackenzie  River  to  the  Mexican 
province  of  Chihuahua.  Eastwards  also  he  crossed  the  Mississippi,  penetrating 
into  the  prairies  of  the  Illinois  basin.  He  was  hunted  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  Ohio  valley ;  but  he  nowhere  reached  the  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  nor  the 
banks  of  the  Saint  Lawrence.  Nor  does  he  appear  to  have  ever  advanced  south- 
wards much  beyond  the  Tennessee  vbiley,  while  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  his  remains  are  found  only  in  the  elevated  regions  of  both  Carolinas. 
Thus  the  bison  was  essentially  a  continental  quadruped ;  no  hunter  ever  met  him 
either  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Pacifio  Ocean.  The 
statements  made  by  the  early  explorers  regarding  the  prodigious  numbers  of  this 
mammal  are  by  no  means  exaggerated.  We  know  for  certain  that  the  great  herds 
grazing  on  the  Western  steppes  and  prairies  sometimes  took  weeks  together  to 
traverse  a  given  district.  Multitudes  followed  multitudes  like  the  successive 
waves  of  minute  organisms  by  which  whole  tracts  are  blighted. 

Even  so  recently  as  the  beginning  of  1871,  that  is,  at  a  time  when  the  work  of 
extermination  had  already  made  great  progress,  the  chief  herd  that  roamed  the 
upper  Arkansas  busin  occupied  a  space  estimated  at  50  miles  by  25,  and  here  the 
average  density  vaiied  from  15  to  20  head  per  acre.  Hence  this  single  herd  must 
have  contained  some  millions  of  individuals.  Even  after  the  commencement  of 
the  transcontinental  railways,  enormous  hordes  were  still  met  along  the  main 
tracks.  On  the  Kannas  Pacific  trains  were  thrown  off  the  rails  while  endeavouring 
to  force  a  passage  through  a  herd  of  bisons. 

The  Indians,  who  lived  on  the  flesh  of  these  animals,  were  careful  not  to  massacre 
them  recklessly  ;  for  them  the  preservation  of  the  herds,  on  which  their  own  exis- 
tence depended,  was  regarded  as  a  sacred  duty.  But  the  whites  harboured  no  such 
scruples  regarding  the  great  beast.  They  slew  him  for  his  hide  alone,  or  even  for 
bis  totigue,  and  if  they  condescended  to  eat  the  flesh  they  confined  themselves  to 
that  of  the  cow,  which  was  reputed  to  be  more  delicate.  Like  the  fox  in  the  poultry 
yard,  they  killed  and  killed  through  mere  thirst  of  blood.  Certain  ignoble  methods 


266 


THE  UNITKD  HTATE8. 


5-.f 


of  hunting  wcro  Blioor  butcheries.  Thus  thoy  cloned  round  a  troop,  each  mombor 
of  which,  being  forced  to  escape  through  a  nurrow  roiiky  or  fenced  guUot,  perished 
ineviUibly. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  bisons  were  still  met  in  the  Ohio 

Fig.  122.— OBxnnAi.  Dirappkakanoii  Of  tbb  Dnow. 

BttXt  I  :  SO.W.'O.OOOl 


Zonei  of  gTBdual  diiappeMaooe  daring  the  IBth  ceutnry. 

BeforalSCM).       1800  to  1816.  1BS6  to  1850. 

ISfiOtolBTS. 


Beoccup.iUon  In  18S0. 


t8T5  to  1890  SpNOM  at  preuut  occupied. 

^^.  d8)  Milea. 


valley,  but  in  the  jenr  1830  the  last  of  the  survivors  this  side  the  Mississippi  were 
slaughtered,  and  towards  the  middle  of  the  century  scarcely  any  were  met  beyond 
the  steppe  region  of    the  It'ot  West  along  the  foot  of  the   Rocky  Mountains. 


■  :-;•'(.' 


FAUNA  OF  THE  MIS8I8aii»fI  BAP»V. 


267 


mombor 
puriHlted 

tho  Ohio 


io- 


a 


h  ( 


eo. 


pi  were 
beyond 
intains. 


Then  earned r»t 

hordti  into  HopHral 

lino  finally  cm  tb 

borders  of  tliOHu  i 

on  January  Ist,  188*J,  not  mort    hau  tl 

the  whole  territory  of  the  Union,  an 

to  tho  YellowBtono  National  Purk.      B 

extermination  hua  been  Hucceeded  by 


ayn,  ]    netratlvijj  into  tho  grazinj*  jfroii' 
Tdi     s.      In     Hfi!)  the  completion     I 
iig    of  tl      l)i8on  into  two  isolut  d  '!< 
ives  hav«     't«©n  ray   '  y  "ontraci    i. 


nnd  (dividing  the  gront 
0  fiv  tranH(U)ntinei'lul 
>ui'  and  sin  hon  the 
"  ...rdinst  <o  Ilornuday, 
hundroii  »ild  bi<«>n»  Htill  nurvivod  in 
1  this  tiu'  ^«OT  two-thirdN  wuro  confined 
I  new  Of  hn»  begun,  and  tho  period  of 
tk'>ree«iimg.  A  few  hundred  tume  bisons 
aro  already  found  on  the  ranches,  and  new  Turietioa  have  been  produced  by  crossings 
with  cattle  of  European  origin. 

In  the  Southern  States  another  large  onimul,  tho  alligator,  is  oIho  threatened 
with  extinction.  For  many  years  alligators  have  ceased  to  fnquent  tho  Missis- 
sippi, whence  they  have  been  driven  by  the  steamers  to  the  lateral  bayous.  Tbo 
increasing  value  of  its  hide,  of  its  teeth,  and  of  the  oil  extracted  from  its  flesh  has 
attracted  the  attention  of  hunters  more  and  more  to  this  saurian. 

The  former  balance  of  animal  life,  as  maintained  by  natural  processes,  has  in 
recent  times  been  modified  in  a  thousand  ways  by  the  foundation  of  towns,  by  the 
settlement  of  the  land,  and  tho  destruction  of  the  great  forests.  When  tho  pioneers 
first  crossed  thp  Alleghanie?  and  penetrated  into  the  Ohio  valley,  certain  specio't 
of  birds  existed  in  prodigious  multitudes.  When  they  took  wing  their  countless 
myriads  darkened  the  heavens,  and  they  fell  like  hail  to  the  ground.  Some  idea 
of  the  effect  when  they  alighted  may  still  be  had  from  tho  flocks  of  martins  in 
Louisiana,  where  they  swarm  like  midges  in  a  marsh,  crossing  the  Mississippi  in 
the  morning  to  their  feeding-grounds  in  the  pine  forests  on  the  left  bank,  and 
returning  in  tho  evening  to  the  right  bank.  Formerly  theexudus  of  pigeons  lasted 
days  tojffther,  during  which  the  rustle  of  their  wings  never  ceased,  the  air  was 
charged  with  their  odour,  and  when  they  alighted  on  the  trees,  the  branches 
crashed  beneath  their  weight ;  birds  of  prey  followed  in  their  wuke,  and  those  that 
fell  were  either  devoured  by  bears,  wolves,  foxes,  and  other  carnivorous  beasts, 
or  served  to  fatten  the  pigs  of  the  farmsteads. 

The  scourge  of  mosquitoes  and  gnats  is  nowhere  more  dreaded  than  in  certain 
parts  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota  on  the  banks  of  the  lakes  and  streams.  Cattle  and 
hordes  left  without  shelter  during  the  summer  nights  are  said  to  hare  perished 
from  the  bites  of  these  winged  pests,  and  the  Sioux  Indians  have  put  their 
captives  to  death  by  exposing  them  nuked  to  the  exquisite  torture  of  a  night 
passed  in  the  open  air  on  some  spot  infested  by  these  midgea.  In  the  marshlands 
of  lower  Louisiana  the  mosquitoes  ^re  quite  as  bloodthirsty  as  in  the  northern 
swamps.  On  certain  plantations  south  of  New  Orleans,  the  people  are  fain  to  pass 
their  days  under  gauze,  or  to  coat  the  body  with  clay,  for  all  life  is  a  continued 
martyrdom.  Some  exceedingly  fertile  tracts  have  had  to  be  abandoned,  tillage 
being  rendered  impossible  by  the  dense  clouds  of  midges  filling  the  atmosphere. 


•ijv  -. 


mk 


Rl 


CIIArTER  VI. 

fiTATES  AND  TOWNS  OF  THK  MWSlSSirPl  BASIN. 
1. — Wk«T    ViROlMA. 

K8T  Virginia  in  a  state  of  recent  origin,  having  been  organised  during 
the  Civil  Wur.  Its  inhabitants,  objecting  to  be  drawn  with  Kust 
Virginia  into  the  Confederacy,  seceded  from  the  "Old  Dominion," 
and  grouped  themselves  in  a  new  state,  which,  after  two  yours  of 
legal  discussion,  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  one  of  the 
sovereign  commonwealths. 

In  a  general  way  West  Virg-inia  VD'y  be  regarded  as  a  trans- Alleghany 
region  ;  nevertheless,  its  frontiers  do  not  oincide  with  the  natural  divisions  of 
the  land,  and  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac  forms  its  limits  as  far  as  the 
confluence  of  the  Shenandoah  on  the  Atlantic  slope.  Towards  the  north  it  also 
possesses  a  narrow  strip  of  territory  lying  between  the  loft  bank  of  the  Ohio  and 
the  west  frontier  of  Pennsylvania ;  this  is  the  district  somewhat  fancifully  called 
the  Pan  Handle. 

Comprised  almost  entirely  within  the  upper  Ohio  basin,  "West  Virginia  is 
mountainous,  or  at  least  hilly  and  broken,  throughout  its  <)nti'e  extent.  Towards 
the  east  it  includes  the  parallel  Appalachian  ridges,  and  on  the  west  the  chains 
of  hills  between  which  wind  the  Monongahela,  the  Great  and  Little  Kanawha. 
Like  the  conterminous  states  of  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia  is  an 
agricultural  and  mining  region.  Its  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and  suit  give  it  a 
manufacturing  importance,  which  cannot  but  increase  from  year  to  year,  and 
which  tends  to  constitute  it  an  industrial  extension  of  Pennsylvania.  Lying 
somewhat  apart  from  the  great  natural  highways  of  communication,  except  as 
regards  the  Ohio  valley,  wliich  forms  the  north-western  frontier,  the  whole  region 
has  remained  somewhat  secluded,  and  even  still  foreign  settlers  form  but  a  small 
proportion  of  the  population. 

On  the  Atlantic  slope  the  most  important  town  is  Martinahurg,  which  lies  on 
a  fertile  undulating  plateau  draining  northwards  in  the  direction  of  the  Potomac. 
But  the  most  famous  place  in  the  district  is  the  half-ruined  borough  of 
Harpers  Ferry,  which  occupies  the  steep  slope  of  a  hill  between  the  Potomac  and 
Shenandoah,  which  here  converge  at  a  sharp  angle.     At  the  confluence  the  main 


ii 


»wii-mnw 


■IIBWIIL-  I    |CII|I 


WKflT  VIBOINIA.— OniO. 


200 


iitroam  it  prnHBod  hy  u  bridge,  whilo  thu  l<>ft  hunk  in  Hkirtod  by  u  cutiul,  which 
coiivoyH  lo  WiiHhiii^ton  the  produce  of  tho  iippiT  vullcyn. 

Ilurpttrn  Ferry  is  an  iiiiportiint  Ntrutc^^ic  point,  whi<di  comiiianda  towurdu  the 
cunt  tho  Krat  puMes  ovor  the  AUof^hiiiiicH.  Here  the  Union  poMHOHHcd  un  urrtcnul, 
which  the  notoriouH  John  ]{rown  uttoiiiptcd  to  Hoizo  fur  tho  purpoNo  of  niuking  it 
the  bulwark  of  tlio  negro  iiiNurroction  which  he  wuh  fomenting,  liut  hiH  little 
bund  of  twenty  men  wun  xpeetlily  overvvhelmod  und  atinihiluted  by  the  militiu  of 
the  pliintetfi  hiiHtening  iu  liuadredH  und  thouHundH  to  tho  roHcue.  Hrown  hiniHelf, 
having  been  flevorely  wounded,  wus  executed  iu  tho  neighbouring  borough  of 
Cluv'kHtoun  on  I)ecomber  'ind,  1859. 

Ilurpers  Kerry  wus  uIho  tho  scino  of  an  importunt  event  during  tho  Civil 
Wur,  when  the  Southern  cominundor,  Stonowull  Juckson,  attueked  tho  Federal 
urniy  under  Oenorul  Miles,  and  after  u  brief  cannonudo  captured  neurly  12,000 
men  on  September  15th,  IHtii. 

In  accordanco  with  the  usual  (  >om,  WeHt  Virginia  huH  choHon  for  its  cupitul 
u  pluco  situated  in  tho  centre  of  tho  state.  Such  is  C/itirlcitown,  on  the  Kanawha, 
which  possoHHOs  no  industriul  importance  beyond  that  of  its  sa.t  and  coal  mines, 
und  which  lies  in  such  an  inucces^^iblc  distriut,  that  it  wus  long  abandoned  by 
the  State  legislators.  They  mudo  choice  of  WhceliiKj,  wliieh,  although  situuted 
in  a  remote  district,  enjoyed  the  great  advantage  of  Htunding  both  on  the  bunks 
of  the  Ohio  and  on  the  main  line  of  railway  between  Pittsburg  and  Cincinnati. 

The  towns  that  here  skirt  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  form  a  long  line  of  industrial 
centres,  which  are  crowded  together  especially  round  about  Parkershurg  and 
Huntington.  A  bridge  alx^ut  one  and  a  half  miles  long  crosses  tho  Ohio  opposite 
I'urkersburg,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Kanawha,  some  95  miles  below  Wheeling. 
Huntington,  which  Wa^  just  below  the  mouth  of  the  Guyundotte  River,  20  miles 
above  Ironton,  is  the  bite  of  Marshall  College,  and  of  a  state  normal  school. 

2.— Ohio. 

The  State  of  Ohio,  so  named  from  tho  river  which  borders  it  on  the  south- 
east and  south,  where  it  is  conterminous  with  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Lake  Erie ;  elsewhere  its  frontiers,  eastward  in  the 
direction  of  Pennsylvania,  west  and  north-west  towards  Indiana  and  Michigan, 
are  formed  by  conventional  geometrical  lines.    .  ' 

Ohio  was  net  one  of  the  original  thirteen  states  ;  in  fact,  the  colonisation  of 
the  country  had  not  begun  at  the  time  of  the  War  of  Independence,  although 
its  possession  hud  already  been  disputed  by  the  English  and  French.  Marietta, 
the  first  American  town  iu  the  present  territory  of  the  state,  dates  only  from  the 
year  1788,  and  the  state  itself  was  not  constituted  till  the  year  1803. 

For  some  years  after  the  arrival  of  the  first  settlers,  colonisation  was  retarded 
by  the  Indian  wars  ;  but  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  considerable 
progress  had  been  made,  and  when  the  great  tide  of  Eurppoun  emigration 
began  to  flow  the  chief  stream  of  agricultural  colonists  set  in  the  direction  of 
Ohio.     Its  well-wutered  and  gently  undulating  lands  ore  everywhere  fertile,  and 


W 


mmtmmim 


270 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


throughout  their  whole  extent  scarcely  present  any  ohstructions  to  farming  opera- 
tions. Hence,  this  region  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Ohio  has  become  a  continuous 
succession  of  cornfields,  meadows,  groves  and  orchards.  The  culininating-point 
of  the  state  between  the  head-wuters  of  the  Scioto  and  Miami  Rivers  in  Logan 
County  attains  a  height  of  not  more  than  1,540  feet. 

Round  all  the  towns  the  manufacturing  industries,  fed  by  coalfields  covering  a 
superficial  area  of  10,000  square  miles  in  the  east  and  south-east,  with  a  yearly 
output  valued  at  ^10,000,000,  are  represented  by  a  large  number  of  factories,  while 
the  inland  navigation  has  acquired  a  great  development,  thanks  especially  to  the 
navigable  canals,  by  which  the  Ohio  communicates  with  the  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

In  the  space  of  a  hundred  years  the  population  of  the  state  has  grown  to  over 
3,000,000,  and  in  this  respect  Ohio  is  outstripped  only  by  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Illinois.  The  first  immigrants  were  for  the  most  part  New  Eng- 
landers  of  the  old  Puritan  stock ;  then  followed  settlers  of  foreign  origin,  especially 
Germans,  who  flocked  in  large  numbers  to  the  towns.  The  "  Buckeye  State,"  as 
it  is  called,  takes  its  name  from  the  buckeye,  or  American  horse-chesnut  {JEsculm 
glabra),  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Ohio  woodlands. 

In  Ohio  the  chief  place  in  the  lacustrine  district,  and  one  of  the  most  populous 
amongst  the  secondary  towns  of  the  United  States,  tukes  the  name  of  Cleveland, 
from  General  Moses  Cleaveland,  by  whom  it  was  laid  out  in  the  year  1796, 
though  not  incorporated  as  a  city  till  1836.  It  stands  on  an  old  terraced  beach 
of  Lake  Erie,  whence  a  view  is  commanded  of  the  roadstead  anrl  of  the  mouth  of 
the  little  Cuyahoga,  or  "  Winding  River,"  which  meanders  through  the  town,  and 
forms  a  well- sheltered  harbour  on  the  lake.  The  broad  straight  thoroughfares 
are  nearly  all  planted  with  shad}'  maples,  whence  Cleveland  has  acquired  the 
name  of  the  "  Forest  City."  Euclid  Avenue,  one  of  these  boulevards,  has  the 
reputation  of  being  the  finest  urban  promenade  in  the  United  States,  the  "  Champs- 
Elys^es  of  America ; "  but  it  is  flanked  by  far  larger  hotels,  more  delightful 
pleasure-grounds,  greener  and  more  velvety  swards  than  those  of  Paris. 

In  1840  Cleveland  was  still  a  small  place  of  not  more  than  6,000  inhabitants. 
But  it  began  to  expand  suddenly  towards  the  middle  of  the  century,  and  is  now  one 
of  the  "  Queens  of  the  West,"  surpassed  in  the  lake  region  only  by  Chicago.  Its 
industries,  fed  by  the  neighbouring  coalfields,  have  acquired  a  great  development, 
and  the  local  capitalists  have  almost  a  monopoly  of  the  petroleum  trade ;  the  chief 
oil  basins  are  connected  with  the  city  by  iron  conduits,  or  "  pipe  lines." 

Cleveland  rivals  Chicago  and  Buffalo  themselves  in  the  extent  of  its  traffic 
on  the  Great  Lakes.  Its  port  of  Cuyahoga  is  the  converging-point  of  numerous 
lines  of  steamers,  and  also  communicates  directly  with  the  Mississippi  hydro- 
graphic  system  by  means  of  a  navigable  canal  which  traverses  the  state  from 
north  to  south,  terminating  at  Portsmonlh  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ohio  and 
Scioto  rivers.  The  harbour,  protected  by  two  piers  extending  1,200  feet  into  the 
lake,  and  enclosing  a  space  of  185  acres,  affords  excellent  accommodation  for  a 
commercial  navy,  which  is  already  the  largest  in  the  lacustrine  waters,  and  which 
is  yearly  increased  by  numerous  vessels  launched  from  the  neighbouring  dock- 


i , 


'■».;■ 


omo. 


271 


yards.  A  magnificent  railway  viaduct,  3,210  feet  long,  crosses  the  broad 
ravine  of  the  Cuyahoga,  affording  a  wide  prospect  of  the  city,  its  parks,  harbour, 
shipping,  and  the  *'  Crib,"  au,  imposing  structure  marking  the  spot  where 
the  pure  water  of  the  lake  is  ciiptured  and  conveyed  by  tunnel  to  the  mainland  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  city. 

Cleveland  possesses  several  learned  and  scientific  institutions,  such  as  the 
Ohio  State  and  Union  Law  College,  the  Cleveland  Medical  and  Ilomoeopathic 
Colleges,  the  medical  department  of  the  Wooster  University,  the  Public  School 
Library  and  a  United  States  marine  hospital.  Oberlin,  31  miles  south-west  of 
Cleveland,  is  the  site  of  a  famous  college,  open  equally  to  both  sexes  and  to  all  races. 

Fig.  123.— Sanodbkt. 
Soiila  1  •  400,000. 


0  to<i 
Fikthomt. 


Deptlw. 


SitoS 
Fatfaoma 


B  Fatbomi 
•nd  opwaida. 


.6  Mile*. 


Sandmhy,  another  port  on  Lake  Erie,  is  invisible  from  the  lake  itself.  It 
stands  on  the  south  side  of  an  almost  landlocked  inlet,  which  is  sheltered  on  the 
north-west  by  a  low  peninsula,  connected  by  a  succession  of  islands,  islets  and 
shoals  with  the  Canadian  promontory  of  Point  Pelee  towards  the  north-west  end 
of  the  lake.  Sandusky  Bay  forms  a  spacious  well-protected  harbour  15  miles  long 
and  6  miles  broad,  approached  from  the  east  aide,  where  Spit  and  Bull's  islands 
form  natural  breakwaters.  --T  ■      r 

The  shores  of  the  bay  and  the  banks  of  the  Sandusky  Biver,  which  flows  north 
to  its  western  extremity,  were  formerly  inhabited  by  a  branch  of  the  "Wyandott  or 
Huron  nation,  and  the  French  military  post  of  Fort  Junandut  was  erected  in  1754 


■  .1 


.  %,> 


i 


272 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


not  fur  from  the  spot  whore  eixty-two  years  later  the  Americans  founded  the  present 
city.  The  local  trade  employs  a  considerable  fleet  of  coasters  and  fishing- smacks, 
less  numerous,  however,  than  those  of  Toledo,  which  stands  near  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Maumee.  Toledo  thus  occupies  a  position  at  the  western  extremity  of  Lake 
Erie  analogous  to  that  of  Buffalo  on  the  Niagara  effluent  at  the  opposite  end. 
The  rapid  growth  of  Toledo  compared  with  other  cities  of  Ohio  is  due  especially  to 
the  navigable  converging  canals  by  which  this  lacustrine  port  communicates  across 
the  states  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  with  the  Miami,  the  Wabush,  and  the  whole  system 
of  Mississippi  waters.  Formerly  the  valley  of  the  Maumee  River  was  a  vast 
morass,  the  Black  Swamp,  which  by  drainage  has  been  almost  entirely  transformed 
to  a  highly  productive  plain. 

South  of  Toledo  the  town  of  Findlay  occupies  the  site  of  a  camping  ground 


Fig.  12t.— ToLKDO. 
Scale  1  :  200,000. 


41* 
44- 

41* 
38' 

f  •.  )".  ;..•■  -   . 
'••"■•'  . '  •   . 

/  /     *" 

y-.  ■.    .:'  "^^^r^Ttesvf-dBF;^             ^^B 

41" 
44 

Jfi^^:---^--: 

t^^^       /.""it..     ■":■■.'•'*•■.  ••..■*.'•     •  '''      '"/"SnI,      •..' 

t  ''  :m 

41 

.«mJ|I 

38 

83-5?  • 


.Wegt  oF  Greenvyicli 


83'gO' 


6  MUm.  I 


of  Shawnee  Indians  formerly  commanded  by  the  Frenchman,  Blanchard,  whoi^e 
name  survives  in  Blunchard's  Fork,  one  of  the  Maumee  head-streams.  Findlay  has 
recently  acquired  a  sudden  celebrity  and  importance  as  one  of  the  richest  centres  of 
natural  gas.  The  inhabitants  of  the  district  had  long  noticed  pertain  "  blowers," 
whose  jets  had  even  been  utilised  for  lighting  and  warming  a  neighbouring  house. 
This  lei  to  a  systematic  exploration,  which  revealed  the  existence  of  vast  under- 
ground reservoirs,  and  in  1889  over  thirty  shafts  were  already  yielding  about 
100,000,000  cubic  feet  a  day.  From  the  Karg  Well,  which  is  said  to  be  the  most 
copious  in  existence,  the  gas  escapes  with  the  roar  of  a  cataract. 

Lima,  south-west  of  Findlay,  stands  on  underground  lakes  of  petroleum,  which 
are  connected  with  Chicago  and  other  towns  by  means  of  metal  pipes.     The  oil  of 


p- 


I 


rfM,. 


-■  \ 


m 


"■Ti'     '•S/«"^/' 


OHIO. 


27S 


the  Lima  district,  being  denser  than  that  of  Pennsylvania,  is  used  as  fuel  instead 
of  coal,  especially  in  the  factories. 

Numerous  towns  follow  along  the  north  bank  of  the  Ohio,  which  forms 
the  boundary  of  the  state.  Such  are  Steubentilk,  an  industrial  dependency  of 
Pittsburg,  and  Bellaire,  five  miles  below  Wheeling,  metropolis  of  West  Virginia. 
Marietta,  so  named  in  honour  of  Marie- Antoinette,  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Ohio  with  the  Muskingum,  on  a  terrace  which  was  formerly  occupied  by  Indian 
fortifications.     Marietta  is  the  oldest  American  settlement  in  Ohio,  but  before 

Fig.  123 -Thk  Oa  Inoostby    Pktbolrum  Wills. 


il 


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1788,  the  year  of  its  foundation,  the  French  had    already  established    several 
stations  on  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Erie. 

Gallipolia,  capital  of  Gallia  County,  on  the  Ohio  20  miles  below  Pomcroy,  is  also 
a  place  of  French  origin.  The  '*  Scioto  Company,"  an  association  of  speculators, 
had  contrived  by  dazzling  promises  to  beguile  some  five  hundred  Frenchmen, 
who  were  induced  to  lettle  on  a  swampy  clearing  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ohio, 
a  short  distance  below  the  Kanawha  confluence ;  a  third  of  the  immigrants  were  soon 
swept  away  by  marsh  fever.  In  the  valley  of  the  Mahoning,  whose  lower  course 
joins  the  Ohio  below  I'ittsburg,  the  chief  place  is  Voungstoirn,  66  miles  south-east 
of  Cleveland.  Lower  down  follows  the  valley  of  the  Muskingum,  which  falls  into 
the  Ohio  at  Marietta,  and  in  whose  upper  course  the  most  important  places  are 
Canton  and  the  industrial  town  of  Zanemlle  at  the  head  of  the  alack  water 
navigation  for  steamers.  v ;„.%-■ -''x,',       i.  ' 


274 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


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A  more  important  centre  of  population  and  the  industries  is  the  valley  of  the 
Scioto,  which  joins  the  Ohio  at  Portsmouth.  Here  is  situated  Columbus,  capital 
and  third  city  of  Ohio.  The  puhlic  buildings  belonging  to  the  State  capital — 
capitol,  arsenals,  hospitals,  schools — have  all  been  constructed  on  a  scale  of  con- 
siderable magnitude  and  splendour.  Lying  not  far  from  the  geometrical  centre  of 
the  state  towards  the  converging-point  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Scioto,  Columbus 
has  become  the  natural  dcpdt  for  the  agricultural  produce  of  an  extensive  region 
and  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  the  coal  and  metallurgic  industries.  \\  jn  this 
place  was  chosen  in  1812  as  the  site  of  the  future  state  capital  the  district  was 
still  under  primeval  forest.  It  had  been  preceded  as  the  administrative  centre 
by  the  city  of  Cliillicothe,  which  lies  lower  down  in  the  same  valley  of  the  Scioto 
some  50  miles  by  rail  south  from  Columbus.  Indian  mounds  and  fortifications 
ore  very  numerous  in  the  surrounding  district,  and  especially  at  Fort  Ancient  on 
the  Little  Miami  River,  whose  wonderful  fortifications  have  been  explored  by 
Mr.  Moorehead. 

Cincinnati,  the  largest  and  most  flourishing  city  in  the  state,  occupies  two 
terraces  rising  60  and  112  feet  respectively  above  the  right  bank  of  the  Ohio 
opposite  the  confluence  of  the  Licking  River.  Losantiville,  as  the  original 
settlement  was  called,  was  founded  about  the  beginning  of  the  year  1789,  and 
afterwards  renamed  Cincinnati  in  honour  of  a  company  of  veterans  who,  like  the 
famous  Roman  general,  had  returned  to  the  plough  after  the  wars.  For  a  long 
time  its  growth  was  extremely  slow,  but  after  the  opening  of  the  Ohio  River  to 
navigation  it  began  to  make  rapid  progress,  the  population  advancing  from  24,000 
in  1830  and  115,000  in  J 850,  to  216,000  in  1870  and  about  300,000  in  1890. 
Including  the  towns  and  boroughs  lying  within  a  radius  of  12  miles,  with  the  two 
Kentucky  cities  of  Newport  and  Covingfon  facing  it  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ohio, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  the  Licking,  including  also  the  other  outlying 
suburbs  of  Bromley  and  Ludlow  in  the  west  and  Bellevue  and  Dayton  in  the  east, 
but  all  on  the  Kentucky  side,  the  total  present  population  certainly  exceeds 
400,000.  From  the  terrace  where  were  constructed  the  first  log  huts,  the  growing 
city  gradually  invaded  the  slopes  of  the  surrounding  hills  of  Silurian  limestone,  then 
all  the  crests  were  covered,  and  the  suburban  quarters  wtth  their  numerous  villas  and 
private  residences  still  continue  steadily  to  encroach  on  the  neighbouring  uplands. 
The  river  front  alre;idy  extends  a  distance  of  10  miles,  while  the  Kentucky  depen- 
dencies are  connected  with  the  city  proper  by  five  viaducts  and  a  remarkably 
elegant  suspension  bridge  with  a  central  sweep  of  1,000  feet.  The  heights  on  the 
east  side  are  occupied  by  Eden  Park,  or  "  the  Garden  of  Eden,"  as  it  is  familiarly 
called,  a  magnificent  rural  retreat,  220  acres  in  extent,  from  which  a  splendid 
prospect  is  commanded  of  the  city,  the  broad  winding  stream  alive  with  steamers, 
ferryboats,  and  other  craft,  the  distant  towns,  slopes  and  plains  of  the  fertile  Ohio 
valley.  Several  other  parks  and  public  grounds  add  to  the  beauty  and  health  of 
the  place,  while  the  cemetery  of  Spring  Grove,  one  of  the  inost  picturesque  in  the 
Union,  covers  a  space  of  over  600  acres  in  the  northern  outskirts. 

Cincinnati,  the  natural  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the  Licking  and  upper  Ohio 


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OHIO. 


276 


basins,  is  also  the  chief  murt  for  the  two  valleys  of  the  Great  and  Little  Miami 
liivors,  which  descend  in  parallel  channels  towards  the  Ohio  west  and  east  of  the 
city.  Such  natural  advantages,  though  not  to  be  compared  with  those  of  Saint 
Louis  and  Chicago,  the  two  great  trading  centres  of  the  West,  have  nevertheless 
had  mucb  influence  in  promoting  the  general  prosperity  of  the  place.  Extensive 
industrial  quarters  are  occupied  with  furniture  and  clothing  factories,  breweries, 
flour  mills,  refineries,  and  workshops  of  all  kinds,  besides  the  pig  shambles  and 
pork-packing  business  whence  the  nickname  of  "  Porcopolis,"  now,  however, 
more  commonly  attributed  to  Chicago.  Cincinnati  makes  it  a  point  of  honour  to 
cultivate  the  arts  and  promote  general  instruction.  She  is  specially  proud  of  her 
university,  college  of  music  and  other  large  educational  establishments.     A  school 


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of  art  is  attached  to  the  museum,  the  public  library  contains  5iOO,000  volumes,  the 
zoological  and  botanic  gardens  are  both  well  stocked,  and  the  taste  for  the  liberal 
arts  is  widespread,  as  shown  by  the  numerous  collectors  of  books,  paintings,  prints, 
and  archaeological  remains. 

Hamilton,  whi^  lies  30  miles  due  north  of  Cincinnati,  may  be  regarded  as 
the  port  of  the  metropolis  on  the  Great  Miami  River.  Bat/ton,  higher  up  in  the 
same  valley,  is  the  converging-point  of  several  railways,  and  is  fast  becoming  the 
chief  industrial  centre  on  the  lines  connecting  Cincinnati  with  Toledo  and  Columbus 
with  Indianapolis.  A  little  to  the  south  of  Doyton  stands  the  Oreai  Mound,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  65  feet  on  a  base  800  feet  both  ways.  These  dimensions  are 
rivalled  only  by  one  other  mound  near  Wheeling.  Springfield,  in  the  same  valley 
of  the  Great  Miami,  24  miles  north-east  of  Dayton,  is  noted  for  the  manufacture 


1 1  Will— B 


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276 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I '.I ' 


S  1^ 


of  agrlculturul  machinery.  Springfield  is  also  associated  with  the  Indian  wars.  In 
the  neighbourhood  was  bom  the  famous  Shawneo  chief,  Tecumseh,  who  o£Fered 
such  a  valiant  resistance  to  the  white  settlers. 

3. — Indiana. 

The  State  of  Indiana  has  long  ceased  to  justify  its  nnrae ;  in  the  year  1790 
the  extermination  of  the  native  tribes  had  already  begun .  on  the  Maumee  and 
upper  Wabash  Rivers,  and  twenty-two  years  later  the  struggle  was  brought  to 
a  close  by  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Shawnee  League.  The  few  survivors 
who  still  lingered  in  the  forest  glades  were  removed  beyond  the  Mississippi  in 
the  yoar  1841.  Like  those  of  the  neighbouring  states  of  Ohio  and  Illinois,  the 
first  white  settlers  wore  Franco- Canadians  who  had  married  native  wives.  Hence, 
when  the  English  annexed  this  region  in  1763,  they  found  numerous  French  half- 
breeds  living  in  peaceful  association  with  the  surrounding  aborigines. 

The  present  State  of  Indiana,  bounded  south  and  south-east  by  the  Ohio  River, 
south-west  by  the  Wabash,  and  north-west  by  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake 
Michigan,  is  elsewhere  limited  by  purely  conventional  lines.  The  conterminous 
states  are  Michigan  on  the  north,  Ohio  on  the  east,  Kentucky  and  Illinois  on 
the  south  and  west  respectively.  Viewed  as  a  whole,  Indiana  may  be  described 
as  a  rolling  plain  which  rises  in  rounded  ridges  towards  the  watersheds.  Few 
regions  abound  more  in  arable  lands,  or  possess  greater  facilities  of  communica- 
tion for  general  trufHc.  The  engineers  found  little  difficulty  in  developing  an 
extensive  uetwork  of  r  lilways  and  of  navigable  canals  connecting  the  Ohio  River 
with  the  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Indiana  is  also  an  important  mining  staid, 
and  its  rich  deposits  of  bituminous  coal  yielded  over  3,100,000  tons  in  the  year  1888. 
liustly  a  great  part  of  the  eastern  region  between  Indianapolis  and  Fort  Wayne 
is  now  found  to  possess  extensive  reservoirs  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas. 

Below  Cincinnati,  the  Ohio  skirts  the  borders  of  Switzerland  County,  so 
named,  not  from  its  modest  eminences,  but  in  memory  of  a  colony  of  settlers  from 
the  Canton  of  Vaud,  who  vainly  endeavoured  to  introduce  viticulture  into  their 
adopted  land.  The  town  of  Vevai/  recalls  those  early  essays  at  colonisation,  which 
date  from  the  year  1813.  Lower  down,  Madison  is  followed  by  Jeffersonville 
and  New  Albany,  which,  although  forming  distinct  municipalities,  are  in  reality 
mere  suburbs  of  the  city  of  Louisville,  on  ihe  opposite  or  Kentucky  side  of  the 
river.  New  Albany,  which  lies  flush  with  the  stream,  creeping  half-way  up  the 
slopes  below  the  falls,  shares  in  the  vast  industrial  and  commercial  movement  of 
its  Kentucky  neighbour.  .  "  ^  "  •■,;;■•'''■■'''"-'    >I'-;''iM'-?.  .;V;;^-''H-;^''-'!i':v  • 

Despite  the  advantages  derived  from  its  proximity  to  Louisville,  New  Albany 
has  already  been  oustripped  by  Evamville,  which  is  the  busiest  riverine  port 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  between  Louisville  and  the  Mississippi  confluence. 
Although  founded  so  recently  as  the  year  1836,  Evansville  takes  the  second  posi- 
tion in  the  state  for  population,  while  rivalling  the  capital  itself  in  commercial 
activity.  It  could  not  fail  to  rapidly  develop  into  a  great  industrial  and  trading 
centre,  thanks  to  its  advantageous  position  on  the  banks  of  a  large  navigable 


M 


M»,fmmi§m 


r'aifttf'trifii:a9 


INDIANA. 


277 


waterway,  a  short  distance  below  the  mouth  of  the  Green  River,  giving  acceHH 
to  one  of  the  richest  valleys  in  Kentucky,  and,  moreover,  forming  a  natural  outlet 
for  the  agricultural  and  mineral  produce  of  an  extremely  fertile  district  of 
Indiana,  abounding  in  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  ores.  These  natural  advantages 
have  been  further  increased  by  the  development  of  the  railway  system  and  the 
construction  of  a  navigable  canal  460  miles  long,  connecting  Evansville  with 
Lake  Erie  through  the  Wabash  valley.  About  half-way  between  Evansville  and 
New  Albany,  and  not  far  from  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  is  situated  the  famous 
Wyandott  Care,  vthose  galleries  have  a  total  length  of  23  miles,  and  whose 
stalactite  formations  exceed  those  of  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentuckv  in  size  and 

ft 

diversity  of  form. 

Towards  the  north-east  angle  of  the  state  rise  the  farthest  headstreains  of 
the  Wabash,  which  lower  down  is  joined  by  numerous  tributaries  ramifying  in 
all  directions.  The  city  of  Fort  Wayne,  although  situated  near  the  sources  of 
the  Maumee  affluent  of  Lake  Erie,  may  nevertheless  be  regarded  as  also  belonging 
to  the  Wabash  basin  ;  it  stands  on  the  very  crest  of  the  waterparting,  whence  the 
title  of  Summit  City  often  attributed  to  it.  Originally  a  camping- ground  of  the 
Miami  Indians,  it  afterwards  became  a  trading-station  belonging  to  the  Franco- 
Canadians,  and  in  the  year  1764  the  English  here  erected  a  little  fort,  round 
which  the  settlers  grouped  themselves  in  constantly  increasing  numbers.  At 
present  it  is  a  flourishing  commercial  mart  on  the  railway  between  Pittsburg 
and  Chicago,  about  150  miles  south-east  of  the  latter  city. 

As  indicated  by  its  French  name,  Terre  Haute  stands  on  "  high  ground,"  some 
60  feet  above  the  east  or  left  bank  of  the  Wabash,  74  miles  south-west  of 
Indianapolis.  A  few  descendants  of  its  Franco-Canadian  founders  still  reside  in 
this  busy  agricultural  centre,  which  does  a  brisk  export  trade  in  grain,  flour  and 
manufactured  goods.  Vincennes,  another  Franco-Canadian  settlement  lower  down 
the  Wabash,  dates  from  the  j'ear  1735.  It  was  formerly  a  military  station 
guarding  the  trade  route  between  Lake  Erie  and  the  Missistiippi.  Later  it  wag 
chosen  as  the  capital  of  Indiana  when  that  region  was  first  organised  as  a  territory 
in  1800.  At  that  time  Indiana  included  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Illinois,  and 
parts  of  Minnesota  and  Ohio,  Illinois  being  detached,  also  first  as  a  territory,  in 
1809,  and  Indiana  finally  reduced  to  its  present  limits  and  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  state  in  1816.     Vincennes  had  ceased  to  be  the  capital  in  1813. 

The  founders  of  Indianapolis,  the  present  capital  and  chief  city  in  the  state, 
conformed  to  the  general  practice  in  selecting  f«r  its  site  a  spot  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  the  geometrical  centre  of  the  country.  It  lies  110  miles  north-west  of 
Cincinnati  on  a  level  plain  watered  by  the  White  River,  which  has  a  south- 
westerly course  of  about  300  miles,  joining  the  left  bank  of  the  Wabash  25  miles 
below  Vincennes.  In  1820  the  whole  district  was  still  a  vast  forest  without  any 
clearings,  but  in  that>  year  the  ground  chosen  for  the  new  state  capital  was  laid  out 
in  the  usual  chessboard  fashion,  broken  however  by  four  main  thoroughfares,  con- 
verging diagonally  on  a  circular  park  which  now  occupies  the  centre  of  the  city. 
Later,  Indianapolis  became  the  terminus  of  a  large  number  of  railways,  which, 


wmm 


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278 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


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combined  with  its  political  advantages,  rapidly  attracted  settlers  from  all  quarters. 
It  has  thus  become  one  of  thu  great  cities  uf  the  West,  with  a  population  which 
has  more  than  doubled  itself  in  two  decades,  advancing  from  4H,U00  in  1870  to 
over  107,000  in  1890.  Although  very  clean  and  well  administered,  the  city  from 
its  level  position  and  general  plan  is  necessarily  somewhat  monotonous  ;  its  uni- 
f'Tmity,  however,  is  relieved  by  many  fine  buildings,  such  as  the  Court-house, 
the  State  liibrary,  and  especially  the  new  State  House  or  Capitol. 

There  are  a  few  important  towns  iu  the  northern  part  of  Indiana  near  Lake 
Michigan,  and  consequently  lying  within  the  sphere  of  iiiflueace  of  Chicago. 
One  of  the  largest  of  these  places  is  South  Bend,  so  named  from  its  position  on  the 
southern  curve  of  the  St.  Joseph  affluent  of  Lake  Michigan.  Franco-Canadian 
settlers  are  numerous  in  the  district,  and  the  city  is  a  sort  of  religious  metropulia 
for  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Indiana,  who  are  said  to  outnumber  all  other  Christian 
communities  in  the  state.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  the  Catholic  University  of 
Notre-Dame.  The  river  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  as  far  as  South  Bend. 
Michigan  Cittf,  on  the  lake  itself,  tJ8  miles  by  water  south-east  of  Chicago,  has  the 
distinction  of  being  the  lacustrine  port  of  Indiana. 


4. — Ilunois. 

Illinois  is  one  of  those  favoured  regions  which  unite  within  themselves  all 
geographical  advantages,  those  even  which  might  seem  mutually  to  exclude  each 
other.  On  the  one  hand  it  is  essentially  a  continental  land,  occupying  the  centre 
of  the  upper  Mississippi  drainage  area,  and  lying  at  the  necessary  point  of  inter- 
eectio'  of  the  great  commercial  highways  which  run  north  and  south  through 
the  central  depression,  and  east  and  west  from  ocean  to  ocean  ;  on  the  other  hind  it 
possesses  all  the  resources  of  an  insular  country,  thanks  to  its  position  in  the  heart 
of  a  vast  system  of  navigable  inland  waters.  Towards  the  west  the  Mississippi, 
southwards  the  Ohio,  on  the  east  the  Wabash,  to  the  north  the  Rock,  the  Illinois 
and  the  magnificent  Lake  Michigan  form  a  girdle  of  riverine  and  lacustrine  ports 
round  about  this  privileged  territory  which,  even  before  the  development  of  the 
railway  system,  was  able  to  forward  the  produce  of  its  soil  directly  to  every 
quarter  of  the  globe.  The  Atlantic  Oceon  itself  is  accessible  by  water  through 
the  ^^int  Lawrence,  the  recently  enlarged  navigable  canals  and  the  continuous 
chain  of  Great  Lakes  forming  collectively  a  vast  inland  sea  which  penetrates  over 
1,000  miles  right  into  the  heart  of  the  mainland. 

The  soil  of  Illinois  is  extremely  fertile,  consisting  largely  of  old  alluvia  and 
drift,  much  mixed  with  vegetable  humus.  Even  before  a  tenth  of  the  land  had 
been  brought  under  tillage,  Chicago,  the  emporium  of  Lake  Michigan,  already 
held  the  foremost  position  for  its  export  trade  in  wheat  and  flour.  2no  other 
region  is  more  suitable  for  agriculture,  needing  scarcely  any  preliminary  clearing. 
The  surface  rolls  away  in  long  billowy  undulations,  nowhere  presenting  any 
obstacle  to  the  construction  of  highways,  or  to  the  transport  of  produce,  excepting 
where  intersected  by  the  watercourses.       The  highest  eminence  scarcely  exceeds 


rTi"  I  hh. 


93 

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I  fill.!  .ai»iff;iitiaff;rw»i#  n  iiifwirr  i  n\  ^ti-^mm^vfcmi  m. '« 


ILLINOIS.— CUICAQO. 


279 


fi20  foet  above  sca-lovcl,  wliilo  the  lowcut  ground  fullft  to  300  foot  ut  tho  MiNsiM- 
Hippi-Ohio  cunfluoncn. 

IllinoiH  huA  rccoiviul  tlio  title  of  tl»o  "  Pruirio  Stute,"  four-flftlis  of  tho  Hiirfuof 
huving  originully  prownted  tho  charttctcristic  ffttluros  of  tho  Wostcrti  pruiriox, 
Mint  oxpuuNOH  of  tull  horbiigo  which  in  many  places  iitrotchcd  awiiy  boyoiid  th<' 
hoiixiin,  rulievod  hero  and  there  by  a  few  clumps  of  trees  or  patchcH  of  woo«II«nd«. 
IJut  tho  natural  prairie  no  longer  exiatH,  the  wild  flora  almost  everywhere  having 
been  replaced  by  cultivated  plants.  Illinois  has  limited  Hupplies  of  lead  and 
viino  ores  iu  the  north-west,  but  abundance  of  bituminous  coal,  which  is  wldtly 
distributed  over  three-fourths  of  the  whole  area.  Hence,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
tho  stream  of  immigration  has  been  largely  directed  towards  this  statu  since  the 
middle  of  the  century,  that  is  to  suy,  since  the  first  locomotives  begun  to  penetrate 
into  these  hitlierto  almost  deserted  wcotern  wilds.  Although  its  organisation  as  a 
state  dates  only  from  the  year  1818,  Illinois  already  rivals  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania in  political  influence,  ranking  high  amongst  the  members  of  tho  Federal 
Union  in  populutitm,  trade,  mineral  and  agricultural  wealth. 

Since  the  Civil  War  Chicago,  incomparably  the  largest  city  in  the  state,  had 
already  disputed  with  Cincinnati  the  title  of  "Queen  of  the  West."  Rut  the 
census  returns  for  1890  revealed  the  astonishing  fact  that  it  bus  distanced  Phib- 
delphia  \\i  population,  and  is  now  pressing  hard  on  New  York  itself.  Most  places 
are  proud  of  their  antiquity.  Rome,  which  even  traditionally  is  scarcely  more  than 
tive-and-twenty  centuries  old,  calls  itself  the  "Eternal  City,"  and  in  every  land 
those  are  proud  citizens  who  can  point  to  monuments  or  ruins  dating  back  one  or 
two  thousand  years.  Chicago,  on  the  contrary,  boasts  of  being  tho  "  Mushroom 
City,"  sprung,  as  it  were,  suddenly  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  Far  from 
seeking  to  go  back  to  a  remote  origin,  her  citizens  affect  to  pass  over  her  beginnings 
in  silence,  as  if  she  had  come  abruptly  into  existence  by  a  miracle  of  human  enter- 
prise Nevertheless,  Chicago,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  one  of  the  oldest  stations  in 
North  America  mentioned  in  the  records  of  the  white  settlers.  In  the  year  1673, 
at  a  time  when  New  York  was  still  a  Dutch  colony,  with  a  population  of  less  than 
2,000  souls,  the  portage  of  Chikak-uk,  or  '•  Place  of  Civets,"  had  already  been  visited 
by  Joliet.  The  point  where  Lake  Michigan  at  a  former  period  overflowed  into  tho 
Mississippi  basin,  os  still  indicated  by  the  swampy  bayous  of  the  district,  marked 
the  route  leading  from  the  lacustrine  to  the  fluvial  slope.  *All  warlike  or  trading 
expeditions  advancing  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Illinois  a£9uent  of  the  Missis- 
sippi necessarily  followed  this  route.  In  consequence  of  its  important  strategic 
position  the  Federal  Government  here  erected  Fort  Dearborn  in  the  year  1804,  and 
this  station  soon  became  a  trysting-place  of  the  traders  and  trappers.  Gradually 
more  permanent  settlers  were  attracted  to  the  spot,  and  although  the  fort  was 
destroyed  and  the  garrison  massacred  by  the  Indians  in  1812,  it  was  rebuilt  four 
years  later.  Still  the  development  of  the  district  was  very  slow,  being  much 
retarded  by  the  Indian  troubles,  and  in  1830  not  more  than  a  dozen  families  were 
clustered  round  the  station. 

But  then  came  the  memorable  gathering  of  the  Pottawatomie  nation  at  this  spot 


"i 


t 


280 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


in  1833,  when  they  ceded  to  the  United  States  a  vast  domain  estimated  at  about 
20,000,000  acres,  comprising  the  regions  which  now  form  the  states  of  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin.  Four  years  after  that  event  Chicago  was  incorporated  as  a  cify,  with 
a  population  of  a  little  over  4,000,  and  since  then  its  progress  has  been  prodi- 


m; 


Fig.  127.— Chicaoo. 
Scale  1  :  ZSn.OOO. 


Deptba. 


Oto2i 
Fathoms. 


24  to  10 
-     Fathoms. 

o  LightbonRe. 


10  Fnthnmn 
and  npwanli. 


,  6  HUM. 


{^■■\ 


giouB,  absolutely  without  a  parallel  in  ancient  or  modern  times.  In  forty  years 
the  population  has  risen  by  leaps  and  bounds  from  30,000  in  1850  and  110,000  in 
1860,  to  300,000  in  1870,  500,000  in  1880,  and  1,100,000  in  1890,  thus  more  than 
doubling  itself  during  the  last  decade.  For  a  moment  the  prosperity  of  Chicago 
seemed  to  be  arrested  by  the  tremendous  conflagration  of  1871,  a  disaster  un- 


-"^w" 


ILLINOIS —CHICAGO. 


281 


equalled  in  modern  times  iince  the  Great  Fire  of  London  in  1666.  As  muny  as 
17,430  houses  were  destroyed  by  the  consuming  element,  and  a  space  of  about 
five  square  miles  left  btrewn  with  calcined  ruins.     So  extensive  were  the  ravages 

Fig   128.  — Street  Vikw,  Chioaoo 


that  the  asheo  of  the  huming  houses  were  wafted,  all  the  way  to  the  Azores, 
iu  mid  Atlantic. 

In  anticipation  of  future  expansion,   the  corporation  has  marked  off  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  as  municipal  territory,  a  space  of  160  square  miles, 


wmmm! 


m 


282 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


'./^v 


which  18  about  the  extent  of  the  department  of  the  Seine.  Doubtleos  this  territory 
is  still  far  from  being  occupied,  waste  spaces  being  still  numerous  and  extensive. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  new  quarters  have  in  many  places  already  overgrown 
the  official  limits.  In  1890  the  front  of  the  city  towards  the  lake  had  a  total 
length  of  23  miles,  while  the  district  covered  with  houses  had  a  mean  width  of 
over  six  miles.  But  the  centre  of  Chicago  still  lies  in  the  s(.me  place  where  it 
first  took  its  rise,  that  is,  at  the  converging  point  of  the  north  and  south  branches 
of  the  Chicago  river,  whose  channels  follow  the  depression  of  an  ancient  lacustrine 
beach  on  their  course  of  about  1|  mile  to  the  lake.  Starting  from  this  central 
nucleus,  the  streets  and  avenues  are  continued  from  block  to  block,  all  regularly 
intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles  in  the  direction  of  the  meridians  and  parallels 
of  latitude.  In  this  central  quarter  stand  the  loftiest  and  most  sumptuous  build- 
ings, but  the  spongy  soil  could  not  have  sustained  their  weight  had  they  not  been 
supported  with  substructures  of  piles,  or  else  a  kind  of  iron  raft.  Moreover,  it 
would  have  been  impossible  for  the  surface  waters  to  escape  had  not  the  very 
ground  itself  been  raised.  Formerly  it  stood  at  a  height  of  not  more  than  from 
3  to  10  feet  above  the  mean  level  of  the  lake ;  now  it  has  been  banked  up  from 
12  or  14  feet  to  25  feet,  according  to  the  elevation  of  the  different  quarters.  Thus 
it  became  easy  to  drain  the  land  and  give  it  a  sufficient  incline  to  construct  a 
complete  system  of  sewerage,  while  at  the  same  time  raising  the  houses  several 
feet.  This  levelling  up  of  a  whole  city,  ground,  superstructures  and  all,  which 
was  effected  without  any  accident,  is  justly  regarded  as  a  triumph  o'  *  '.nerican 
engineering  skill. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  audacity  of  the  local  builders  reveals  itself  in  f  ^  )  of 
the  principal  edifices.  The  people  of  Chicago  are  specially  ambitious  of  excelling 
in  big  things.  Proud  of  inhabiting  a  city  which  has  sprung  up  with  such 
amazing  rapidity,  and  recovered  itself  so  spontaneously  from  the  tremendous  cata- 
strophe of  1871,  they  aim  also  at  possessing  the  tallest  houses  and  buildings  capable 
of  accommodating  the  largest  possible  number  of  human  beings.  Certain  monu- 
mental structures  in  the  business  quarters  contain  a  day  popidation  of  as  many  as 
20,000,  distributed  in  endless  lines  of  offices  piled  up  ten,  fifteen,  and  even 
twenty  stories  high.  The  Auditorium  is  at  once  a  vast  hotel,  where  thousands 
of  travellers  can  be  comfortably  accommodated,  and  a  theatre  spacious  enough  to 
entertain  8,000  spectators.  Doubtless  the  big  and  the  beautiful  cannot  always  be 
harmonised,  and  many  of  these  huge  piles  are  constructed  in  a  grotesque  style 
without  xmity  or  taste.  But  the  very  conditions  of  an  absolutely  novel  environ, 
ment  stimulate  the  local  architects  to  feats  of  daring  skill,  and  their  audacity  has 
often  been  crowned  with  success.  They  are  mere  imitators  in  the  ornamental 
details ;  but  the  main  features — outlines,  general  proportions,  arrangement  of  the 
interior — have  been  necessarily  subject  to  modification,  and  their  work  has  here 
consequently  assumed  an  original  character. 

The  bayous  traversing  Chicago  present  little  difficulty  to  the  traffic ;  they  are 
crossed  by  dozens  of  bridges,  while  the  northern  and  southern  quarters  are  further 
connected  by  two  tunnels.     Extensive  hydraulic  works  have  liad  to  be  execited  in 


-:Wh, 


ii,nipirw>!rTT»w»>f»i 


ILIJNOIS— CHICAGO. 


283 


w^- 


the  very  lake  itself,  and  in  this  direction  considerable  tracts  have  been  reclaimed 
which  are  now  intersected  by  railways  in  all  directions.  Vast  quays  several  miles 
long  have  also  been  constructed  to  consolidate  the  soft  beach  which  was  formerly 
strewn  with  shifting  dunes.  An  outer  harbour,  well  sheltered  by  granite  jetties 
against  the  north  and  east  winds,  communicates  with  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago 
River,  and  is  connected  by  deep  basins  with  the  inner  harbour  formed  by  the 
channel  of  the  stream  itself.  Lastly,  two  tunnels  about  two  miles  long  penetrate 
under  the  bed  of  the  lake  to  capture  the  178,000,000  gallons  of  water  needed  for 
the  daily  requirements  of  the  citizens.    Taken  at  such  a  distance  from  the  shore 

Fig.  129.— Cbioaoo  WATEB-WoBKa,  Lake  MicmoAN. 


it  was  hoped  that  the  drinking  water  would  always  remain  perfectly  pure.  Never- 
theless  the  sewage  discharged  into  the  lake  has  been  gradually  diffused  over  the 
whole  liquid  mass,  contaminating  it  to  such  an  extent  that  great  ravages  were 
committed  by  an  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever  in  1891.  Hence  it  became  urgently 
necessary  to  modify  the  whole  system  of  drainage,  and  instead  of  flowing  to  the 
lake,  the  foul  waters  and  sludge  are  now  pumped  up  to  a  higher  level  and  thus 
carried  ofi'  by  a  canal  to  the  Des  Plaines  tributary  of  the  Mississippi. 

In  the  interior  of  Chicago  there  is  an  absence  of  shady  trees,  but  by  way  of 
compensation  the  municipality  has  reserved  for  public  use  a  circular  zone  of  boule- 
vards and  parks,  the  grassy  plots  and  shubberies  comprising  a  collective  area  of 


mm^^^^^i!^^^^^^^-  '"**?? 


284 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


gt' 


1,000  acres.  Northwards  the  shores  of  the  lake  are  bordered  by  Lincoln  Park,  a 
charming  stretch  of  rural  scenery  diversified  with  wooded  heights,  glens,  and 
sparkling  streams.  To  Lincoln  Park  on  the  north  corresponds  Jackson  Park  on  the 
south  side,  and  this  is  the  site  on  which  have  been  erected  the  chief  buildings  of  the 
Universal  Exhibition  of  1893,  such  as  the  Great  Nave  of  the  States  and  of  Foreign 
Nations,  the  Illinois  Palace,  the  Ht^ls  devoted  to  the  Industries,  Machinery,  and 
Agriculture.  A  new  harbour  communicating  with  the  inner  basins  has  been  con* 
structed  near  the  park  for  the  convenience  of  steamers  and  the  yachting  interests. 
Lake  Front,  another  park  situated  near  the  centre  just  south  of  the  chief  harbour 
and  of  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  river,  has  been  reserved  for  the  edifices  connected 
with  the  fine  arts  and  education.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  vast  exhibition, 
the  "  Columbian  World's  Fair,"  destined  to  commemorate  the  fourth  centenary  of 
the  discovery  of  the  New  World  and  especially  to  attest  the  greatness  of  the 
United  States  and  the  wealth  of  Chicago,  is  one  of  the  grandest  triumphs  of  human 
enterprise  as  well  as  the  starting  point  for  many  new  and  important  applications 
of  industrial  processes  to  the  requirements  of  modern  culture.  Chicago  itself  is 
already  an  incomparable  city,  as  a  monument  of  the  inventive  faculty  of  man. 
The  "Queen  of  the  West"  also  aspires  to  become  a  great  centre  of  the  arts  and 
sciences.  But  although  it  possesses  several  large  colleges,  an  observatory,  museums, 
an  academy  of  science,  an  art  institute,  and  although  it  is  the  chief  market  of  the 
book  trade  in  the  West  and  publishes  as  many  as  532  periodicals  of  all  kinds  (1801), 
its  literary  influence  cannot  yet  compete  with  that  of  Boston  or  New  York.  Never- 
theless in  this  department  also  Chicago  aims  at  "  big  things."  Recently  it 
purchased  at  a  single  stroke  a  library  of  280,000  volumes  at  Berlin  for  its  new 
university. 

But  the  chief  glory  of  Chicago  are  its  industries,  and  in  this  respect  so  rapid  is 
the  yearly  progress  that  the  statistical  returns  find  it  impossible  to  keep  pace  with 
the  development  of  all  branches  of  business  and  the  steadily  increasing  value  of  the 
local  products.  Every  branch  of  industry  is  represented  in  Chicago  by  establish- 
ments planned  on  the  largest  scale.  But  the  most  lucrative  and  highly- developed 
lines  of  business  are  those  connected  with  the  forwarding  of  cereals  and  flour,  and 
with  the  slaughtering  of  cattle  and  pigs.  The  vast  stockyards  receive  in  a  single 
year  as  many  as  10,000,000  animals,  which  are  fattened  on  the  spot  with  the  refuse 
of  the  distilleries,  and  which  are  ihen  sent  to  the  immense  shambles,  where  they  are 
rapidly  despatched  mainly  by  mechanical  processes  acting  with  unerring  precision. 
At  the  very  entrance  the  beasts  are  seized  by  a  running  noose,  suspended  by  the 
feet  to  an  iron  triangle,  and  brought  swiftly  under  the  knife.  The  blood  escapes 
along  an  inclined  plane,  while  the  carcasses  continue  to  pass  from  the  scalding  and 
skinning  chambers  to  the  stalls  where  head  and  limbs  are  severed.  Here  the 
remains  branch  off  in  various  directions,  each  part  of  the  animal — flesh,  fat, 
bones — pursuing  their  respective  courses,  while  at  each  stage  special  hands  subject 
them  to  the  various  processes  by  which  they  are  finally  prepared  for  the  market. 
Such  is  the  capacity  of  these  establishments  that  as  many  as  10,000  beasts  can  be 
packed  in  a  few  hours.     Thus  are  annually  delivered  to  the  trade  of  the  world 


'^,'itn> 


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.ji 


<>>iiif>-;'hif 


1  Park,  a 
ens,  and 
rk  on  the 
g8  of  the 
;  Foreign 
lery,  and 
een  con- 
interests, 
f  harbour 
lonnected 
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tenary  of 
IS  of  the 
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plications 
)  itself  is 

of  man. 

arts  and 
museums, 
(et  of  the 
ds  (1891), 
Never- 
jcently  it 
or  its  new 

K)  rapid  is 
pace  with 
due  of  the 
establish- 
developed 
flour,  and 
a  a  single 
the  refuse 
•e  they  are 
precision, 
led  by  the 
od  escapes 
ilding  and 
Here  the 
-flesh,  fat, 
ids  subject 
le  market. 
sts  can  be 
the  world 


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IMIMII 


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IP — a'ft>;(a<>'i>1|rri,;;'rHi,, 


iJUi. 


ni  I  >  ii^aii    -V 


ILLINOIS. 


285 


600.000  tons  and  1,000,000,000  tins  of  canned  meat  valued  at  about  $200,000,000. 
Such  figures  enable  the  political  economist  to  realise  the  importance  that  the  ques- 
tions connected  with  "  American  provisions  "  have  acquired  in  diplomatic  nego- 
tiations with  European  Governments. 

The  trade  of  Chicago  naturally  expands  witli  the  development  of  the  locul 
industries.  The  1,000  trains  arriving  every  day  by  the  27  converging  lines  of 
railway  bring  on  an  average  175,000  travellers,  while  the  post-office  consigns 
10,000  tons  of  letters  and  periodicals,  the  street  cars  propelled  by  steam  or  elec- 
tricity carry  2,000,000  passengers,  and  as  many  as  60  vessels  enter  or  clear  the 
port  in  twenty-four  hours.  Thus  this  inland  city,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan, 
already  rivals  the  great  European  seaports  in  the  yearly  tonnage  of  its  imports 
and  exports.  Trade  might  be  directly  carried  on  with  Canada  and  Eurcpe  by  the 
highway  of  the  Oreut  Lakes  and  the  Saint  Lawrence.  But  the  railroads  running 
straight  to  the  Atlantic  seaports  offer  such  great  facilities  for  the  transport  of  goods 
that  only  a  relatively  small  proportion  of  the  exchange  follows  the  roundabout 
waterway.  Hence  in  1890  not  more  than  about  700  vessels,  with  a  total  burden 
of  279,000  tons,  were  engaged  in  the  foreign  trade  of  Chicago. 

Numerous  towns,  either  industrial  dependencies  or  pleasure  resorts,  gravitate 
round  about  the  great  city.  Sucli  in  the  south  is  the  extensive  borough  of  Pullman, 
west  of  Lake  Calumet,  which  belongs  entirely  to  the  builder  of  the  well-known 
Pullman  railway  carriages,  and  which  hus  been  laid  out  by  a  single  architect  on  a 
uniform  plan  adhered  to  in  all  its  details.  E'-amton,  12  miles  north  of  Chicago, 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  is  also  a  dependency  of  the  hietropolis.  Here 
is  the  seat  of  the  North-western  University  (Methodist),  one  of  the  chief  centres 
of  education  in  Illinois,  founded  in  the  year  1854 

On  that  section  of  the  Mississippi  which  belongs  to  Illinois  are  situated  several 
towns  of  secondary  importance,  all  inferior  in  population  to  those  of  Iowa  and 
Missouri,  facing  them  on  the  opposite  bank.  Galena,  at  the  north-west  angle  of 
the  state,  on  the  Fevre  River  six  miles  above  the  confluence,  occupies  the  summit 
of  a  limestone  bluff  dominating  a  former  channel  of  the  stream.  This  place  has 
lost  much  of  its  importance  since  the  exhaustion  of  most  of  its  zinc  and  copper 
deposits  as  well  as  of  the  galena  (lead)  mines  whence  it  took  its  name  in  1822. 
A  busier  and  larger  place  is  the  modern  town  of  Rockford,  which  lies  midway 
between  Galena  and  Chicago,  and  which  has  become  the  chief  market  for  an 
extensive  agricultural  district.  Two  other  manufacturing  towns,  Moline  and  Bock 
Island,  stand  on  the  Illinois  side  of  the  Mississippi  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Rock  River.  They  are  connected  with  each  other  by  an  urban  railway  four  miles 
long,  and  with  the  much  larger  city  of  Davenport  on  the  Iowa  side  by  a  noble 
wrought-iron  railway  bridge  which  crosses  the  Mississippi  at  this  point.  The 
factories  of  all  these  places  derive  their  motive  power  from  the  rapids  of  the 
Miflsissippi,  which  are  very  strong,  especially  in  the  narrow  channel  rushing  between 
Rock  Island  and  the  mainland  at  Moline.  The  island,  which  is  three  miles  long 
and  connected  by  bridges  with  both  banks  of  the  river,  lies  between  the  contermi- 
nous states  and  has  become  the  property  of  the  Federal  Government.     Here  have 


.i!  P^ 


.1.-. .-, 


286 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


V 


been  formed  a  great  central  ars-enal,  with  a  large  armoury,  a  foundry,  and 
military  heudquurtern,  while  the  lovely  island  itself  hus  been  transformed  to  a 
magnificent  public  park. 

Next  to  the  Chicago  district  the  most  important  section  of  the  state  is  the 
basin  of  the  Illinois  River,  which  has  received  its  name  and  transferred  it  to  the 
state  from  a  now  extinct  tribe  of  Algonquian  Indians.  The  Illinois  River  always 
formed  the  natural  highway  between  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Mississippi ;  hence 
the  stream  of  traffic  still  continues  to  flow  almost  exclusively  along  the  lines  of 
railway  that  have  since  been  constructed  in  the  same  direction  between  Chi- 
cago and  Saint  Louis.  Numerous  manufacturing  towns  have  already  sprung 
up  along  the  upper  reaches  and  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Illinois.  Joliei, 
which  perpetuates  the  memory  of  the  great  explorer,  skirts  the  banks  of  the 
I)es  Plaines  River,  about  38  miles  south-west  of  Chicago.  Elffin  and  Aurora, 
both  on  the  Fox  River,  which  joins  the  Illinois  at  Ottaica  after  a  course  of  over 
200  miles,  possess  largo  watch-works,  woollen  factories,  railway-carriage  works  and 
flour-mills.  Kankakee,  on  the  river  of  like  name,  is  a  pleasant  rural  retreat  much 
frequented  by  the  citizens  of  Chicago,  from  which  it  is  distant  56  miles  to  the 
south-east.  The  Kankakee  River  has  a  sluggish  course  of  about  230  miles,  flowing 
through  the  states  of  Indiana  and  Illinois  mainly  south-west  to  the  Des  Plaines, 
their  junction  forming  the  Illinois. 

Uelow  the  confluence  follow  several  busy  places,  and  beyond  Ottawa  the  left 
bunk  of  the  main  stream  is  skirted  by  the  cliifs  to  which  the  early  French  explorers 
gave  the  name  of  "  long  rocher,"  and  which  terminate  in  a  terraced  bluff  steeply 
scarped  on  three  sides.  Here  La  Salle  erected  the  fort  of  Saint  Louis  in  1682, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century  some  Illinois  Indians,  at  war  with  the 
Pottawatomies,  seized  and  entrenched  themselves  in  this  stronghold.  But  being 
completely  cut  off  from  their  supplies  they  all  perished  to  a  man  ;  hence  the  name 
of  Starved  Rock  by  which  this  historic  bluff  is  now  known.  Lower  down  follows 
La  Salle,  which  recalls  the  expeditions  of  the  renowned  explorer.  Steamers  ascend 
the  Illinois  to  this  place,  which  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  Illinois  cunal. 
Farther  on,  the  north  or  right  bank  of  the  Illinois  is  occupied  by  Peru,  not  far 
from  La  Salle,  and  Peoria,  at  the  head  of  the  plain  where  the  river  expands  into  a 
very  elongated  lake.  Peoria,  which  retains  the  name  of  an  extinct  Indian  tribe, 
stands  on  the  site  of  the  "  Yille  k  Mallet,"  an  old  Canadian  fort  160  miles  south- 
west of  Chicago.  Springfield,  which  lies  45  miles  farther  south  on  a  prairie  watered 
by  the  Sangamon  affluent  of  the  Illinois,  has  been  the  seat  of  the  administration 
since  1837,  though  not  incorporated  as  a  city  till  1840  ;  it  possesses  one  of  the  finest 
state  houses  in  the  Union,  a  noble  building  erected  at  a  cost  of  ^5,000,000.  It 
lies  in  an  extremely  fertile  district  abounding  in  coal,  and  is  also  noted  as  having 
long  been  the  residence  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  The  remains  of  the  illustrious 
president  here  repose  within  the  crypt  of  the  National  Monument,  erected  to  his 
memory  at  an  outlay  of  over  ^250,000,  in  the  neighbouring  Oak  Ridge  Cemetery. 
Bloomington,  which  lies  farther  east,  is  also  one  of  the  most  flourishing  industrial 
towns  of  Illinois,  thanks  to  its  rich  coal-mines  and  the  numerous  converging  lines 


1 1 


H 


J, 


I  limiiai  (I'^'^M  awmiiJRNllH 


mmtuummnmfSiiMm  i  -«^  ■    '  -  it^i^mmmiiHttmii    'miii  i.iiii»'J»PtwiHi^g<'  "-- 


ILLINOIS. 


M7 


1  ( 


of  railway.     The  municlpul  district  of  Normal,  co  numcd  from  tho  Illinois  Stute 
Normal  University,  founded  in  1857,  is  a  mere  suburb  of  Blooraington. 

In  the  lower  part  of  its  course  the  Illinois,  ceasing  to  flow  south-west,  takes  the 
direction  from  north  to  south  parallel  with  tho  Mississippi.  The  consequence  is 
that  the  stream  of  trade  also  is  abruptly  deflected  to  the  west  in  order  to  seek  the 
nearest  and  easiest  outlet.  The  city  of  Quincy,  which  crowns  u  limestone  bluff  125 
feet  above  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  serves  as  the  riverine  port  of  this  traffic 
Lbsides  other  industries  here  is  an  immense  tobacco  factory  employing  over  1,000 
hands.  Lower  down  Alton  occupies  what  at  first  sight  seems  an  admirable  position 
on  a  terrace  commanding  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  just  below  the  Illinois  con* 
fluence,  and  almost  immediately  above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  that  is  to  say,  at 
the  point  of  intersection  of  the  great  hydrographic  lines  from  the  llocky  Mountains 
to  the  Canadian  lakes  and  from  Lake  Winnipeg  to  the  Qu^.f  of  Mexico.  But 
despite  those  advantages  Alton  has  remained  a  small  stationary  town,  with  a  popu- 
lation in  1890  of  scarct. .  more  than  10,000.  But  all  the  industrial  and  coramerciul 
life  of  this  region  has  been  attracted  to  Saint  Louis,  which  enjoyis  the  same  advan- 
tages although  somewhat  more  distant  from  the  converging  point  of  the  fluvial 
valleys.  Even  the  business  quarter  of  Euat  Saint  Louis,  facing  Saint  Louis  on  the 
Illinois  side  of  the  Mis'-icsippi,  has  acquired  more  importance  than  Alton,  despite  its 
girdle  of  swamps  and  backwaters.  A  vast  space  is  here  occupied  by  the  stockyards 
or  cattle  enclosures  of  the  National  Stockyard  Company,  which  cover  many  hundred 
acres,  and  are  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  Union.  Belleville,  which  crowns  the 
neighbouring  heights,  is  an  important  agricultural  centre  which  may  also  be 
regarded  as  a  commercial  dependency  of  Saint  Louis.  The  two  old  French  settle- 
ments of  Cakokia  and  Kaskashia,  both  on  the  east  or  Illinois  side  of  the  Mississippi, 
have  remained  obscure  groups  of  log  huts,  while  great  cities  are  springing  up  east 
and  west  on  the  surrounding  prairies.  Yet  Easkaskia,  which  dates  from  about  the 
year  1673,  was  the  first  capital  of  Illinois  Territory.  It  takes  its  name  from  the 
Easkaskia  River,  which  flows  for  nearly  300  miles  through  Illinois  south-west  to  the 
Mississippi  at  Chester.  Near  Easkaskia  are.  the  ruins  of  the  old  French  station 
of  Fort  C/iartres,  whoso  crumbling  walls  are  being  gradually  eaten  away  by  the 
Mississippi  current. 

The  town  situated  on  the  sharp  peninsula  of  southern  Illinois  between  the 
r  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Rivers,  received  from  its  ambitious  founders  the  name  of  Cairo, 
and  the  Mesopotamia  of  which  it  occupies  the  extremity  was  even  called  "Egypt." 
It  might  well  be  supposed  that  such  a  position  at  the  intersection  of  the  main 
highways  180  miles  below  Saint  Louis,  and  in  the  exact  hydrographic  centre  of 
the  United  States,  could  not  fail  to  give  birth  to  a  great  city.  The  surrounding 
low-lying  muddy  tracts,  though  subject  to  constant  inundations,  became  the 
battlefield  of  eager  speculators,  and  efforts  were  made  to  attract  settlers  by  visions 
of  rapid  wealth.  Thousands  accordingly  made  their  way  to  the  district,  but  for  the 
most  part  only  to  find  fever  and  ruin.  In  Martin  Chuzzlewit,  one  of  his  best-known 
novels,  Charles  Dickens  describes  the  miseries  of  some  of  the  unfortunate  dupes 
lost  amid  this  mud  and  slush  of  "Eden  City,"  where  they  were  constantly  exposed 


■'ii 


teMtiMiiUlir! 


mem^^sisgi^taii 


IMMlftti 


r— 


tiimiMiltB 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


n.  I 


to  floods  or  nguo.  Dut  sinco  tlion  things  have  vastly  improved,  and  Cairo  has 
bocoine  a  flourishing  trading  plu. ,',  completely  protected  from  the  inundations  by  a 
costly  levee  from  20  to  24  feet  high.  The  Mississippi,  however,  still  continues  to 
rat  away  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  higher  up,  and  will  perhaps  end  by  trans- 
forming it  to  an  island. 

6. MlCIMOAN. 

Luke  Michigan  gives  its  name  to  two  completely  detached  peninsulas,  which 
nevertheless  are  politically  united  in  a  single  stuto.  These  are  East  Michigan, 
or  the  "  Southern  Peninsula,"  lying  between  the  three  Groat  Lukes,  Michigan, 
Huron,  and  Erie;  and  West  Michigan,  or  the  "Northern  Peninsula,"  which 
is  wiishod  ou  the  south  by  Lake  Michigan  und  the  large  inlet  of  Qreen  Buy, 
on  the  north  by  Lake  Superior.  Between  the  two  peninsulas  flows  Mackinac 
Strait,  through  which  Lake  Michigan  communicates  with  Luke  Huron.  East 
Michigan,  forming  by  fur  the  lar^  '  section  of  the  state,  seems  at  one  time  to 
huve  for  the  most  part  constituted  the  bed  of  a  lucustrino  depression.  Here  the 
surface  is  either  low-lying  or  but  slightly  elevated,  forming  a  vast  rolling  plain  which 
is  traversed  by  long  lines  of  rooruiucs  formerly  deposited  by  the  northern  icecap  and 
in  certain  places  ricing  to  a  height  of  over  IGO  feet.  Other  rising  grounds  on  the 
eastern  shores  of  Lake  Michigan  uttuin  an  equal  elevation.  These,  however,  are  not 
moruines  but  shifting  dunes,  which  are  continually  driving  before  the  winds  and 
iucessuntly  modifying  the  outlines  of  the  sandy  spits  and  headlands  along  the 
coust,  and  of  the  old  inlets  now  transformed  to  completely  landlocked  lagoons. 
Thanks  to  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and  the  mild  lacustrine  cliraute.  East  Michigan 
is  an  extrcsjnely  rich  agricultural  region.  Formerly  it  was  extensively  wooded,  the 
prevailing  species  being  oaks  in  th?  southern  and  white  pine  in  the  northern 
districts;  but  the  old  forests  have  almost  everywhere  been  greatly  thinned.  Below 
the  surface  are  stored  vast  quantities  of  bituminous  coal,  which  represents  as  fuel 
u  reserved  supply  of  heat  far  superior  to  successive  generations  of  timber,  but 
which  at  the  same  time  begrimes  the  towns  with  its  black  smoke. 

The  northern  peninsula  differs  altogether  in  its  geological  structure  from 
the  southern  division  of  the  "  Wolverine  State,"  as  Michigan  is  popularly  called. 
Broadly  speaking,  it  presents  the  aspect  of  an  arid  rocky  region  over  1,000  feet  high 
formed  by  sandstones  overlying  a  granite  base,  and  dispost  ^  in  the  direction  from 
east  to  west.  Here  are  no  placid  streams  meandering  through  level  plains,  but 
wild  torrents  rushing  over  rapids  or  cascades  down  to  one  or  other  of  the  surround- 
ing lakes.  Yet  although  there  is  little  land  suitable  for  tillage,  this  section  has 
become,  comparatively  speaking,  the  wealthier  of  the  two  Michigans,  thanks  to  its 
immense  deposits  of  pure  or  nearly  pure  native  copper  and  of  magnetic  and  other 
iron  ores  of  unrivalled  excellency.  The  copper-beds  of  the  Mineral  or  Copper 
Range,  which  were  certainly  worked  in  pre-Columbian  times,  are  amongst  the 
most  productive  in  the  Union,  and  these,  taken  in  connection  with  the  adjacent 
beds  of  high-grade  iron  ores,  constitute  the  peninsula  one  of  the  most  productive 
mineral  regions  in  the  world. 

Like  Maine,  Michigan  is  connected  in  its  historic  development  with  Canada. 


u 


TrtBlU 


W 


-.it»niiiii'»iM»i>  4 


■jinymwaii  ja  Ml    iji«  II  I  I 


UiCUIOAN. 


289 


Cairo  has 

tiona  by  a 

Qtinues  to 

by  trans- 


IttS,  which 
Michigan, 
Michigan, 
1,"   which 
reen  Bay, 
Mackinac 
ron.     East 
ne  time  to 
Here  the 
(lain  which 
icecap  and 
nda  on  the 
rer,  are  not 
winds  and 
along  the 
id  lagoons. 
t  Michigan 
Fooded, the 
B  northern 
ed.    Below 
nts  as  fupl 
imber,  but 


sture  from 
arly  called. 
>0  feet  high 
iction  from 
plains,  but 
3  surround- 
jectiou  hns 
lanks  to  itn 
B  and  other 

or  Copper 
nongst  the 
le  adjacent 

productive 

th  Canada. 


After  its  discovory  in  the  firnt  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  French 
traders  and  niiNHionurios,  it  w:i8  visited  by  the  (/anudiun  trnpporH  luid  huK-breids, 
who  here  founded  snvoral  settlements.  In  17(K)  it  paHsed  with  tliu  i  st  of  ('unada 
into  the  bunds  of  the  KngliHh,  who  even  after  tli  Wiir  of  Independence  stiil 
endeavoured  to  retain  Michigan  as  originally  funning  part  of  the  French  poHsessions, 
and  actually  continued  to  occupy  the  strategic  post  of  Detroit  down  to  the  year 
1796,  when  the  whole  region  was  evacuated.  During  the  subHcqucnt  war  of  1813- 
14  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  several  conflicts  took  place  round 
about  this  key  of  the  Great  Lukes,  and  the  Indian  allies  of  the  Friglish  afterwards 
paid  with  their  lives  or  exile  for  the  part  they  took  in  the  war.  At  present  none 
of  the  aborigines  survive  in  Michigan  except  the  few  confined  to  two  reserves,  one 
in  each  section  of  the  state.  In  1805  Michigan  Territory  was  formed  out  of  the 
old  North-west  Territory,  but  it  comprised  a  far  more  extensive  region  than  the 
present  state,  at  one  time  stretching  westwards  to  the  Missouri  River,  and  including 
the  whole  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota,  besides  part  of  Dakota.  In  18^)7 
the  territory  was  broken  up  and  Michigan  within  its  present  limits  detached  and 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent  state.  Since  then  it  has  progressed 
rapidly  in  wealth  and  population,  thanks  especially  to  the  development  of  the 
minin;::  and  industrial  interects. 

The  tide  of  European  immigration  began  to  set  in  the  direction  of  this  region 
towards  the  year  1840,  after  the  settlement  of  Ohio  and  Indiana.  At  present  there 
are  relatively  fewer  Anglo-American  colonists  than  in  Ohio  and  Indiana.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Franco-Canadian  element  is  very  largely  reprefreutod  in  Michigan, 
in  some  districts  having  even  the  numerical  superiority. 

Like  most  of  the  other  administrative  centres  of  the  Union,  Lansing  was  chosen  as 
the  capital  of  the  state  solely  on  account  of  its  central  position  in  the  valley  of  the 
Grand  River,  an  eastern  affluent  of  Lake  Michigan.  Although  it  has  remained  one 
of  the  humble  cities  of  the  West,  Lansing  occupies  a  vast  space,  and  might,  like 
Washington  till  recently,  lay  claim  to  the  title  of  the  •'  City  of  Magnificent  Distances." 
Founded  iu  1837,  it  succeeded  Detroit  three  years  later  as  sect  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture. But  the  former  capital  continues  to  be  by  far  the  largest  city  in  Michigan. 
Detroit  preserves  at  least  in  its  written  form,  if  noi;  in  pronunciation,  the  name  given 
by  the  Franco-Canadian  settlers  to  the  fortified  trading  station  founded  by  them 
in  1670.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centurj'  it  was  chosen  by  Lamothe- 
Cadillac  as  the  site  of  a  little  permanent  settlement.  But  its  admirable  position  on 
the  "  d^troit ''  (strait)  through  which  Lake  Huron  sends  its  overflow  to  Lake  Erie 
must  in  any  case  have  made  it  one  of  those  indispensable  marts  which  are  inde- 
pendent of  all  political  and  commercial  vicissitudes.  Laid  out  on  a  somewhat  less 
regular  plan  than  that  common  to  most  Western  cities,  Detroit  covers  a  space  of 
about  21  square  miles  disposed  chiefly  along  the  right  bank  of  the  emissary, 
which  at  this  point  is  over  half  a  mil.  wide.  Facing  it  on  the  opposite  side  is  the 
Canadian  town  of  Windsor,  which  is  in  reality  a  mere  suburb  of  the  Michigan 
city.  The  Detroit  River,  as  the  emissary  is  called,  has  a  normal  depth  of  from 
30  to  40  feet.  The  strong  current,  which  sweeps  by  the  city  at  a  velocity  of  2^  miles 
M 


mm 


m^ 


KB*'^-  !  t  1?^'\-LJ/i^i' 


P"|i 


*#¥ 


y. 


290 


THE  UNITET)  STATES. 


an  hour,  carries  down  tho  ico  from  Luke  Saint  Cluir,  and  tbun  koopn  npon  tha 
navigation  during  the  winter  months.  North-eust  of  Dotroit,  which  is  u  port  of 
entry  for  tho  Kedcrnl  Qovernmcnt,  a  cunal  Vi  feet  deep  skirts  the  delta  of  the  Suint 
Clttir  River  where  wind  the  shallow  waters  flowing  from  Lake  Huron.  Tho  whole 
of  tho  water-borne  traffic  of  the  three  upper  lakes,  Superior,  Michigan,  and 
Huron  necossorily  pusses  by  Detroit  to  reach  the  two  lower  lakes,  Erie  ond 
Ontario ;  nor  can  it  bo  deprived  of  this  communding  position,  at  least  until  tho 
projected  navigable  canal  or  ship-railway  between  Toronto  and  Georgian  Hay  has 
been  constructed,  thereby  diverting  the  traffic  towards  the  shorter  and  more  direct 
route  between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Huron.  Besides  its  vast  shipping  trade  Detroit 
also  enjoys  a  considerable  land  traffic,  thanks  to  the  numerous  railways  con* 
verging  at  this  point.      One  of  these  lines  penetrates  directly  into  the  Cunudiun 

Fig.  130.— Dktboit. 
Hoale  1  :  smonn 


8  3*  10* 


Wirt  oP  GraenW'ioh 


82*5  s' 


Uepthii. 


0to4 
F«tlion» 


4  Kuthnms 
and  upward!. 

I— i.—  e  UilM. 


province  of  Ontario,  through  a  tunnel  2,000  yards  long,  which  has  been  excavated 
under,  the  Saint  Clair  River  at  its  issue  from  Luke  Huron  between  the  two  cities  of 
Port  Huron  on  the  American  and  Sarnia  on  the  Canadian  side. 

Several  beautiful  little  towns  gravitate  round  Detroit,  amongst  others  Ann 
Arbor,  which  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Huron  River,  and  on  the  direct  railway 
to  Chicago,  about  40  miles  west  of  Detroit.  Here  is  tho  seat  of  the  Michigan 
University,  which  was  founded  in  1837,  and  is  liberally  endowed  by  the  state. 

In  the  region  washed  by  Saginaw  Bay,  an  inlet  of  Lake  Huron  which  pene- 
trates far  into  the  interior,  all  the  larger  centres  of  population  are  concentrated  in 
the  districts  lying  between  the  head  of  the  bay  and  the  state  capital,  and  espe- 
cially on  the  banks  of  the  Saginaw  River.  Here  is  Saginaw,  on  both  banks  of 
the  river,  constituting  one  of  the  chief  manufacturing  centres  in  Michigan,  and 


iiwti«pya|itiipiictiipinbir^ 


MIcmOAN. 


2U1 


I  opon  thti 
I  a  port  of 
f  the  Suint 
The  whole 
tiiguii,  and 
Eric  ond 
;  until  the 
in  Bay  has 
[noro  direct 
ado  Detroit 
Iwuya  con- 
e  Canadian 


jn  excavated 
two  cities  ol 

others  Ann 
irect  railway 
lie  Michigan 
lie  state, 
which  pene- 
icentrated  in 
il,  and  espe- 
)th  banks  of 
ichigan,  and 


deriving  an  imnienso  amoxmt  of  motive  power  from  tho  rapidn  of  the  watercourses 
which  hero  converge  in  a  siiiglo  channtl  1*8  miles  above  the  head  of  the  bay. 
Steamers  drawing  10  fi-ct  asccini  m  fur  as  Hugiuaw,  passing  on  their  way  the  busy 
port  of  Brti/  Citi/  Kvo  miles  from  the  lake. 

Mackinaw  City,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  over  against  Saint 
Tgniitius  Point  and  Muckinac  (Mackinaw)  Island,  in  the  "  Oibniltur  "  of  Michilli- 
mackinac  ("  IJig  Turtle  ")  Strait,  which  lows  between  the  two  Michigan  penin- 
sulas. The  poNHession  of  a  fortified  post  to  protect  the  peltry  trade  of  this  region 
was  hotly  contested  by  the  French  and  Knglish,  and  in  17ti3  the  place  was  seized 
by  the  Sack  and  Saulteux  Indianc,  though  at  that  time  held  by  u  Uritish  garrison. 
The  picturesque  Mackinac  iHluud  is  the  property  of  the  Federal  Government,  and 
has  been  transformed  to  a  National  Park  much  frequented  by  tourists  during  the 
Beas(m.  On  the  coast,  which  trends  round  first  to  the  sojth-west  and  then  to  the 
south,  there  follow  several  important  places,  such  as  Mi<Kke(/oH,  Grand  Ifaven, 
South  JLivcn  and  Saint  Joxeph.  Grand  Haven,  which  lies  ot  the  mouth  of  the  Grand 
River,  is  the  port  of  Orand  Rapids,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  centre  and  next  to 
Detr  it  the  largest  city  '.n  Michigan.  The  rapids,  from  which  it  takes  its  name, 
have  a  tocal  fall  of  Mver  16  feet  in  a  distance  of  about  a  mile,  and  yield  a 
considerable  quantity  of  motive  power  to  the  numerous  workshops  in  this  busy 
district.  Tl;e  sal  ue  springs  which  abound  both  in  this  valley  and  in  that  of  the 
Suginaw  have  ji.  /en  rise  a  higidy  lucrative  industry,  the  annual  yield  of  salt  in 
the  Suginaw  district  alo-  c  averaging  from  2,250,000  to  2,700,000  bushels.  Kaia- 
tnazoo,  on  the  river  of  iiko  name  towards  the  south-western  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula, is  anothe '  .i  Justrial  place  >. .;  jse  importance  is  rapidly  increasing  from  decade 
to  decade.  It ;  pop  lation  rose  from  about  9,000  in  1870  to  nearly  18,000  in  189<\ 
thus  doubling  itself  in  twenty  years. 

The  rugged  northern  peninsula,  with  its  rocky  soil  and  severe  climate,  presents 
no  sites  favourabiy  placed  to  become  centres  of  attraction  as  agricultural  or  inland 
towns.  But  '.te  exceedingly  rich  mineral  stores,  all  lying  in  close  proximity  to 
deep  and  commodious  havens,  have  developed  a  vast  amount  of  activity  amongst 
the  neighbouring  lacustrine  ports.  Marquett/f,  one  of  the  chief  places  in  the 
peninsula,  is  one  of  those  "  Liverpools "  which  have  sprung  up  on  the  southern 
shores  of  Lake  Superior'amid  the  solitudes  of  the  Far  West.  Millions  of  tons  of 
iron  ores  mined  in  the  district  are  here  shipped  for  every  port  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
./.'io  aven  forwarded  to  Pittsburg,  Johnstown,  and  the  cities  of  the  Atlantic  sea- 
boards. Great  quantities  of  the  ores  are  also  smelted  in  large  furnaces  on  the  spof. 
A  railway  crossing  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  connects  Marquette  with  the  port  ot 
Escanaba,  which  stands  on  the  north  coast  of  Lake  Michigan  near  the  entrance  t 
Green  Bay.  Other  lines  of  railway  run  west  towards  L'Anse  and  Ontonagon,  where 
much  copper  is  mined  and  shipped,  and  also  towards  the  workshops  of  Bessemer 
and  Ironwood  near  the  Wisconsin  frontier.  Uagk  Ricer  and  Copper  Harbour  on 
Keweenaw  Point,  which  projects  far  into  Lake  Superior,  export  the  copper  of 
Calumet  and  of  other  districts  where  the  metal  is  rained  in  the  native  state. 

The  trade  of  SuuH  Sainfe-Marie,  familiurly  called  Soo  by  the  inl     "ntan^"  of  the 


T  "r  'i,"'ft^^i5<tA4*'  -» :as^8®W8i®®a5S5tflss!psKwss»3i»«»ss^/;'«??is(K. 


"''iltilliHillii 


,--,,,^,;. 


292 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


district,  is  of  a  totally  different  character.  This  twin  city,  Canadian  on  th©  north, 
American  on  the  south  side  of  the  strait,  serves  as  the  forwarding  station  for  mer- 
chandise of  all  kinds  between  Lake  Superior  and  the  lower  lacustrine  basins. 
Hence  the  prodigious  development  of  its  transit  trade,  which  at  present  exceeds 
8,000,000  tons  a  year.  The  goods  are  forwarded  by  steamers  and  other  craft  through 
the  locked  canal,  by  which  the  sault  ("  rapids  ")  is  turned  on  the  Michigan  side. 

The  Saulteux  Indians,  a  branch  of  the  Chippeways,  have  long  disappeared  from 
the  district,  and  the  old  Franco- Canadian  fur-trading  station  of  Sault.  has  taken 
rank  amongst  the  industrial  cities  of  the  Union.  The  international  railway  bridge 
crossing  the  strait  (St.  Mary  River)  carries  two  of  the  trunk  lines  of  North  America, 
those  running  from  Montreal  to  Duluth  and  to  Minneapolis,  and  through  these 
two  places  to  the  cities  of  the  Pacific  seaboard.  The  whitefish  {Coregonus  albm) 
exported  from  Le  Sault,  and  regarded  by  epicures  as  without  a  rival,  has  recently 
been  introduced  into  the  other  Great  Lakes. 

Near  Grand  Island  between  Marquette  and  Le  Sault  stand  the  high  cliffs  called 
"  Portails  "  by  the  early  French  voyageurs,  and  "  Pictured  Rocks  "  by  the  Anglo- 
Americans.  These  cliffs  are  no  less  remarkable  for  their  strange  and  picturesque 
forms  than  for  the  great  diversity  of  their  colours.  The  sandstone,  limestone,  and 
quartz  rocks,  superimposed  to  an  average  height  of  300  feet,  present  the  aspect  of 
ramparts,  towers,  or  pinnacles,  or  else  project  in  overhanging  masses  pierced  by 
caves  and  arcades.  The  most  varied  tints,  pink,  blue,  green,  blending  with  grey 
or  brown  hues,  impart  to  these  astonishing  structures  a  fantastic  or  an  enchanting 
appearance,  according  to  the  shifting  play  of  light  and  shade. 


6. — "Wisconsin. 

The  State  of  Wisconsin,  so  named  from  the  copious  stream  which  the  French 
pioneers  called  Mesconsin,  and  which  joins  the  Mississippi  three  miles  below 
Prairie  du  Chien,  was  detached  like  Michigan  in  1836  from  the  vast  North- 
west Territory  ceded  by  Great  Britain  to  the  North  American  republic.  At  first 
it  included  the  present  states  of  Iowa  and  Minnesota  ;  but  the  whole  of  the  former 
and  most  of  the  latter  region  were  separated  from  it  in  1838,  and  ten  years  later 
Wisconsin,  as  at  present  constituted,  was  admitted  into  the  Union.  It  la  bounded 
westwards  by  th.  Mississippi  and  the  Saint  Croix  River,  which  separate  it  from 
Iowa  and  Minnesota  ;  southwards  by  a  conventional  line  coinciding  with  42°  30'  N. 
latitude,  v/hich  separates  it  from  Illinois  ;  on  the  north  the  limits  are  Lake 
Superior  and  the  peninsula  lying  between  that  lake  and  Green  Bay,  of  which  it 
has  been  deprived  to  the  advantage  of  Michigan.  The  Montreal  afBuent  of  Lake 
Superior,  the  Menomenee,  flowing  to  Green  Bay,  and  a  straight  line  connecting  both 
watercourses  form  the  boundary  in  this  direction.  The  Apostles  Archipelago  in  Lake 
Superior  also  belongs  to  Wisconsin,  while  the  larger  Isle  Royale  has  been  attri- 
buted to  Michigan.     Lastly  Lake  Michigan  forms  the  natural  frontier  on  the  east. 

About  two-thirds  of  "Wisconsin  are  comprised  in  the  Mississippi  catchment 
basin  :  the  part  of  its  territory  draining  to  Lake  Superior  is  very  narrow,  while 
the  section  inclining  towards  Lake  Michigan  is  much  broader,  thanks  to  the  basin 


,j„,,. 


\-  ry.- 


'f  »l|( 


tpfw*' 


»n  the  north, 
ion  for  mer- 
tl-ine  basins. 
)sent  exceeds 
raft  through 
ligan  side, 
ppeared  from 
It.  has  taken 
ilway  bridge 
rth  America, 
irough  these 
•egonua  albus) 
has  recently 

hcMs  called 
)r  the  Anglo- 
l  picturesque 
mestone,  and 
the  aspect  of 
>8  pierced  by 
ag  with  grey 
n  enchanting 


the  French 
miles  below 
vast  North - 
)lic.  At  first 
of  the  former 
en  years  later 
It  is  bounded 
larate  it  from 
ith  42°  30'  N. 
lits  are  Lake 
f,  of  which  it 
luent  of  Lake 
nnecting  both 
telago  in  Lake 
is  been  attri- 
3r  on  the  east. 
»pi  catchment 
narrow,  while 
A  to  the  basin 


WISCONSIN. 


298 


of  the  Fox  River,  which  was  formerly  an  inlet  of  that  inland  sea,  but  which  has 
been  more  than  half  dried  up,  Lake  Winnebago  being  the  only  flooded  depression 
of  any  size  still  remaining  from  the  lacustrine  epoch.  The  southern  regions  of 
the  state,  comprised  within  the  zone  of  prairies,  and  enjoying  a  relatively  mild 
climate,  are  by  far  the  most  densely  peopled.  Here  the  agricultural  settlers  find 
it  possible  to  bring  the  land  at  once  under  cultivation  without  much  preliminary 
labour  in  clearing  the  surface.  But  the  settlement  of  the  country  proceeds  at  a 
much  slower  rate  in  the  northern  districts,  which  are  more  rocky,  more  arid  and 
colder,  and  which  were  formerly  almost  entirely  covered  with  pine  forests. 

The  lead>mines  in  the  south-western  districts,  and  the  iron  ores  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Superior,  have  greatly  contributed  to  the  development  of  the  state,  while 
the  mineral  springs,  although  less  numerous  than  those  of  West  Virginia,  attract 
more  numerous  visitors.  Of  foreign  settlers  the  Germans  and  Scandinavians 
form  the  chief  rural  settlements,  so  much  so  that  in  certain  districts  English  is 
scarcely  current  except  in  the  towns.  A  numerous  element  are  also  the  Franco- 
Canadians,  descendants  of  those  daring  trappers  and  voyageurs  who  penetrated 
into  the  Far  West  so  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  who 
founded  settlements  at  La  Crosse,  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  and  elsewhere.  The 
popular  name  of  Wisconsin  is  the  "  Badger  State." 

Settlements  are  numerous,  especially  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  north 
of  Chicago.  Racine,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Root  River,  which  here  forms  a  good 
harbour  accessible  to  vessels  drawing  10  or  12  feet  of  water,  is  a  busy  commercial 
and  industrial  place,  doing  a  large  trade  in  lumber  and  possessing  extensive 
machinery,  locomotive  and  wagon  factories.  Lying  60  miles  north  of  Chicago 
and  25  miles  south  of  Milwaukee,  Racine  shares  in  the  prosperity  of  both  of  these 
great  industrial  centres.  Milwaukee,  an  Anglicised  form  of  a  Winnebago  term 
meaning  "  Fair  Land,"  is,  like  Racine,  of  Franco-Canadian  foundation.  The  first 
bartering  station  was  here  established  by  the  trader  Laframboise  in  the  year  1785, 
and  in  1818  an  agricultural  settlement  was  founded  by  Salomon  Juneau,  whose 
name  is  perpetuated  in  the  magnificent  park  skirting  the  shores  of  Lake 
Michigan.  Since  1840,  when  the  inhabitants  numbered  less  than  2,000,  Mil- 
waukee has  made  astonishing  progress,  its  population  advancing  from  20,000 
in  1850  and  71,000  i^  1870  to  240,000  in  1890.  Although  not  forming  the 
numerical  majority,  as  has  been  often  asserted,  the  Germans  are  proportionately 
more  numerous  than  in  any  other  city  of  the  North  American  Union.  Milwaukee 
is  by  far  the  largest  place  in  Wisconsin.  It  lies  90  miles  north  of  Chicago  on 
both  banks  of  the  Milwaukee  River,  which  has  a  south-easterly  course  of  nearly 
100  miles,  entering  Lake  Michigan  at  this  point.  Owing  to  the  delicate  creamy 
or  straw  colour  of  the  bricks  which  are  used  in  its  construction,  and  which  are 
manufactured  on  the  epot  and  largely  exported,  the  city  presents  a  peculiarly 
striking  appearance,  with  a  frontage  of  about  6  miles  along  the  cliffs  skirting  the 
lake.  This  privileged  city  is  absolutely  free  from  slums,  which  are  so  seldom 
absent  from  American  towns.  The  whole  of  the  sewage  is  heated  in  vast  furnaces, 
where  it  is  calcined,  and  the  fertilising  residuum  distributed  over  the  surround- 


^-;3|* 


m'  <    ii 


Jl 


294 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ing  plains.  The  level  of  the  river  has  also  been  raised  by  a  system  of  looks, 
by  means  of  which  considerable  driving  power  is  supplied  to  the  local  workshops. 

Since  the  completion  of  the  recent  harbour-works  carried  out  at  a  great 
expenditure,  this  port  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  the  heaviest  diaught,  and  has 
developed  a  trade  larger  than  that  of  Havre.  The  collective  annual  burden  of 
ships  entered  and  cleared  approaches  6,000,000  tons,  while  the  mercantile  navy 
owned  by  Milwaukee  shippers  numbered  371  vessels  in  1890,  with  a  total  tonnage 
of  over  90,000.     The  staples  of  the  export  trade  are  cereals  andTlour. 

Madison,  capital  of  the  state,  has  not  the  advantage  enjoyed  by  Milwaukee  of 
being  situated  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan ;  it  was  chosen  rather  for  the 

Fig.  131. — Madison. 
Beile  1  :  200,000. 


eg-BO' 


West  or  Greenwich 


89°i5- 


,  SMOm. 


natural  be:  ty  of  the  environs  than  for  any  special  commercial  considerations. 
Here  Lake  Mendota,  a  lovely  sheet  of  water  fed  by  springs,  partly  fills  a 
depression  about  30  square  miles  in  extent  and  varying  in  depth  from  50  to  65 
feet.  The  limpid  waters  of  this  depression,  everywhere  bordered  with  a  margin 
of  white  sand,  descend  from  step  to  step  of  three  terraced  lakelets,  forming  the 
upper  basin  of  a  torrent  which  descends  to  the  Kock  River  affluent  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. On  the  isthmus  separating  Mendota  from  Monona,  the  second  basin,  stands 
the  city  of  Madison,  encircled  by  a  charming  natural  park,  adorned  with  nume- 
rous gardens,  and  watered  by  sparkling  rivulets.  The  magnificent  capitol,  erected 
at  a  cost  of  ^500,000,  occupies  a  commanding  position  in  the  centre  of  a  public 


\ 


WISCONSIN. 


S9S 


n  of  looks, 
rorkshops. 
at  a  great 
t,  and  has 
burden  of 
intile  navy 
a1  tonnage 

ilwaukee  of 
ler  for  the 


•S 


43' 


S^is- 


nsiderations.         ^ 

)8rtly  fills  a 

Dm  60  to  66 

th  a  margin        j:>:. 

forming  the        C* 

f  the  Missis-         .^ 

basin,  stands        ' 

withi  nume- 

litol,  erected 

of  a  public 

Fig.  132. — Fond  du  Lao  and  Gbeen  Bay. 

Scale  1  :  8,220,000. 


park  70  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lakes.  From  this  point  all  the  streets  run  at 
right  angles  down  to  the  surrounding  waters,  or  lead  to  the  neighbouring  College 
Hill,  which  is  crowned  by  the  buildings  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  This 
picturesque  city  entered  on  a  period  of  general  prosperity  after  toe  completion  of 
the  various  railways  connecting  it  with  the  towns  bordering  on  the  Mississippi 
and  Lake  Michigan.  Its 
position  in  the  very  heart 
of  the  region  of  Indian 
mounds  and  fortifications 
attracts  archaeologists  from 
all  parts;  more  copper 
vessels,  fragments  of  tex- 
tiles, and  other  remains  of 
native  culture  have  been 
brought  to  light  in  this  dis- 
trict than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  United  States. 

Fond  du  Lac  ("  Lake 
Head "),  which  stands  at 
the  southern  extremity  of 
liake  Winnebago,  has  pre- 
served its  Franco-Canadian 
name,  although  the  most 
numerous  section  of  the 
population  next  to  the 
Anglo  -  American  are  no 
longer  French,  but  Ger- 
mans. The  district  was 
formerly  inhabited  by  the 
Winnebagos,  the  Puants 
("Stinkards")  of  the 
Canadians,  a  branch  of  the 
Dakota  people,  who  are  ht  re 
separated  by  intervening 
Algonquian  tribes  from  the 
bulk  of  the  nation.  For- 
merly, Fond  du  Lac,  like  s 
the  neighbouring  Onhkosh, 
which  lies  on  both  banks  of  the  Fox  River  a  few  miles  above  its  mouth  in  Lake 
Winnebago,  was  exclusively  engaged  in  the  lumber  business,  exporting  white  pine 
planks,  shingles,  beams,  flat-bottomed  boats  and  wooden  houses  in  sections,  to  be  put 
together  in  the  regions  of  the  Lukes  and  Mississippi.  But  the  gradual  destruction 
of  the  surrounding  forests,  combined  with  the  increasing  facilities  of  communi- 
cation, has  had  the  effect  of  transforming  the  local  industries  and  giving  them 


88'30' 


West  or  Greenwich 


utolO 
Fatboina. 


Depths. 


10  to  60 
FhUioiiu. 


60  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


.  30  Miles. 


iw 


mdmim 


296 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


greater  variety.  Steamers  ascend  from  Green  Bay  by  the  Fox  River  to  Lake 
Winnebago  and  to  Fond  du  Lac,  which  is  supplied  with  excellent  water  by  hun- 
dreds of  artesian  wells,  tapping  a  perennial  underground  reservoir  below  the 
city.  Farther  down  the  whole  valley  of  the  Fox  River  as  far  as  its  mouth  in 
the  Bale  des  Fuants,  as  Green  Bay  was  formerly  called,  is  lined  with  factories 
and  especially  paper-mills ;  this  district  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  the 
paper-manufacturing  business  in  the  United  States.  Fond  du  Lac  forwards  a 
portion  of  its  products  directly  east  through  the  port  of  Sheboygan,  which  lies  ut 
the  mouth  of  the  little  Sheboygan  River  on  Lake  Michigan. 

Ashland,  at  present  the  busiest  port  of  Wisconsin  on  Lake  Superior,  was  so 
recently  as  1880  still  an  obscure  humlet  consisting  of  a  few  scattered  log-huts 
almost  abandoned  amid  the  surrounding  wilderness.  Lying  at  the  extremity  of 
a  deep  inlet  in  one  of  the  neighbouring  forest  clearings,  far  from  all  trade  routes 
and  lines  of  navigation,  it  seemed  forgotten  by  the  outer  world  till  the  attentiuu 
of  speculators  was  attracted  to  the  spot  by  the  excellence  of  its  iron  ores.  Thanks 
to  these  treasures  Ashland  became  in  less  than  a  decade  one  of  the  important 
cities  of  the  north-west,  with  an  extensive  network  of  railway  factories,  workshops, 
blast  furnaces,  depots  and  jetties.  In  1890  the  ores  exported  from  this  place 
exceeded  2,000,000  tons.  The  anchorage  of  the  "Twelve  Apostles"  {Ap>at/e 
Islands),  which  lie  at  the  entrance  of  Ashland  Bay,  is  the  safest  in  these  waters. 
The  little  archipelago  forms  a  cluster  of  twenty-seven  islets,  with  a  collective 
area  of  about  200  square  miles.  The  port  of  Superior  City,  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  lake  from  which  it  is  named,  does  a  brisk  export  trade,  especially 
in  flour,  cereals  and  lumber.  This  place,  which  was  founded  by  some  Southern 
speculators  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nemadji  River,  lies  at  the  extreme  angle  of 
Wisconsin,  over  against  Duluth,  the  most  important  lake  port  in  Minnesota,  from 
which  it  is  distant  7  miles.  Eau  Claire  ("  Clear  Water  "),  a  busy  industrial  centre 
in  the  interior  of  Wisconsin,  is  so  named  from  the  limpid  Eau  Claire  River  which 
here  joins  the  Chippewa  at  the  head  of  the  navigation.  Eau  Claire,  which  owes 
its  prosperity  to  the  motive  power  derived  from  the  fluvial  rapids,  forwards  the 
products  of  its  saw-mills  and  workshops  to  the  Mississippi  through  the  lower 
Chippewa  and  Lake  Pepin.  This  basin,  about  2S  miles  long  with  an  extreme 
breadth  of  3  miles,  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  sheets  of  water  in  the  Missis- 
sippi region.  Its  shores  are  skirted  by  precipitous  limestone  cliffs,  rising  to  a 
height  of  400  feet  above  the  lake,  and  weathered  into  the  varied  outlines  of  turrets, 
castles  and  other  fantastic  forms. 

Below  Eau  Claire,  the  largest  place  in  Wisconsin,  tn  the  banks  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, is  X»  Crossr  an  old  Canadian  foundation  n'ar  the  confluence  of  the  La 
Crosse  River.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  well-known  national  game,  for  the 
championship  of  whi(  h  the  local  Indian  tribes  formerly  competed  in  the  neigh- 
bouring prairie.  The  original  trading-station  has  now  developed  into  a  busy 
industrial  centre,  which  communicates  with  the  trans-Mississippi  states  by  a 
railway  viadnct  here  spanning  the  main  stream. 

Prairie  du  Chien,  also  a  Franoo-Canadian  settlement,  lies  lower  down  on  the 


n'V  Mr* 


\i^iiir-riiHti 


-««- 


WISCONSIN. 


207 


r  to  Lake 

ir  by  hun- 
below  the 
)  mouth  in 
;h  fuctoriea 
tree  of  the 
forwards  a 
Eiioh  lies  at 

ior,  was  so 
d  log-huts 
itremity  of 
r&do  routes 
ke  attentiuu 
Thanks 
I  important 
workshops, 
this  place 
"  {Apostle 
lese  waters. 
a  collective 
he  western 
9,  especially 
ae  Southern 
ae  angle  of 
lesota,  from 
jtrial  centre 
3liver  which 
which  owes 
arwards  the 
I  the  lower 
an  extreme 
the  Missis- 
rising  to  a 
!S  of  turrets, 

the  Missis- 
)  of  the  La 
,me,  for  the 
1  the  neigh- 
into  a  busy 
states  by  a 

iowu  on  the 


left  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  a  short  distance  above  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin. 
This  place,  which  has  never  prospered,  stands  at  the  lowest  level  of  a  low-lying 
plain,  which  is  encircled  by  cliffs  and  which  was  formerly  the  bed  of  a  lacustrine 
basin  or  expansion  of  the  Mississippi.  Here  the  two  branches  of  the  river  are 
crossed  by  a  bridge  formed  by  two  movable  pontoons,  with  a  total  length  of  about 
a  mile  and  a  half,  including  the  intermediate  island.     The  Wisconsin,  which  joins 

Fig.  133— Thr  Devil's  Takb,  Wisconsin. 


"  'vs5s;' 


the  Mississippi  three  miles  below  Prairie  du  Chien,  has  already  completed  two- 
thirds  of  its  course,  flowing  south  and  south-east,  when  it  reaches  Portage  City  at 
a  point  scarce  half  a  mile  distant  from  Fox  Kiver,  flowing  north-east  to  Green 
Bay.  Here  the  river,  flowing  at  the  bottom  of  deep  gorges,  bends  abruptly  round 
from  south  to  west,  and  thus  eventually  falls  into  the  Mississippi.  Nevertheless 
it  is  connected  for  navigation  purposes  with  Lake  Michigan  by  a  ship  canal  con- 
structed across  the  narrow  neck  which  separates  it  at  Portage  City  from  Fox 
Biiver.     Portage  City,  which  was  formerly  called  Winnebago  Portage,  thus  occupies 


'^ 


'"''^fm 


mt»a 


■SHNiM 


HMM 


-^f^^m^^^r^::^^^:!frM!^ 


'■«>'W'^,^P><'.  1  _^    H*yii|.i]^W^i 


see 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


tho  unique  position  of  standing  at  the  head  of  the  navigation  both  of  the  Mississippi 
uud  Liiurentian  basins  at  this  point.  It  is  reached  by  steamers  from  Luke 
Michigan  (Green  Bay)  through  the  Fox  River  and  canal,  and  from  the  Mississippi 
through  the  lower  reaches  of  tlie  Wisconsin.  In  this  western  section  of  its  course 
the  Wisconsin  encloses  in  a  hilly  peninsula  the  Devil's  Lake,  an  extremely 
picturesque  sheet  of  water,  which  like  those  of  the  Fox  River  basin,  is  dammed 
up  by  a  rampart  of  moraines  deposited  by  the  ancient  glaciers.  The  lake,  which 
floods  a  deep  rocky  chusm  one  and  a  half  mile  long  and  half  a  mile  wide,  is  com- 
pletely isolated  without  any  visible  affluent  or  effluent. 


7. — Kentuckt. 

Few  of  the  Federal  States  are  better  defined  by  their  geographical  position 
than  Kentucky,  which  has  for  its  northern  frontier  the  north  bank  of  the  Obio, 
separating  it  from  the  three  states  of  the  Great  Lakes  region,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
and  Illinois.  Westwards  it  is  bounded  by  the  Mississippi,  separating  it  from 
Missouri,  while  on  the  east  it  is  skirted  by  a  ridge  of  the  Alleghanies  from  the 
course  of  the  Big  Sandy  River  as  far  as  the  pass  known  as  Cumberland  Gap 
(1,660  feet).  Owing  to  its  great  strategic  and  commercial  importance  this  pass 
may  be  regarded  as  the  true  centre  of  the  whole  of  the  cis- Mississippi  region 
south  of  the  Ohio.  The  southern  frontier  of  Kentucky  is  alone  formed  by  geome- 
trical lines,  which  east  of  the  Tennessee  River  coincide  nearly  with  the  parallel  of 
36"  38'  north,  and  then  westwards  with  that  of  36°  30',  both  separating  it  from 
the  state  of  Tennessee.  Kentucky  is  a  region  of  transition  between  the  Northern  and 
Southern  States.  Although  comprised  within  the  former  slave-holding  provinces, 
the  great  majority  of  its  white  inhabitants  originally  came  from  the  north,  and 
during  the  Civil  War  this  state  supplied  to  the  Federal  armies  twice  as  many  volun- 
teers as  it  did  to  the  Confederates.  The  state  is  almost  entirely  comprised  within 
the  basin  of  the  Ohio,  and  in  fact  owes  its  name  to  an  affluent  of  that  river.  Its 
generally  fertile  soil,  except  in  a  few  places  where  the  porous  and  cavernous  lime- 
stone rock  is  unable  to  retain  the  rainwaters,  makes  it  essentially  an  agricultural 
region.  It  produces  about  a  third  of  all  the  tobacco  grown  in  the  United  States, 
and  in  the  so-'^illed  "  blue-grass  "  country  {Poa  compresm)  is  reared  a  splendid 
breed  of  horses,  the  finest  in  America  for  size,  strength,  speed,  and  staying  power. 
Originally  a  common  hunting  and  battle  ground  for  the  northern,  and  southern 
Indian  tribes,  Kentucky  remained  unoccupied  by  any  white  people  till  the  year 
1774,  when  the  first  settlers  arrived  under  Daniel  Boone.  These  were  followed  by 
many  daring  and  enterprising  immigrants  from  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
vt'ho  organised  a  local  government  in  1775,  giving  their  new  home  the  name  of 
Transylvania.  But  next  year  Virginia  proclaimed  the  whole  region  first  a  county, 
and  then  a  district  of  the  "  Old  Dominion."  But  the  rising  colony  energetically 
resisted  this  action,  and,  after  much  agitation,  Kentucky  became  in  1790  a  portion 
of  the  new  "  United  States  Territory  south  of  the  Ohio,"  being  admitted  two 
years  later  into  the  Union  as  at  present  delimited. 

Covington  and  Newport,  both  facing  Cincinnati  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 


■ .  ^■■. 


KENTUCKY. 


299 


^limissippi 
roin  Lake 
Mississippi 
'  its  course 
extremely 
is  dammed 
,ko,  which 
ie,  is  oom- 


al  position 
the  Ohio, 
Indiuuu, 
g  it  from 
;  from  the 
rland  Gap 
this  pass 
ippi  region 
by  geome- 
parallel  of 
ag  it  from 
rthern  and 
provinces, 
north,  and 
any  volun- 
sed  within 
river.  Its 
•nous  lime- 
gricultural 
ited  States, 
a  splendid 
ing  power. 
d  southern 
I  the  year 
bllowed  by 
I  Carolina, 
le  name  of 
t  a  county, 
ergetically 
[)  a  portion 
nitted  two 

ink  of  the 


Ohio,  rank  amongst  the  chief  cities  of  Kentucky  ;  yet  their  only  importance  is 
derived  from  the  share  they  take  in  the  industrial  and  commercial  movement  o£ 
their  great  neighbour.  Covington  is  connected  with  Newport  by  a  bridge  crossing 
the  mouth  of  the  Licking  River,  and  with  Cincinnati  by  several  bridges,  including 
a  magnificent  suspension  bridge  thrown  over  the  Ohio  at  an  expenditure  of 
^2,000,000.  Lexington,  the  chief  place  in  the  interior,  enjoyed  the  rank  of  capital 
till  after  the  War  of  Independence,  and  even  still  preserves  a  certain  metropolitan 
aspect  in  the  splendour  of  its  shady  avenues  und  the  stately  appearance  of  its 
public  buildings.  Here  is  the  seat  of  the  Kentucky  University,  which  was 
founded  in  1868,  and  which  is  at  present  one  of  the  most  eflBcient  educational 
establishments  in  the  South.     The  famous  racecourse,  where  the  fine  breed  of 

Fig.  134.— LouisncxB. 

Sonle  1  :  125,000 


•I  UUeB. 


horses  reared  on  the. surrounding  farmsteads  display  their  qualities,  is  visited  by 
connoisseurs  from  every  part  of  the  United  States.  Lexington  lies  on  the  Elkhorn, 
a  small  affluent  of  the  Kentucky  River,  about  30  miles  south-east  of  Frankfort,  the 
present  capital.  This  place  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kentucky,  which 
here  flows  in  a  deep  gorge  between  steep  limestone  walls,  but  which  is  navigable 
by  steamers  both  below  and  above  the  city. 

Frankfort  lies  66  miles  east  of  the  great  city  of  Loimville,  which  is  by  far  the 
largest  place  in  Kentucky.  It  occupies  a  picturesque  position  at  the  falls  of  the 
Ohio  River,  on  its  left  bank,  400  miles  above  its  mouth  and  160  miles  below  Cin- 
cinnati. Including  its  dependencies  of  Neto  Albany  and  Jefersonville,  which  have 
sprung  up  on  the  opposite  or  Indiana  side  of  the  river,  it  had  a  total  population  of 
nearly  2U0,000  in  ISUO.     Yet  this  great  commercial  mart  has  scarcely  a  century 


■^i 


Sn^BbihMtfSffwwwrrtf-aaaMig:;, 


V  V 


iiiwiii,m  i>p  ii'fimii  •  "i 


800 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


of  existence.  A  few  pioneers  had  here  entrenched  themselves  in  1775  and  the 
first  log-hut  was  erected  in  1778.  The  rising  village  received  the  name  of  Fulls 
City,  which  was  soon  changed  to  Louisville  in  honour  of  Louis  XVI.,  the  ally  of 
the  North  American  repuhlic.  The  navigable  ounul,  which  has  had  such  a  large 
share  in  its  prosperity,  dates  from  the  year  1833,  and  since  that  time  Louisville  has 
doubled  its  population  about  every  fifteen  years.  It  stands  on  a  plateau  70  feet 
above  the  normal  water  level,  with  over  eight  miles  of  frontage  towards  the  riveri 
which  is  here  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge  nearly  a  mile  long  connecting  it  with  its 
Indiana  suburbs.  Below  Louisville  Paducah  occupies  a  favourable  geographical 
position  on  the  Ohio,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tennessee. 

The  south-eastern  section  of  Kentucky,  till  recently  little  better  than  a  wilder- 
ness covered  with  almost  impenetrable  woodlands,  bus  somewhat  suddenly  become 
the  scene  of  much  life  and  activity,  thanks  mainly  to  the  construction  of  highways 
opening  up  the  coal  and  iron  districts.  Some  English  speculators,  without  waiting 
for  the  spontaneous  growth  of  settlements,  have  purchased  in  this  region  a  tract 
of  about  150,000  acres,  where  they  have  begun  to  open  mines,  build  depots  and 
found  towns  and  villages.  Middlenborough,  the  industrial  capital  of  the  mining 
country,  has  been  laid  out  at  the  very  entrance  of  Cumberland  Gap  on  a  plan  large 
enough  for  a  population  of  200,000  inhabitants.  Factories,  hotels,  libraries, 
schools,  private  residences,  a  complete  municipal  organisation,  have  all  been  pro- 
vided in  anticipation  of  its  future  requirements.  Meantime  its  citizens,  numbering 
little  over  1,200,  consist  mainly  of  its  builders,  and  the  very  name  of  this  place  is 
not  yet  recorded  by  the  latest  maps  and  gazetteers. 


i<i 


..'»i»|       Sill 


8. — Tennessee. 
The  state  of  Tennessee  forms  a  long  parallelogram  disposed  in  the  direction 
from  east  to  west,  and  conterminous  with  Kentucky  and  Virginia  on  the  north, 
with  North  Carolina  on  the  east,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi  on  the  south, 
Arkansas  and  Missouri  on  the  west.  Eastwards  it  is  bounded  by  the  Grea  Smoky 
ridge  of  the  Appalachians,  westwards  by  the  course  of  the  Mississippi,  and  is 
naturally  divided  into  three  perfectly  distinct  physical  regions.  In  the  east  are 
the  mountains  and  plateaux  of  the  AUeghanies,  which  enclose  the  broad  valley  of 
east  Tennessee,  with  its  many  low  parallel  ridges  trending  south-west.  Here  the 
head- waters  of  Tennessee  River  merge  in  a  single  fluvial  channel,  which,  near  the 
southern  frontier  of  the  state,  begins  a  vast  bend  to  westward,  cutting  through 
the  Cumberland  plateau  in  a  series  of  deep  gorges,  and  traversing  northern 
Alabama.  At  the  Mississippi  frontier  it  re-enters  Tennessee,  and  flows  northward 
in  a  second  passage  across  the  state  to  the  Ohio,  about  50  miles  above  its  confluence 
with  the  Mississippi.  The  "  Big  Bend  State,"  as  Tennessee  is  popularly  called,  is 
so  named  from  this  great  curve  of  its  chief  river  valley.  The  region  comprised 
within  the  bend  west  of  Cumberland  plateau  constitutes  middle  Tennessee,  covered 
largely  by  the  fertile  limp'itone  region  of  the  "  Great  Basin."  West  Tennessee 
borders  the  Mississippi  River,  is  low  and  level,  and  partakes  of  the  character  of  the 
Gulf  States.     A  sharp  contrast  is  presented  by  the  highlands  and  plains,  not 


«  i>  ItifiW 


TENNESSEE. 


801 


5  and  the 
e  of  Fulls 
the  ally  of 
ch  a  large 
iavillo  has 
au  70  feet 
the  rivefi 
it  with  its 
ogruphicul 

a  wilder- 
ly  become 

highways 
ut  waiting 
on  a  tract 
epots  and 
he  mining 
plan  large 
,  libraries, 
been  pro- 
lumbering 
lis  place  is 


I  direction 
the  north, 
the  south, 
ea  Smoky 
>pi,  and  is 
le  east  are 
I  valley  of 

Here  the 
1,  near  the 
;  through 

northern 
aorthward 
confluence 
Y  called,  is 
comprised 
e,  covered 
Tennessee 
iter  of  the 
tains,  not 


only  in  the  general  relief  of  the  land,  but  also  in  its  climate,  products,  and  the 
character  of  its  inhabitants.  In  the  mountainous  districts  the  people,  almost 
exclusively  of  white  stock,  themselves  cultivate  thoir  lands  hold  in  free  tenure. 
In  the  less  elevated  western  districts,  which  were  formerly  cultivated  by  slave 
labour,  the  blacks  are  numerous  and  chiefly  occupy  the  position  of  labourers  on 
large  landed  estates.  These  differences  between  the  eastern  and  western  sections 
of  the  state  had  decisive  consequences  during  the  Civil  War,  when  the  sturdy 
republican  populations  of  the  uplands  sympathised  with  the  North  and  opened  to 
the  Federal  forces  the  roads  to  the  South. 

Tennessee  was  long  and  is  still  mainly  a  purely  agricultural  region  ;  but  its  vast 
stores  of  iron,  coal,  zinc,  copper,  and  other  metals  promise  as  they  become  more  and 
more  developed  to  transform  this  state  to  a  second  Pennsylvania.  Originally  a 
province  of  North  Carolina,  it  received  its  first  permanent  settlers  from  that  colony 
in  the  year  1769.  These  were  soon  joined  by  others  from  Virginia,  and  the  whole 
region  was  thus  gradually  settled  almost  exclusively  by  immigrants  of  Anglo- 
American  descent ;  hence  the  foreign  element  still  represents  but  a  mere  fraction 
of  the  white  population.  In  1776  Tennessee  was  officially  named  the  District  of 
Washington,  but  some  ten  yeais  later  the  inhabitants  organised  a  separate 
administrative  state,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  "  Franklin."  This  state,  how- 
ever, was  but  short-lived,  and  in  1789  was  comprised  in  the  "  United  States  Terri- 
tory south  of  the  Ohio."  Fifteen  years  later  Tennessee  was  detached  as  a  separate 
territory  from  this  division,  and  finally  in  1796  admitted  as  a  state  to  the  Union 
with  its  present  limits. 

Nashville,  the  present  capital,  occupies  a  central  position  on  the  Cumberland 
River,  which  is  navigable  to  this  point,  nearly  200  miles  above  its  confluence  with 
the  Ohio.  Since  the  Civil  War  numerous  settlers  have  been  attracted  to  the 
district,  and  Nashville  is  now  the  first  city  in  the  state  for  population,  trade, 
industry  and  educational  advantages.  A  limestone  of  excellent  quality,  resembling 
marble  in  appearance  and  mined  in  the  district,  has  supplied  the  material  for  the 
capitol,  a  stately  edifice  crowning  an  eminence  nearly  200  feet  high,  and  erected 
at  a  cost  of  ^1,500,000.  Many  of  the  other  public  buildings,  and  even  private 
residences,  are  built  on  a  corresponding  scale  of  splendour  and  magnitude.  Here 
is  the  seat  of  the  Nashville  University,  dating  from  1806,  of  the  Vanderbilt  Uni- 
versity (Methodist  Episcopal),  and  of  the  Fisk  University,  founded  in  1867  as  a 
training  school  for  coloured  teachers.  Nashville  is  connected  with  Edgefield  on 
the  opposite  bank  by  a  suspeueion  bridge  and  a  railway  drawbridge.  Knoxville, 
the  former  capital,  and  still  the  metropolis  of  East  Tennessee,  is  finely  situated 
on  an  elevated  terrace  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Holston  River,  180  miles  east  of 
Nashville.  The  Holston,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Tennessee,  is  joined  by 
the  French  Broad  three  miles  below  the  city,  and  is  navigable  by  steamers  to  this 
point.  Knoxville  has  some  glass-works  and  other  industries  connected  with  the 
neighbouring  mines.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  East  Tennessee  University,  associated 
with  which  is  the  Tennessee  Agricultural  College. 

ChcUlanooga,  in  Cherokee  the  "  Raven's  Nest,"  occupies  a  secluded  spot  encircled 


4 


■:mf^ 


s 


802 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


by  hills,  on  the  left  bank  of  tho  Tenncssco  l/iO miles  south-east  of  Nushvillo.  Tho 
limestone  rocks,  whoso  vertical  walls  and  wooded  slopes  seem  at  first  sight  to  encloHo 
the  city  on  uU  sides,  are  ncvcrtht^lcss  here  and  there  pierced  by  broad  gaps,  whiio 
tho  Tennessee,  which  passes  to  tho  west  and  develops  the  groat  "  Mocassin  bond," 
Hiids  an  issue  through  the  hills  south-westwards  to  the  state  of  Alabama. 

The  rising  town,  which  stands  at  tho  northern  base  of  Lookout  Mountain, 
suddenly  became  famous  in  tho  year  1863.  The  "Gate  of  the  South,"  as  it  has 
been  called,  occupies  a  strategic  position  of  vital  importance  at  tho  issue  of  the 
upper  Tennessee  valley,  and  at  the  head  of  the  easy  passes  giving  access  to 
Georgia  by  turning  the  extreme  escarpments  of  the  Appalachians.  Hence  the 
Confederates  had  occupied  all  tho  approaches,  crowning  the  surrounding  heights 

Fig.  135.— Chattaitoooa. 

SoAle  1  1  3*28,000. 


85*S9 


-^e»t   op    Greenwich 65'i5' 


.  SUUCL 


with  their  fortified  lines.  But  after  a  series  of  sanguinary  conflicts  in  the  valley 
of  the  Chickamauga,  a  little  affluent  of  the  Tennessee,  and  right  up  to  the  sumniit 
of  Missionary  Ridge,  to  the  east  of  the  city,  General  Sherman  succeeded  in  forcing 
the  "  Gate."  Struck  by  the  beauty  of  the  country  and  its  rich  stores  of  coal  and 
iron,  many  of  the  Northern  troops  who  had  fought  at  Chattanooga  afterwards 
settled  in  the  district,  and  were  soon  followed  by  thousands  of  their  fellow- 
countrymen.  Thus  it  happened  that  the  little  rural  borough  was  transformed 
to  a  busy  industrial  and  commercial  centre.  Chattanooga  is  now  connected  with 
Saint  Louis  by  a  regular  service  of  steamers  plying  on  the  Tennessee,  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi.  Formerly  the  navigation  at  the  emergence  of  the  stream  from 
the  Cumberland  plateau  in  the  northern  part  of  Alabama  was  interrupted  by  the 
so-called  Muscle  Shoals.     These  reefs  obstructed  the  current  for  a  distance  of 


'.-d',. 


ALABAMA. 


•08 


'iUo.  The 
t  to  encloHo 
i;ap8,  whiio 
iHin  boud," 

lU. 

Mountain, 
"  as  it  has 
isue  of  the 
access  to 
ilonce  the 
ig  heights 


i 


the  valley 
the  summit 
[  in  forcing 
of  coal  and 

afterwards 
eir  fellow- 
ransformed 
lected.  with 
e,  the  Ohio 
tream  from 
)ted  by  the 
distance  of 


about  H  miles,  dividing  it  into  numorous  narrow  and  nhullow  channels  which  a 
child  might  easily  wade  across.  The  construction  of  a  canal  in  this  broud  rocky  bod 
would  have  been  both  difficult  and  costly.  Hence  this  work  was  executed  on 
the  bunk  of  the  Tennessee  and  completed  by  a  railway  on  which  the  locomotive  acts 
as  a  tug,  taking  in  tow  long  convoys  of  barges. 

Along  the  Mississippi  River  the  only  large  city  in  the  state  is  Mentphia,  which 
is  admirably  situated  just  below  the  "Wolf  River  confluence  on  the  fourth  Chicka- 
saw bluff  420  miles  below  Suint  Louis.  This  great  port  of  entry,  which  pre- 
sents an  imposing  aspect  seen  from  the  river,  and  which  was  till  recently  the  most 

Fig.  136. — MEMPiiifl. 
P(nle  1  :  76,000 


S,200  Tarda. 


important  city  in  the  sta  j,  is  still  a  prosperous  and  growing  commercial  city. 
The  great  river  is  spanned  here,  for  the  last  time  before  it  reaches  the  sea,  by  a 
colossal  iron  railroad  bridge.  '         ' 

9. — Alabama. 
The  state  of  Alabama,  which  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  basin  of  the 
river  whence  it  takes  its  name,  has  been  strangely  delimited.  In  the  north  its 
boundary  was  made  to  coincide  with  the  35°  of  latitude,  so  that  the  middle  course 
of  the  Tennessee  River  was  cut  off  from  the  state  bearing  its  name.  Westwards 
the  frontier  towards  Mississippi  is  formed  by  two  straight  lines,  neither  of  which 
coincides  with  the  meridian.  On  the  east  side  also  an  oblique  line  runs  between 
Alabama  and  Qeorgia  as  far  as  the  Chattdhoochee  River.  Lastly,  towards  the  south 


:i 


m 


MNMIMIilMfiii 


f   lOi  iiw-i  I  ... 


804 


TUB  UNIThD  STATES. 


i 


^ 


u  ix)rtiou  uf  ihu  umhoanl  was  unnignod  to  Florida,  so  thut  tho  Mm  front  of  Alubnma 
iH  confined  to  tho  diatriut  about  Mobile  Ituy.  Tho  Htato  is  divided  into  two  dintinctt 
physical  m  otionn — tho  region  of  tho  Appuluchiim  foothills,  which  full  from  terrauu 
to  torraco  towardi  tho  south-wca^  acroAS  tuo  iiitorvuuing  parallel  valluys  of  the 
Alabama  ailliieiitH,  and  the  i  ^yr  •■■■  o'l  ^ow  lying  plains,  which  towards  the  south  fur 
the  moNt  partaHHumo  u  swann  ..,e>tf''8r.  Under  tho  slave  system  tho  state  was 
almost  exclusively  occupied  win  iigriculturo,  und  especially  with  cotton-growing, 
curried  to  buch  an  extent  thut  the  exhaust  I  >n  of  the  soil  compelled  tho  planters  to 
allow  vast  tracts  to  lie  fallow.  The  extensive  coal  and  iron  deposits,  which  are 
widely  distributed   throughout  the  north-euHtern   and  central  districts,   although 

Fig.  137.— BiBmNuiiAM  akp  its  Minkbai.  Rkoiok. 
Soil*  1 ;  40u,ooo. 


6  Hilar 


their  existence  was  well  known,  were  very  little  worked.  It  was  not  till  recent 
times  that  by  the  development  of  the  mining  industries  these  regions  became 
connected  with  the  manufacturing  districts  of  the  Alleghany  states.  The  popu- 
lation, of  which  nearly  one-half  is  coloured,  increases  at  a  lower  rate  than  the 
normal  growth  of  the  whole  Union.  In  this  region  the  first  settlers  were  the 
French,  who  occupied  the  Mobile  Bay  district  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  founded  the  station  of  Mobile  in  1711.  I<ater,  this  district  passed 
to  Spain  and  became  a  part  of  West  Florida,  which  was  purchased  by  the  Federal 
Government  in  1819.  But  most  of  the  present  Alabama,  as  well  as  Mississippi, 
was  considered  as  forming  part  of  Qeorgia  until  the  whole  region  was  detached 
from  that  state  in  1812,  and  Alabama  separated  five  years  later  from  Mississippi,  and 
in  1819  incorporated  in  the  Union  af>  a  state  with  its  present  limits.    During  the 


lit  of  Alubiima 

tc  two  difltiiiut 

1  from  terruco 

vulluyn  of  tho 

thu  Houth  fur 

tho  Htato  waa 

>ttun-growing, 

<lio  planters  to 

itn,  whiub  are 

iots,  although 


Dot  till  recent 
gions  became 
The  popu- 
ate  than  the 
ilers  were  the 
be  eighteenth 
listrict  passed 
y  the  Federal 
8  Mississippi, 
was  detached 
ississippi,  and 
During  the 


i 


••fumiiiftimmam 


RMiMM 


liiiMinii 


<^^-" 


'1' 


FH 


ii 


njiiffm  "ffffmrntfrnmimri 


ALABAMA. 


805 


Civil  Wur  Alabama  seceded,  u  provisional  government  being  organised  at  Mont- 
gomery, which  for  a  time  becan     the  capital  of  the  Confederacy. 

In  the  interior  of  Alabama  the  largest  and  busiest  place  is  Birmingham,  with 
its  cluster  of  industrial  dependencies.  Yet  till  quite  recent  years  this  place  seemed 
to  hold  out  little  hope  of  realising  the  expectations  of  its  founders,  who  named  it 
by  anticipation  after  the  great  metallurgic  centre  of  the  home  country.  Once, 
however,  that  its  extraordinary  advantages  for  the  production  of  cheap  cast-iron 
came  to  be  recognised,  Birmingham  entered  on  a  career  of  prosperity  almost 
unheard  of  even  in  the  United  States.  Houses,  hotels,  workshops,  parks,  all 
sprang  up  as  if  by  enchantment,  and  an  obscure  village  suddenly  developed  into  a 
large  and  flourishing  city.  In  ISi/O  the  output  of  coal  in  the  neighbouring  district 
exceeded  7,000,000  tons,  while  the  production  of  iron  amounted  to  800,000  tons, 
or  nearly  one-half  of  the  quantity  produced  in  the  whole  of  Alabama.  Birming- 
ham lies  at  the  western  foot  of  the  Red  Mountain  ridge  erf  the  southern  Appa- 
lachians at  the  point  of  intersection  of  two  important  lines  of  railway  95  miles 
north-west  of  Montgomery,  and  140  miles  south-west  of  Chattanooga.  Florence, 
another  rising  place,  stands  at  the  north-western  comer  of  the  state  near  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tennessee,  just  below  the  lateral  canal  constructed  to  turn  the  Muscle 
Shoals  rapids. 

Montgomery,  capital  of  Alabama,  occupies  the  geometrical  centre  of  the  state, 
standing  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Alabama  400  miles  above  Mobile,  and  a  short 
distance  below  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa  confluence.  Steamers  ascend  in  all  seasons 
as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  terrace  on  which  the  city  has  been  built.  Montgomeiy  is  not 
an  old  settlement,  its  foundation  dating  only  from  the  year  1792.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War  it  received  the  ephemeral  title  of  capital  of  the  Confederate  States, 
an  honour  which  brought  it  nothing  but  disasters.  At  Montgomery  the  Alabama 
trends  sharply  round  to  the  west,  and  flows  in  this  direction  for  a  distance  of  60 
miles.  At  the  point  where  it  again  turns  abruptly  round  to  the  south,  its  elevated 
right  bank  is  occupied  by  the  busy  riverine  port  of  Selma,  160  miles  by  land  north- 
east of  Mobile.  Large  steamers  ascend  as  far  as  this  place,  where  they  ship  con- 
siderable quantities  of  cotton,  the  chief  article  of  export. 

Mobile,  formerly  known  to  the  French  as  "  La  Mobile,"  was  founded  by  Bienville 
in  1702,  and  afterwards  removed  a  little  north  of  its  original  site.  It  continued 
to  be  the  capital  of  the  French  colony  of  Louisiana  down  to  the  year  1723,  when 
the  centre  of  administration  was  transferred  to  New  Orleans,  165  miles  farther  west. 
Afterwards  Mobile  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Crown,  by  which  it 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1819.  Its  low  houses  are  grouped  near  the 
north-west  angle  of  Mobile  Bay,  below  the  network  of  bayous  where  are  inter- 
mingled the  waters  of  the  Torabigbee  and  Alabama,  whose  junction  forms  the 
Mobile  River  as  it  is  commonly  called.  These  half-submerged  lands  and  inter- 
vening fiuvial  channels  are  crossed  by  a  system  of  wooden  viaducts  with  a  total 
length  of  15  miles,  the  longest  series  of  similar  atvuctures  in  the  United  States. 

The  business  parts  of  the  city,  which  is  a  port  of  entry,  are  compactly  built, 
whereas  the  residential  quarters  are  scattered  over  a  large  space  amid  the  sur- 
80 


'I 
1 


m: 


aatf.iiWiitolifeiife'iwHiiitefiiai^^ 


■  /Ml  ^-:^.,»'—«.,,a«.jn.'a! 


806 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I'    III 


h) 


'!       ';, 


tl 


rounding  orange-groves.  Mobile  has  several  cotton-mills,  foundries,  and  tobacco 
factories,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  large  export  trade  in  cotton  and  spring  fruits  and 
vegetables.  But  its  chief  business  relations  are  with  its  neighbour,  the  metropolis 
of  Louisiana,  the  communications  being  maintained  by  means  of  steamers  of 
light  draught  which  pass  through  Lakes  Borgne  and  Pontchartrain.  In  1890 
nearly  1,000  vessels,  with  a  collective  burden  of  over  600,000  tons,  were  engaged 
in  the  foreign  and  coasting  trade  of  Mobile   and  the  neighbouring  little  port 

Fig.  138.— Mobile. 

Scale  1 :  145,000.  '' 


8S-3' 


West    op  Green 


87'?!. 


Otol 
Fathom. 


Uep.bs. 


o  Light  hauM. 


I  Fathom 
and  upwards. 


8  Mile  a. 


at  the  mouth  of  the  Pearl  River  on  the  frontier  of  the  states  of  Alabama  and 
Louisiana.  The  bar  at  the  entrance  of  Mobile  Bay  has  a  depth  of  scarcely  more 
than  two  fathoms,  while  the  Pearl  River  reaches  the  sea  precisely  at  the  spot 
where  the  marine  inlet  known  ^i.  Lake  Borgne  is  separated  by  a  spongy  forest-clad 
tract  from  Lake  Pontchartrain.  All  these  flat  watery  plains  would  thus  seem  to  be 
an  alluvial  delta  created  by  the  Pearl  River.  Their  form  is  continually  changing, 
and  the  channel  through  which  the  overflow  of  Lake  Pontchartrain  is  carried  sea- 
wards has  frequently  shifted  its  bed. 


MISSISSIPPI. 


807 


,nd  tobacco 
fruits  and 
metropolis 

teamers  of 
In  1890 

re  engaged 
little  port 


^^. 


f:.- 


87"^^ 


Alabama  and 
scarcely  more 
r  at  tbe  spot 
5y  forest-clad 
lus  seem  to  be 
lly  changing, 
is  carried  sea- 


"  10. — Mississippi 

The  State  of  Mississippi  presents  somewhat  the  same  outlines  as  its  eastern 
neighbour,  Alabama.  Like  that  state  it  has  its  main  axis  disposed  in  the  direction 
from  north  to  south,  and  as  a  whole  it  a£Eect8  the  form  of  a  long  quadrilateral, 
reaching  the  sea  only  along  the  eastern  section  of  its  southern  frontier.  West- 
wards it  is  separated  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  an  intruding  portion  of  Louisiana, 
while  along  its  western  border  it  has  for  its  frontier  the  course  of  the  Mississippi 

Pig.  139 —Cotton  :  trb  Piamt,  thb  Bloom,  tbr  Boll.— Fioxnta,  GixNnia,  Pbessino. 


River,  separating  it  from  Arkansas  in  the  north  and  Louisiana  in  the  south. 
Conventional  straight  lines  form  the  northern  and  eastern  boundaries  towards 
Tennessee  and  Alabama  respectively.  Being  parcelled  out  in  vast  domains,  which 
till  recently  were  cultivated  by  slave  labour,  Mississippi  was  the  "  Cotton  State  " 
in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  and  cotton  still  constitutes  its  chief  crop.  No  other 
region  in  the  United  States  yields  better  returns  for  the  ordinary  qualities  of  the 
fibre  than  the  bottom-lands  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  affluent  the  Yazoo.     These 


vast  alluvial   tracts,   which  have 


an  average 


breadth   of  about   50   miles,   are 


"i 


:4m 


BWii JiJiii*!  I rriiirrli'tttnfifr. 


•tF" 


v 


-!> 


308 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


dominated  eastwards  by  rolling  plateaux  of  limestone  formation  covered  in  tbe 
southern  districts  by  pine  forests.  Here  is  developed  the  great  level  pine  region, 
known  also  as  the  "  cow  country,"  which  affords  good  natural  pasturage,  besides 
an  tibundanco  of  yellow  pine  timber,  resin,  tar  and  other  naval  stores.  During  the 
Civil  War  the  planters  grew  wheat  on  the  lighter  soil  of  the  eastern  grassy  plains, 
and  crops  were  thus  raised  to  supply  the  Confederate  troops.  Despite  the  advan- 
tages of  its  soil  and  climate,  Mississippi,  being  too  exclusively  occupied  with  one 
agricultural  product,  has  remained  one  of  the  least  developed  and  least  wealthy 
states  of  the  Union,  and  with  the  exception  of  Vicksburg,  Meridian,  and  Natchez, 
its  few  cities  are  little  more  than  rural  boroughs.  Since  the  abolition  of  slavery 
the  great  landed  estates  have  been  largely  broken  up,  and  in  1880  the  average 
size  of  the  farms  scarcely  exceeded  180  acres. 

The  state  Tas  visited  by  De  Soto  in  1641,  and  by  La  Salle  in  1682 ;  but 
the  first  permanent  station  was  that  of  Natchez,  founded  by  Iberville  in 
1716.  In  1763  this  part  of  French  Louisiana  was  ceded  to  England,  and  con- 
stituted a  part  of  West  Florida ;  but  the  northern  division  was  claimed  as 
part  of  Georgia,  while  in  1783  the  southern  districts  were  incorporated  in  the 
Spanish  colony  of  West  Florida.  Although  Spain  continued  to  claim  the  whole 
region  until  it  was  finally  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1819,  Mississippi  was 
organised  as  a  territory  in  1798,  and  even  admitted  as  a  state  to  the  Union  with 
its  present  limits  in  1817.  The  so-called  "  Yazoo  Fraud,"  a  sale  of  this  and 
other  western  tracts  by  Georgia  in  1795,  was  the  cause  of  much  excitement  and 
angry  feeling  for  many  years,  until  a  large  sum  of  money  was  appropriated  by 
the  Federal  Congress  to  pay  unsatisfied  claims  and  close  litigation  in  1814.  In 
1838  the  state  itself  caused  more  financial  troubles  by  creating  a  debt  of 
^7,000,000,  the  whole  of  which  was  soon  after  repudiated.  During  the  Civil 
.  War,  Mississippi  suffered  great  losses,  followed  by  a  long  period  of  misrule  and 
anarchy,  from  the  effects  of  which  she  has  scarcely  yet  recovered. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  the  chief  place  is  Mendian,  which  occupies  the 
crest  of  the  waterparting  between  the  Tombigbee  and  the  sources  of  the 
Chickasahay,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Pascagoula.  Jackson,  the  capital, 
lies  nearly  100  miles  farther  west,  near  the  centre  of  the  state,  at  the  inter- 
section of  two  main  lines  of  railway,  and  on  the  right  bank  ci  one  Pearl 
River.  But  the  most  populous  place  in  the  state  is  still  the  city  of  Vicksburg, 
the  Nogales,  or  "  Walnuts,"  of  the  Spaniards,  which  crowns  a  steep  bluff  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  about  60  miles  south  of  Greenville.  The  foot  of  the 
cliff  is  pierced  by  artificial  caves  where  the  civilians  lived  during  the  memorable 
siege  of  the  city  in  1863,  and  here  the  river  till  recently  described  a  great 
bend  in  the  low-lying  plain  encircling  a  long  wooded  peninsula.  From  a 
point  opposite  Vicksburg,  on  the  right  bank,  a  railroad  runs  to  Shreveport, 
in  connection  with  the  lines  on  the  east  side  of  the  Mississippi.  At  that  time 
Vicksburg,  which  lies  near  the  Yazoo  confluence,  was  the  most  frequented 
riverine  port  between  Memphis  and  New  Orleans.  During  the  Civil  War  it  also 
became  one  of  the  strongest  citadels  of  the  Confederacy.     The  Federals  held  the 


r"-"i4yy!|i;i»T""- 


lUiii'^UiVi^jJpi^I'^  I  ii*t^i»WiW;»pp*WIHIMiiU|tpiWMiWMWl«wyW'JHi' 


J  _  f  ■        '         ■ 


MISSISSIPPI 


800 


red  in  the 
Ine  region, 
,ge,  besides 
During  the 
assy  plains, 
the  advan- 
3d  with  one 
ast  wealthy 
id  Natchez, 
1  of  slavery 
he  average 

1682;  but 
[berville  in 
id,  and  con- 
claimed  as 
■ated  in  the 
m  the  whole 
isissippi  was 
Union  with 
of  this  and 
itement  and 
ropriated  by 
a  1814.     In 
r  a  debt  of 
\g  the  Civil 
misrule  and 

occupies  the 
irces  of   tho 
I,  the  capital, 
it  the  inter- 
•f  the    Pearl 
jf   Vicksburg, 
bluff  on  the 
3  foot  of  the 
le  memorable 
•ibed  a  great 
la.     From    a 
>  Shreveport, 
At  that  time 
it   frequented 
1  War  it  also 
jrals  held  the 


upper  reaches  of  the  river  as  far  south  as  Tennessee  and  Arkansas,  and  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  1861  they  had  also  occupied  New  Orleans  and  the  lower  course 
of  the  Mississippi  as  far  as  a  point  below  Port  Hudson  and  Louisiana.  But  the 
^  citadel  of  Vicksburg  still  held  out,  and  until  it  was  captured  it  was  impossible  to 
^  complete  the  blockade  of  the  Confederate  States  by  land,  sea,  and  river.  The 
besieging  forces  had  cut  a  trench  across  the  alluvial  plain  at  the  root  of  the 

Fig.  140. — VlCKSDtTBO  AND  ShIPTINOB  OP  THE  MISSISSIPPI. 
Scale  1  :  6S,U0O. 


3?' 
1) 

— 

.    ^^ 

^ 

i 

32 

17- 

^;:^h^i^. 

^^fr 

) . 

• 

'   z-^^^^g 

^m 

^ "'  "W£^^^^^ 

^"^^W'A 

w 

/■Thm 

\  ^^^f^/-t~~^ 

w 

^^=^§^m 

f 

^^ 

VICKSBURG 

^— -^ 

^=T^^^3B^ 

' 

^lEi — '^ 

"^^"^^^'■^  ff 

I^S 

— ^%-/ — j^^r  ^^ 

^  "^fea  =aj^      "^t 

'"^ 

IS- 

^S  f 

32 

14' 

M 

)/^ 

m   ' 

3r 

/          V***^^      ''"^ 

-■j^^^jy 

t 

yT                /       -"— 

^' 

•     90*44  ■ 

West  0?  Greenwich 

90"4r 

^ 


Pr«wnt  State. 


Fxposed  parte  of  the 
old  Miadasippi  bed. 


Depths  under 
10  Feet. 


Depths  over 
lOUeet. 

-~:-    Projected  canal  over  10  feet  deep. 
—  -'    Thick  line  marking  the  old  river  bank. 

._— — — — ^— .  2,200  Tarda. 


peninsula  formed  by  the  sharp  windings  of  the  river  at  this  point.  But  the 
tenacious  clayey  subsoil  resisted  the  scouring  action  of  the  currents,  so  that  the 
crews  of  the  Federal  flotilla  were  thwarted  in  their  hopes  of  being  able  to  ascend 
and  descend  the  Missiesippi  by  turning  the  Vicksburg  batteries.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  laying  forraal  siege  to  this  stronghold,  which,  after  costing  the 
Northern  army  16,600  men,  at  last  surrendered  on  July  3,  1863,  the  \ery  day 


't^trnm^midiim^mmmm^^  - 


810 


THE  UNITED  ST4TES. 


which  witnessed  the  failure  of  the  last  general  attack  of  the  Confederates  in 
Pennsylvania.  A  few  weeks  afterwards  I'ort  Hudson  also  fell,  and  the  Missis- 
sippi became  once  more  free  from  its  mouth  to  its  sources.  After  these  stirring 
events  the  prt  pects  of  Vicksburg  were  afl'ected  by  an  impurtunt  change  in  the 
local  topography.  Subsequently  to  one  of  the  periodical  inundations,  the 
Mississippi  abandoned  the  bod  which  it  had  hitherto  followed  at  the  foot  of  the 
bluffs  on  which  the  city  stands,  and  begun  to  flow  through  a  fresh  channel  near 
the  trench  by  which  the  Federal  army  had  in  vain  endeavoured  to  deflect  its 
course.  At  present  it  flows  some  miles  farther  south,  so  that  the  communications 
between  the  river  and  its  port  can  be  maintained  only  by  constant  dredging. 
Natchez,  which  occupies  a  bluff  some  200  feet  high  on  the  same  side  and  in 

Fig.  141. — Natchez. 

Staii  1  :  460,000. 


•^■>->>^ 


90°40' 


West  op  Greenwich 


9Q°20- 


LPTel. 


.  6  Miles. 


a  somewhat  analogous  position  to  that  of  Vicksburg,  but  130  miles  farther  down, 
is,  like  it,  also  a  busy  riverine  port.  This  place,  which  perpetuates  the  name  of 
t^ie  local  Indian  tribe  described  in  idyllic  language  by  Chateaubriand,  is  the 
oldest  seti^^ment  in  the  state.  During  the  period  of  their  first  essays  at  colonisa- 
tion, the  Froi.ob  built  in  1716  the  fortified  station  oi  Rosalie  on  the  site  at  present 
occupied  by  the  city.  But  the  new  arrivals  failed  to  maintain  friendly  relations 
with  the  native  populations,  and  the  Natchez  were  fain  to  seek  refuge  with  their 
northern  neighbours,  the  Chickasaws.  But  even  so  they  could  not  escape  the 
pursuit  of  P^rier,  Governor  of  Louisiana,  who  took  them  by  surprise  in  1730. 
Most  of  the  fugitives  were  massacred,  and  the  survivors — amongst  others,  the 
royal  family  of  the  "  Sun  " — were  carried  away  into  slavery.  After  its  annexation 


-'*; 


•7™w 


MINNESOTA. 


811 


'ederates  in 
the  Missia- 
Bse  stirring 
inge  in  the 
utions,  the^ 
foot  of  the 
lannel  near 
deflect  its 
municationH 
dging. 
side  and  in 


40' 


31* 


arther  down, 
the  name  of 
iand,  is  the 
3  at  colonisa- 
te  at  present 
dly  relations 
je  with  their 
t  escape  the 
ise  in  1730. 
t  others,  the 
;s  annexation 


to  the  United  States,  Natchez  soon  bocume  the  chief  place  in  the  middle  Missia- 
sippi  valley,  but  since  then  it  has  lost  much  of  its  relative  importance.  Despite 
its  favourable  position  for  trade,  it  has  fallen  into  decay,  and  for  the  last  two 
decades  its  population  has  remained  almost  stationary.  Nevertheless,  much  cotton 
is  still  shipped  at  "  Natchez  under  the  Hill,"  as  the  low-lying  business  quarter  is 
called.  On  the  steep  hill  itself,  which  is  approached  by  a  track  cut  in  the  hard 
reddish  conglomernte,  broad,  shady  avenues,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles, 
are  lined  by  small  nouses  and  villas,  mostly  embowered  in  foliage  or  festooned 
with  flowering  creepers.  Here  travellers  from  the  north  meet  the  first  orange- 
groves  characteristic  of  the  extreme  south.  From  the  summit  of  the  bluff  an 
extensive  prospect  is  commanded  of  the  vast  pine-clad  marshy  plains  of  Louisiana. 

11. — Minnesota. 

Amongst  the  trans-Mississippi  states,  Minnesota,  so  called  from  one  of  its 
chief  rivers,  occupies  very  nearly  the  geometrical  centre  of  the  North  American 
continent.  It  also  lies  in  the  geographical  centre,  for  the  Mississippi  and  Red 
River  of  the  North  have  both  their  sources  within  its  borders  on  the  Height  of 
Land,  whence  they  flow  in  opposite  directions  to  two  different  marine  basins. 
Northwards  Minnesota  is  conterminous  with  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  from  which 
it  is  separated  partly  by  the  conventional  line  of  49°  north  latitude,  partly  by  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  an  almost  continuous  chain  of  other  lakes,  extending  to 
the  north  side  of  liake  Superior.  On  the  east  side  the  Saint  Croix  and  the 
Mississippi  form  the  dividing  line  towards  Wisconsin,  as  the  Red  River  of  the  North 
does  on  the  west  side  towards  North  Dakota  ;  lastly,  on  the  south-west  and  south 
geometrical  lines  form  the  frontiers  towards  South  Dakota  and  Iowa.  Lying  within 
the  cold  northern  zone,  Minnesota  long  remained  unoccupied  by  white  settlers.  In 
1805  the  first  parcel  of  land  was  purchased  by  the  Federal  Government  from  the 
aborigines ;  but  no  stations  were  founded  till  the  year  1819,  when  Fort  Snelling 
was  erected  at  the  Mississippi-Minnesota  confluence.  In  1822  a  mill  was  built 
on  the  spot  which  is  at  present  occupied  by  the  great  city  of  Minneapolis,  and  the 
general  settlement  of  the  country  advanced  at  such  a  slow  rate  that  the  regular 
postal  service  was  not  introduced  till  1832.  Even  so  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
century,  less  than  2,000  acres  of  land  h'-J.  been  brouglit  under  cultivation. 
But  about  that  time  the  stream  of  migration  began  to  be  directed  towards 
the  Upper  Mississippi  basin,  and  by  the  year  I860  the  reclaimed  land  already 
comprised  a  collective  area  of  nearly  500,000  acres.  Since  then  the  state 
has  continued  steadily  to  progress,  and,  most  of  the  land  having  already  been 
occupied,  a  northern  reserve  belonging  to  the  Ojibway  (Chippeway)  Indians  had 
to  be  purchased  to  make  room  for  the  inflow  of  white  settlers.  .    . 

Being  covered  throughout  nearly  its  whole  extent  by  glacial  drift,  Minnesota 
is  specially  suited  for  the  cultivation  of  cereals,  fruit-trees  and  vegetables.  Apples 
and  strawberries  are  amongst  its  staple  products,  while  as  a  wheat-growing  region     \ 
it  is  surpassed  by  no  other  state  in  the  Union.     Spring  wheat  especially  arrives  at 
great  perfection,  and  commands  the  highest  prices  in  the  home   and   '      ^.' 


®;^: 


312 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


markets.  Potatoes  ulso,  us  woU  as  oats,  barley,  hops,  and  flax,  llirive  well,  while 
the  pastures  aifurd  excellent  foJdor  for  large  herds  of  cattle  and  horses.  The 
porth-castcrn  section  about  Lake  Superior  abounds  in  iron  ores  and  other  metals ; 
but  towards  the  Canuditn  frontier  the  rugged  hilly  country,  strewn  with  swamps 
and  lacustrine  depressions,  is  of  a  less  productive  character,  though  oven  here 
there  is  an  inexhaustible  store  of  peat.  In  these  northern  districts,  comprising 
about  a  third  of  the  whole  territory,  the  white  population  is  still  very  thinly 
scattered  over  the  surface  ;  hence  here  have  been  formed  the  enclaves,  or  reserves, 
to  which  the  surviving  Indian  tribes  are  now  confined. 

The  section  of  Minnesota  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi  always  formod  part  of 
the  United  States  dominion.  Comprised  originally  in  the  ill- defined  North-west 
Territory,  it  passed  in  succession  to  the  territories  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  The  western  section  beyond  the  Mississippi,  on  th« 
other  hand,  was  supposed  to  be  included  in  the  still  more  vaguely  defined  region 
of  French  Louisiana,  and  thus  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment by  the  purchase  of  that  domain  from  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  in  1803.  But 
Minnesota  was  not  formally  occupied  by  the  United  States  till  about  the  year 
1819,  and  some  of  the  northern  districts  were  even  settled  by  English  colonists 
from  Canada  in  the  belief  that  they  formed  part  of  British  North  America ;  hence 
the  foundation  of  Lord  Selkirk's  colony  of  Pembina  in  the  extreme  north-west. 
Other  districts  were  for  a  time  included  in  the  neighbouring  state  of  Iowa.  In 
fact,  Minnesota  was  not  organised  as  a  territory  till  the  year  1849,  when  it 
embraced  a  region  nearly  twice  its  present  area.  Even  when  Minnesota  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  state  with  its  present  limits,  all  the  western  parts 
continued  to  be  administered  as  Minnesota  Territory  till  the  year  1861,  when  they 
were  absorbed  in  the  newly-constituted  Territory  of  Dakota. 

Duluth,  the  port  of  entry  of  Minnesota,  at  the  extreme  west  end  of  Lake 
Superior,  is  so  named  in  honour  of  the  French  explorer,  Greysolon  de  Luth,  who 
first  visited  this  region  in  1678,  and  succeeded  in  rescuing  the  Recollect  missionary 
Hennepin,  at  that  time  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  Sioux.  Founded  in  the 
midst  of  solitudes  on  a  low-lying  beach  between  the  lake  and  the  neighbouring 
hills,  Duluth  made  little  progress  till  the  opening  of  th§  railways,  which  by 
connecting  its  port  with  the  cities  of  the  upper  Mississippi  and  their  boundless 
wheat-growing  plains,  soon  transformed  it  to  an  emporium  of  the  first  rank. 
Duluth  occupies  a  unique  position  in  the  very  heart  of  the  continent,  at  the  head  of 
the  navigation  in  the  vast  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  Saint  Lawrence,  about 
2,500  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  The  great  inland  waterway  thus  commanded  by 
this  city  flows  due  east  in  the  direction  of  Great  Britain  and  West  Europe,  with 
their  teeming  populations  and  immense  commercial  and  industrial  centres.  Be- 
cently  a  vessel  of  the  new  "  whale-back "  type,  built  at  Superior  City,  sailed 
directly  from  Lake  Superior  to  England  with  a  cargo  of  grain.  The  western 
extremity  of  the  lake  is  separated  only  by  a  distance  of  scarcely  120  miles  from 
another  vital  point  in  the  vast  system  of  trade  routes  spread  over  the  Union,  the 
point  where  begins  the  navigable  highway  of  the  Mississippi,  with  all  its  great 


rasBR 


'^■•'■■iVy ""    • 


well,  while 
H'ses.  The 
ler  metals ; 
itb  swamps 
oven  here 
oompriaing 
irery  thinly 
or  reserves, 

)sd  part  of 
North-west 
,  Michigan, 
ippi,  on  the 
ined  region 
ral  Govern- 
1803.  But 
ut  the  year 
ish  colonists 
rica;  hence 
north-west. 
f  Iowa.  In 
9,  when  it 
nnesota  was 
estern  parts 
,  when  they 

nd  of  Lake 
I  Luth,  who 
b  missionary 
ided  in  the 
eighbouring 
,  which  by 
ir  boundless 
first  rank. 
;  the  head  of 
rence,  about 
imanded  by 
lurope,  with 
jntres.  Re- 
City,  sailed 
rhe  western 
)  miles  from 
3  Union,  the 
all  its  great 


SCENERY  IN  MINNESOTA. 


"-y ^'-'.'^W  ..'l    .'■r!V..:.i,':V:.'i.'-i-iayjjiiaSt'!lfe'iJmM»W" 


rj»^-*    ."-ij.    ■:i*.Hi2.,i:'-;«.ML.S/Li.i:.«j» 


»  iii'lhii'l'  ii'itm 


JL 


\m 


.jT".' 


rin>im»j»»iyi     mi   .^ 


> 


MINNESOTA- 


SIS 


affluents  ramifying  iu  every  direction  throughout  this  irununiHe  fluviul  basin. 
Duluth  is  consequently  one  of  the  natural  centres  in  the  econotiiic  life  of  the 
North  American  continent,  and  its  importance  in  this  ronpect  has  been  more  than 
doubled  by  one  of  the  I'ucihc  trunk  linos  which  has  its  western  terminus  at 
Tacoma  on  the  shores  of  I'uget  Sound.  This  converging  i)oint,  of  three  w.':i 
continental  highways  has  made  rapid  progress  iu  recent  years.  Workshop  ;ui:i 
houses  have  sprung  up  in  hundreds  and  thousands  ulon^*  the  shores  of  :li"  lake, 
and  the  neighbouring  Superior  City,  although   situated    within  the  "Nv  isconsin 

* 

Fig.  112. — DTn^rrn  Ain>  StrPBBioB  Cicy. 
Ronle  1 :  9fio,nno. 


92*io' 


West  op  Greenwich 


0  to  •l\ 
Fathoms. 


Depths. 


Si  tola 

Fathoms. 


12  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

e  Miles. 


frontier,  has  already  become  a  mere  suburb  of  the  Minnesota  "  seaport,"  as  it  may 
be  called.  Fergus  Falls,  Breckenridge,  and  Moorhead,  the  chief  places  on  the  plain 
traversed  by  the  upper  Red  River,  rank  merely  as  post  villagej,  though  Brecken- 
ridge possesses  some  importance  from  its  position  at  the  head  of  navigation  of 
the  main  stream.  In  the  interior  of  the  state  no  towns  properly  so  culled  occur 
anywhere  except  along  the  banks  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  Here  Bruinard,  Little 
Falls,  and  Saint  Cloud  follow  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south,  the  last- 
mentioned  partly  inhabited  by  Franco-Canadians. 

Minneapolis,  which  stands  lower  down  ou  lhe  right  bank  of  the  river,  a  short 


■rh 


::v-^ii 


11, 


»li 


THE  UNITED  8TATTS. 


diatunco  iihovo  tho  Miniies<>tu  conflaen^o,  jh  tlio  first  important  placo  on  the  upper 
MifwifiHippi.  From  tlio  Suiiit  ■  aihoiiy  Fulls  it  dorivoa  un  onorinous  motive  power 
«>Ntimat(>(l  ut  over  5(),(>0()  bui  )-pownr,  which  is  utiliHcd  by  numor«)iiH  workHhops, 
Hourmills,  und  various  othur  industries.  Minnesota  is  connected  by  several 
liridf^es  with  its  suburb  of  *SVii«^  Anthony  ("  Saint  Anthony  of  radiiu  ")  on  tho 
opposite  Hide,  which  is  tlie  oldest  settlement  in  the  country.  Tho  two  granite 
iMiandrt  of  Jlfuiirpin  und  Nicollvt  recall  the  visits  of  the  tirst  explorers  of  the  upper 
Mississippi.  Ihe  barbarous  name  of  the  city  itself,  partly  Indian,  partly  Greek, 
is  said  to  mean  "  Water  Town,"  a  name  certainly  justilicd  by  the  fact  that  Minnea- 
polis owes  its  existence  to  the  rapids  cloning  tho  navigation  at  this  point.     liut 

Fig.  H.*)  — Minneapolis  and  Haint  Vlxtl. 
Boal*  1 :  Mft,00a 


45Y-V 


95'35'  West  oP   Greenwich 


95"£0' 


6  Miln. 


according  to  other  etymologists,  this  word  is  an  abbreviated  form  of  "  Minneha- 
hapolis,"  that  is,  the  "  City  of  the  Laughing  "Waters,"  in  reference  to  a  neigh- 
bouring cascade  sung  by  American  poets.  Here  is  the  Minnesota  University, 
founded  in  1808  on  liberal  principles,  and  open  to  students  of  both  sexes.  Min- 
neapolis and  Saint  Anthony  are  increasing  so  rapidly  that  they  must  sooner  or 
later  reach  all  the  way  to  Saint  Paul,  which,  following  the  windings  of  the  river, 
is  some  24  miles  distant,  but  not  more  than  eight  miles  from  centre  to  centre 
by  the  direct  railway  route.  Saint  Paul,  capital  of  the  state,  and  rival  of 
Minneapolis  in  population  and  enterprising  spirit,  is  already  an  ancient  city 
compared  with  most  other  places  in  the  north- weat.      Yet  it  dates  only  from 


V   V 


^^■ 


n  the  upper 

lofivc  power 

workuhops, 

by  sevorul 

iiu  ")  on  the 

two  granite 

of  the  upper 

artly  Greek, 

thut  Minncu- 

point.     But 


# 


44' 
"50' 


i 


95'ao' 

i  "Minneha- 

e  to  a  neigh- 

ta  Universitv, 

sexes.     Min- 

nust  sooner  or 

;8  of  the  river, 

ntre  to  centre 

and    rival  of 

ancient  city 

tes  only  frona 


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TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14S80 

(716)872-4503 


"■li 


I/. 


^ 


«' 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historlques 


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•I'J.'ftli'lllPHI 


MINNESOTA. 


815 


about  the  year  1838,  a  time  when  the  Franco-Canadian,  Parent,  known  as  l*(Eil 
de  Gochon,  occupied  a  neighbouring  log-hut. 

Such  has  been  the  progress  of  Saint  Paul  and  Minneapolis  that,  within  a  single 
generation,  these  twin  cities  have,  collectively,  rivalled  in  po[)ulution  the  great 
riverinq  ports  of  the  Ohio,  Cincinnati  and  Louisville,  and  even  New  Orleans, 
metropolis  of  the  lower  Mississippi ;  collectively  they  are  but  little  inferior  to 
Saint  Louis  itself.  In  the  division  of  labour  Minneapolis  is  more  especially 
engaged  with  the  industries,  while  Saint  Paul  chiefly  represents  the  commercial 
movement.  Standing  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi,  it  serves  as 
the  forwarding  depot  for  the  produce  of  the  upper  fluvial  basin  and  of  the 
Saint  Croix,  which  flows  from  the  watershed  near  Lake  Superior.  Through 
the  port  of  Duluth,  Saint  Paul  also  communicates  directly  with  the  whole  of 
Canada,  the  Eastern  States  of  the  Union,  and  Europe.  In  1889,  the  riverine 
craft  owned  in  this  place  comprised  nearly  a  hundred  steamers,  besides  nume- 
rous barges  and  flat-bottomed  vessels.  Saint  Paul  already  covers  a  space  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  little  inferior  to  that  of  Paris,  and  one  of  the  neigh- 
bouring lakes  yields  a  daily  supply  of  7,000  000  cubic  feet  of  excellent  water. 
An  inclined  bridge  1,730  feet  long  affords  access  from  the  upper  quarters  of 
the  city  to  the  suburb  of  West  Saint  Paul,  on  the  low-lying  south  bank  of  the 
Mississippi.  It  has  been  proposed  to  merge  all  these  urban  groups  in  a  single 
municipality  under  the  name  of  "  Minnepaul,"  a  term  formed  by  combining 
together  some  of  the  elements  of  the  two  chief  places.  Fort  Snelling,  the  oldest 
American  settlement  in  the  state,  lies  on  the  right  or  south  bank  about  midway 
between  these  two  cities.  The  original  intention  was  to  group  the  metropolis  of 
the  upper  Mississippi  basin  round  about  this  station,  and  although  the  place  was 
afterwards  abandoned  by  its  neighbours,  spontaneous  effect  will,  nevertheless, 
ultimately  be  given  to  this  intention,  for  with  the  continual  growth  of  these 
urban  groups  the  fort  must  become  the  natural  centre  of  the  whole  aggregate. 

Below  Saint  Paul  several  busy  fluvial  ports  follow  along  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi.  Such  are  Hantinga,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Saint  Croix,  20  miles  by 
rail  from  Saint  Paul ;  Red  Wing,  near  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake  Pepin,  a  great 
market  for  wheat ;  Wabasha,  two  miles  below  the  same  lake,  and  near  a  spring  of 
extremely  efiicacious  medicinal  waters ;  Winona,  about  180  miles  below  Saint  Paul, 
one  of  the  most  important  markets  in  the  United  States  for  cereals  and  sawn  timber. 
Stillwater,  on  the  Saint  Croix  River,  above  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  has  also  a 
large  timber  industry,  and  forwards  the  timber  brought  down  from  the  shores  of 
Lake  Superior  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 


12,  13.— The  Two  Dakotas. 

Dakota,  land  of  the  Sioux,  or  Da  Kota,  that  is  "Allied,"  who  formerly  roamed 
the  country  in  pursuit  of  the  bison  and  elk,  stretches  over  a  vast  extent  of  territory 
comprised  between  the  Canadian  frontier  in  the  north  and  the  Niobrara  River 
separating  it  from  Nebraska  in  the  south.     It  thus  stretches  across  six  degrees  of 


ll 


!l 


316 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


latitude,  43° — 49°  N.,  with  a  total  length  of  about  450  miles,  and  a  breadth  of 
350  miles  between  Minnesota  and  Iowa  on  the  east  and  Montana  and  Wyoming 
on  its  western  frontier.  But  this  immense  domain,  some  30,000  square  miles 
larger  than  the  whole  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  has  recently  been  divided 
into  two  states,  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota,  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  both 
forming  elongated  qtiadrilaterals  disposed  in  the  direction  from  east  to  west. 

Dakota  passed  in  1803  from  France  to  the  United  States,  as  part  of  the  great 
Louisiana  purchase.  But  it  long  remained  unorganised  and  even  unoccupied  by 
any  white  settlers.  In  1849  it  was  included  in  the  Minnesota  Territory,  from 
which  a  portion  was  afterwards  detached  and  joined  to  Nebraska  till  the  year 
1864.  In  1861  Dakota  was  for  the  first  time  organised  as  a  territory,  and  at 
that  time  comprised  the  whole  of  Montana,  besides  parts  of  Wyoming  and  Idaho, 
but  was  reduced  in  1808  to  the  limits  of  the  region  which  at  present  coincides 
with  the  two  States  of  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota.  These  states,  formed  by 
dividing  the  territory  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  were  organised  and  admitted 
into  the  Union  with  the  present  limits  in  the  year  1891. 

North  Dakota  has  no  natural  frontiers,  except  towards  the  east,  where  the 
course  of  the  Red  River  separates  it  from  Minnesota.  In  the  north-western  part  of 
the  state  the  Missouri  River  describes  a  great  bend  along  the  foot  of  the  arid  and 
atony  plateau  of  the  "  Grand  Coteau  du  Missouri."  The  two  fluvial  valleys,  as 
well  as  those  of  their  numerous  effluents,  present  vast  stretches  of  land  suited  for 
the  cultivation  of  cereals ;  hence  these  districts  have  begun  to  attract  agricultural 
settlers  in  large  numbers,  especially  since  the  year  1877.  But  they  are  unfortu- 
nately subject  to  long  periods  of  drought,  while  the  badly  watered  parts  are 
adapted  only  for  stock-breeding. 

A  few  reserved  tracts  have  been  set  apart  to  serve  as  the  collective  domains 
of  various  tribes  detached  from  the  bulk  of  the  Dakota  nation.  But  the  Fort 
Berthold  Reserve,  largest  of  these  enclaves,  situated  on  the  Grand  Coteau  du 
Missouri,  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  state,  was  broken  up  and  thrown  open 
to  colonisation  in  1891,  and  at  once  invaded  by  white  settlers  in  large  numbers. 

Along  the  left  bank  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North  several  small  towns  have 
already  sprung  up  over  against  corresponding  settlements  on  the  Minnesota  side. 
Of  these  riverine  towns  Wahpeton,  Fargo,  and  Grand  Forks  are  the  most  important. 
The  older  settlement  of  Pembina  occupies  an  advantageous  position  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Pembina  and  Red  River,  at  the  very  point  where  the  main  stream 
passes  from  United  States  territory  into  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Pembina  is  thus 
an  important  custom-house  station  on  the  common  frontier,  where  nearly  all  the 
traffic  converges  from  Manitoba  and  the  upper  Mississippi  region. 

Although  the  most  thickly  peopled  zone  lies  on  the  eastern  frontier  towards 
Minnesota,  the  site  chosen  for  the  new  capital  is  situated  much  farther  went 
towards  the  centre  of  the  state  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Missouri.  The  city  has 
received  the  name  of  Bismarck  from  its  German,  Scandinavian,  and  Anglo-American 
inhabitants,  who  already  number  over  5,000  souls.  The  village  of  Mandan,  on 
the  opposite  bank,  perpetuates  the  name  of  the  now  almost  extinct  Indian  tribe, 


T/P^"' 


THE  DAKOTAS. 


817 


a  breadth  of 
id  Wj'oming 
square  miles 
been  divided 
ze,  and  both 
)  west. 

of  the  great 
loccupied  by 
rritory,  from 
till  the  year 
tory,  and  at 
;  and  Idaho, 
3nt  coincides 
!8,  formed  by 
ind  admitted 

t,  where  the 
istern  part  of 
the  arid  and 
1  valleys,  as 
id  suited  for 
agricultural 
are  unfortu- 
)d  parts  are 

ive  domains 
ut  the  Fort 
Coteau  du 
nrown  open 
numbers. 

lowns  have 
nesota  side. 

important, 
ar  the  con- 
nain  stream 

)ina  is  thus 

arly  all  the 

ier  towards 
arther  went 
he  city  has 
0- American 
Mandan,  on 
idian  tribe, 


who  were  distinguished  amongst  all  the  surrounding  native  populutions  by  their 
lighter  complexions,  moro  refined  habits,  and  some  remarkable  social  usages. 

South  Dakota  is  traversed  throughout  its  entire  extent  from  north  to  south 
by  the  course  of  the  Missouri,  and  also  watered  by  several  other  streams,  one  of 
which  bears  the  name  of  the  state.  The  Dakota,  which  joins  the  Missouri  about 
10  miles  below  Yankton  after  an  estimated  course  of  some  000  miles,  was  the 
liiviere  a  Jacques  of  the  Franco-Canadian  voyageurs,  whence  its  olternative 
English  name  of  the  James  River.  In  its  western  section  South  Dakota  has 
been  quite  as  arbitrarily  carved  out  as  its  northern  neighbour.  There  are  in  fact 
no  natural  frontiers  except  in  the  north-east,  where  Lake  Traverse  and  IJig  Stone 
Lake  separate  it  from  the  state  of  Minnesota,  and  in  the  south-east  where  the 
Big  Sioux  River  forms  the  dividing-line  towards  Iowa,  and  where  the  Niobrara 
and  middle  Missouri  separate  it  from  Nebraska.  Westwards  the  104th  meridiun, 
forming  the  common  frontier  with  Montana  and  Wyoming,  traverses  the  Black 
Hills,  and  intersects  the  north  and  south  forks  of  the  Cheyenne  (Shyenno)  affluent 
of  the  Missouri.  This  section  of  the  territory,  though  apparently  unsuitable  for 
agricultural  settlements,  abounds  in  mineral  resources.  Both  gold  and  silver  are 
found  in  the  Black  Hills,  and  salt,  tin,  and  petroleum  also  occur,  besides  lignite 
and  coal,  both,  however,  of  inferior  quality.  Coal  abounds  especially  in  the  cre- 
taceous formations  surrounding  the  Potsdam  sandstones  and  other  azoic  and  eo/oio 
rocks  of  which  the  Black  Hills  mainly  consist. 

Till  recently  nearly  all  the  western  half  of  South  Dakota  was  reserved  for  the 
Sioux  Indians.  Apart  from  the  small  triangular  district  of  the  Black  Hills,  with 
its  gold-mines  comprised  between  the  two  forks  of  the  Cheyenne,  these  aborigines 
were  recognised  as  the  exclusive  owners  of  all  that  part  of  the  state  which  is 
limited  eastwards  by  the  course  of  the  Missouri.  They  even  possessed  a  small 
reserve  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  between  the  two  towns  of  Pierre  and  Chamber- 
lain, while  in  the  north  the  territory  guaranteed  to  them  stretched  from  North 
Dakota  as  far  as  the  Cannon-ball  River.  The  great  Sioux  reserve,  comprising 
altogether  22,000,000  acres,  is  divided  into  six  districts  administered  by  a  special 
agency,  with  government  officials,  teachers,  doctors,  smiths,  and  carpenters.  The 
nation  consists  of  about  a  dozen  tribes,  each  with  several  sub-divisions  variously 
named  either  from  the  territory  occupied  by  them,  or  from  their  chief  station,  or 
else  from  some  distinctive  tribal  mark.  Originally  thfe  Sioux  or  Dakota  nation 
comprised  "  Seven  Great  Council-fires,"  which  were  not  only  famed  in  the 
national  traditions,  but  actually  known  to  the  early  white  pioneers. 

According  to  the  treaty  of  1868  nearly  all  were  confined  to  the  reserve,  and 
later  the  Federal  Government  would  no  longer  permit  a  single  Indian  to  reside 
outside  the  district.  In  1891  the  central  part  of  that  district  was  detached  from  the 
rest,  and  immediately  occupied  by  a  swarm  of  white  farmers  and  speculators.  The 
other  domains  still  reserved  to  the  natives  cannot  fail  to  be  similarly  appropriated 
in  the  near  future.  The  famous  "  pipeclay  "  quarries,  which  were  situated  in  the 
Sioux  territory,  but  which  had  always  been  regarded  by  the  Sioux  themselves  as 
the  common  property  of  all  the  Redskins,  have  already  been  seized  by  the  whites. 


'I    \ 


'"'•"•  '•  ''  rufcwitawgl 


31  a 


THE  UNITED  STATE3. 


a 


South  Dukota  enjoys  a  wurmer  climato  und  is  better  watered  than  tho  northern 
state.  As  it  also  possesses  a  greater  extent  of  fertile  lands,  and  lies  nearer  to 
the  centres  of  trade,  it  has  naturally  attracted  more  settlers  and  has  in  every 
respect  made  greater  material  progress  than  its  less  favoured  neighbour. 

In  South  Dakota  the  chief  centres  of  population  gravitate  towards  tho  fertile 
grain-growing  lands  in  the  eastern  section  along  the  Minnesota  frontier.  Here 
tho  industrial  city  of  Sioux  Falls  stands  on  the  Big  Sioux  River  at  the  point 
where  the  stream  rushes  over  rapids  yielding  sufficient  motive  power  for  the 
establishment  of  flour-mills  and  other  factories.  At  these  rapids  the  river  has 
a  total  fall  of  nearly  100  feet.  Yankton,  the  old  capital,  so  called  from  the 
Dakota  tribe  of  that  name,  was  founded  60  miles  south-west  of  Sioux  Falls, 
near  the  south-east  corner  of  the  state,  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Missouri, 
which  in  this  part  of  its  course  is  open  to  steam  navigation  throughout  the  year. 
It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  1,200  feet  above  the  sea,  on  a  flat  plateau  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  a  semicircle  of  bluffs. 

Farther  up  on  the  same  river  are  some  rising  places,  such  as  Chamberlain 
and  Pierre,  present  capital  of  the  state.  This  place  occupies  the  site  of  the 
old  station  of  Pierre  Choiitertu,  which  had  been  founded  by  the  Canadian  voya- 
geurs  in  the  midst  of  the  Dakota  Indians  for  the  peltry  trade.  Aberdeen,  which 
lies  in  the  interior  of  the  state,  owes  its  prosperity  to  its  position  at  the  con- 
verging-point of  several  lines  of  railway. 

Numerous  white  settlers  have  lately  been  attracted  to  the  mineral  districts 
of  the  Black  Uills  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  state.  Deadwood,  near 
which  have  been  discovered  some  rich  auriferous  deposits,  lies  about  250  miles 
north-west  of  Yankton,  and  is  the  chief  business  centre  in  this  mineral  region. 


h 


14. — Iowa. 

The  State  of  Iowa,  so  named  from  its  primitive  inhabitants,  the  Iowa  or 
loway  branch  of  the  Dakota  nation,  is  conterminous  with  Minnesota  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  In  the  eastern  section  the  land  falls  in  a  long 
gentle  incline  towards  the  main  stream ;  in  the  west  another  somewhat  more 
abrupt  slope  drains  towards  the  Missouri,  which  here  forms  the  parting-line 
towards  the  state  of  Nebraska.  But  the  highest  crests  of  the  divide  between 
the  two  basins  nowhere  attain  an  elevation  of  600  feet  above  the  Missouri  River. 
Eastwards  Iowa  is  conterminous  with  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  and  in  the  extreme 
north-west  with  South  Dakota,  while  it  is  separated  by  a  conventional  line  from 
the  state  of  Missouri  on  its  northern  frontier. 

Iowa,  parts  of  which  were  formerly  covered  with  forests,  has  now  been  for  the 
most  part  brought  under  cultivation.  Thanks  to  its  fertile  soil,  a  deep  friable 
loum,  its  wheat  and  maize  crops  are  surpassed  only  by  those  of  two  or  three  other 
states  in  the  Union.  Oats,  barley,  and  other  cereals  are  also  successfully  grown  ; 
many  districts  are  well  suited  for  stock-breeding  ;  most  hardy  fruits  thrive  well, 
while  the  southern  districts  are  adapted  for  grape-growing.  Altogether,  Iowa 
ranks    high   amongst   the   food-producing  states  of   the   Union.      Its    mineral 


jift..ih>iiiiHn>iiii^iiiii>1wiTfliriii«liii^i'ttirtni.wHr 


■    .  '-2hlL^2&.,^f^,sx-:s.-^jsj^^„i-iks^i^-aaa 


mrxii— ywr- 


IOWA. 


819 


10  northern 
38  nearer  to 
,8  in  every 

J  the  fertile 
tier.  Here 
t  the  point 
rer  for  the 
le  river  haa 
1  from  the 
lioux  Fall8, 
e  Missouri, 
ut  the  year, 
nearly  sur- 

Chamberlain 
site  of  the 
adian  voya- 
deen,  which 
at  the  cou- 

ral  districts 
dwood,  near 
%  250  miles 
region. 


he  Iowa  or 
3ota  on  the 
a  in  u  long 
Dwhat  more 
parting-line 
de  between 
30uri  River, 
the  extreme 
al  line  from 

)een  for  the 
ieep  friable 
three  other 
ally  grown ; 
thrive  well, 
ather,  Iowa 
;ts   mineral 


resources  are  also  oonrndoruble,  including  not  only  bituminous  coal  in  great 
abundance,  but  also  deposits  of  lead,  like  the  neighbouring  states  of  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin.  The  present  population  no  longer  comprises  any  representatives  of 
those  aborigines  who  gave  their  name  to  Iowa  ;  nor  have  those  Franco-(yunadian 
pioneers  who  founded  the  first  white  settlements  anywhere  left  a  sufficiently 
numerous  posterity  to  form  separate  French-speaking  communities.  Kvon  the  fur 
more  recent  German  and  Scandinavian  immigrants  have  already  been  absorbed  in 
the  dominant  Anglo- American  settlements. 

Dubuque,  the  chief  city  of  Iowa,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississipj)!,  is  the 
oldest  in  the  state,  and  one  of  the  lirbt  settlements  in  the  Far  "West.  In  1788 
the  Franco-Canadian  trader,  Julien  Dubuque,  had  already  built  himself  a  log- 
hut  in  this  place  in  the  midst  of  the  surrounding  Sac  Indians,  and  although 
at  first  expelled,  he  returned  and  taught  the  natives  the  art  of  working 
the  neighbouring  lead-mines.  But  no  permanent  station  was  founded,  or  any 
colonisation  in  the  sirict  sense  of  the  word  begun,  till  the  year  1833,  after  the 
Indians  had  surrendered  the  territory  to  the  Federal  Government.  Dubuque, 
which  is  200  miles  south-west  of  Chicago,  stands  on  a  terrace  on  the  slopes 
of  the  hills  opposite  the  common  frontier  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  on  the 
east  side  of  the  river,  eo  that  the  bridge  here  crossing  the  Mississippi  serves  to 
connect  all  three  states.  Like  Galena,  its  Illinois  neighbour,  it  derives  some  of 
its  wealth  from  the  lead  and  zinc  mines  of  the  district ;  but  in  recent  times  the 
mining  interests  have  been  surpassed  in  importance  by  its  riverine  trade  with 
Saint  Paul  and  Saint  Louis,  and  by  the  numerous  local  industries,  such  as  wooden- 
ware,  leather,  machinery,  brewing,  flour-milling,  and  soap-works. 

Davenport,  another  flourishing  place  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  70 
miles  due  south  of  Dubuque,  occupies  an  advantageous  position  at  the  lower 
end  of  some  rapids  by  which  all  navigation  is  arrested  during  seasons  of  long 
drought ;  even  for  some  20  miles  above  the  upper  rapids  the  ordinary  river  traffic 
is  at  times  much  endangered  by  shoals  and  reefs.  Thanks  to  one  of  the  finest 
bridges  on  the  Mississippi,  Davenport  forms  practically  a  single  city  with  Rock 
Island  and  Moline  facing  it  r>n  the  Illinois  side. 

Muscaiine,  on  anabrupi  -hid  of  the  main  stream  30  miles  below  Davenport, 
serves  as  a  forwarding  depot  for  the  produce  of  the  Red  Cedar  Valley,  where 
are  situated  the  thriving  towns  of  Cedar  Falls  and  Cedar  Rapids.  Muscatine, 
which  dates  from  1836,  crowns  the  rocky  bluffs  overlooking  the  Mississippi 
nearly  opposite  the  confluence  of  the  Rock  River  on  the  Illinois  side.  Lower 
down  follows  the  valley  of  the  Iowa  River,  where  is  situated  Iowa  City,  which 
was  the  capital  of  the  state  from  1839  to  1855. 

Burlington,  which  lies  on  the  Mississippi  82  miles  below  Davenport,  near  the 
south-east  corner  of  the  state,  had  been  the  seat  of  the  administration  before 
Iowa  City.  Although  now  deprived  of  that  honour  it  is  one  of  the  important 
commercial  and  industrial  places  between  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  Louis. 

Des  Moines,  the  present  capital,  stands  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  "  Council- 
fire,''  where  the  Moins   (Moines)  Indians  held  their  tribal  gatherings.      After 


820 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


driving  out  those  natives,  the  Americans  here  erected  u  fort  at  the  confluence  of 
the  I)o8  Moines  und  Httcoon  Rivers,  und  the  new  settlement,  having  the  advantage 
of  being  situated  in  the  central  part  of  Iowa  174  miles  west  of  Davenport,  was 
chosen  us  the  state  capital  in  1855.     Since  then,  thanks  to  the  convergence  of 


Fig.  144.— Council  Bluits  akd  Omaha. 

Scull'  I  ;  I'.'.vnwi 


vIC'*  "F   ("reenwich 


96*55    . 


96'50- 


2i  Miles. 


numerous  lines  of  railway,  Des  Moines  has  become  the  largest  city  in  the  state. 
It  has  several  fine  public  buildings,  including  a  magnificent  capitol  erected  at  a 
cost  of  |3,000,000,  and  a  marble  edifice  built  by  the  Federal  Government  for  a 
post-office  and  courthouse. 


n^wMiiai^w^WiiiiiftmiTiUBtfini 


,.l:.^l^..^^.....v.i.L,^.^...^.^^^^^^:.;:^3.i::k\.i^ii/.K^U--..^^^^ 


IOWA.— ni:iu:aska. 


8£1 


influence  of 
!  mlvuutage 
nport,  WU8 
mergence  of 


'50_ 

the  state, 
reeled  at  a 
meut  for  a 


Bi'low  llie  capiltil  the  Doft  Moines  Uivor,  lioru  flowing  houIIi  east  to  tlio  Misnis- 
sippi,  i)aHisos  the  thriving  iiuliistiiiil  city  of  Otttimiid,  1'}  niik-s  north-went  of 
Uurlington.  (hi  the  peninsuhi  formed  by  the  two  converging  rivers  at  the 
south-east  angle  of  the  state  stands  the  city  of  Keokuk,  or  the  "  Wideawake 
Fox\"  MO  named  from  au  Indian  chief  friendly  to  the  whites.  Ijike  ])avenport, 
Keokuk  lies  at  the  foot  of  a  series  of  rapids  (the  "  Lower  llapids "),  which 
greatly  obstruct  the  nuvigaticm.  To  obviate  this  dilliculty  u  ship  canal,  ft  miles 
long  and  .'{00  feet  wide,  has  been  constructed  ucro8.s  the  portage,  where  the  stream 
has  tt  total  fall  of  25  or  2tj  feet  over  the  limestone  reefs.  Its  position  ut  this 
point  gives  an  exceptional  importance  to  Keokuk  as  a  trading  depot  at  the  head 
of  the  navigation  for  large  river-steamers  throughout  the  year. 

At  the  opposite  side  of  the  state,  Sioi'x  City,  metropolis  of  north-west  Iowa, 
has  recently  acquired  a  considerable  expansion.  Standing  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Missouri  at  the  Floyd  confluence,  and  just  below  the  mouth  of  the  liig  Sioux 
Kiver  100  miles  above  Omaha,  this  place  has  gradually  attracted  the  trade  of 
a  vast  region,  comprising  parts  of  South  Dakota  and  Nebra.>-ka.  No  other  city 
of  Iowa  has  "advanced  more  rapidly  in  jx)pulution  and  general  prosperity,  the 
number  of  inhabitants  having  increased  more  than  fivefold  during  the  decade 
between  18S0  and  1800.  Council  Bli'Jf'n,  which  lies  much  farther  down  on  the 
same  side  of  the  Missouri,  and  120  miles  south-west  of  I)es  Moines,  may  be  culled 
a  historical  city.  Even  before  the  foundation  of  (he  white  settlement  its  site  was 
known  to  historians  as  the  pluco  where  the  prairie  Indians  of  the  Fur  West  were 
wont  to  hold  their  great  tribal  gatherings,  whence  its  name  of  "  Council  Bluffs." 
The  Mormons  also  erected  a  village  on  the  spot  duiing  their  westward  emigra- 
tion in  1810.  Later  it  became  a  provision  depot,  where  military  and  commercial 
expediiions  were  organised  und  equipped  for  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  New 
Mexico.  At  present  it  is  one  of  the  great  stations  on  the  Chicago  Pacific  and 
Union  Pacific  trunk  lines,  being  connected  with  its  neighbour  Omaha,  on  the 
Nebraska  side,  by  two  bridges  which  here  cross  the  Missouri  and  its  broad  bottom- 
lands. The  city  stands  partly  on  the  bluffs,  but  mainly  on  the  plain  at  their 
foot,  neurlj'  four  miles  cast  of  Omaha. 

Near  Coniirtj,  ut  the  south  west  angle  of  the  state,  there  is  a  small  community 
of  French  socialists,  survivors  of  the  colony  of  Icaric  founded  by  Cabet  in  the  year 
1849.  Corning  stands  on  a  branch  of  the  Nodoway  River  about  70  miles  south- 
west of  Des  Moines.  Between  the  capital  and  Iowa  City  some  German  communists 
have  formed  a  more  flourishing  colony  at  Amana  township,  which  comprises  four 
villages,  encircled  by  undulating  hills  under  grass,  cereals  and  fruit  trees. 

15. — Nebraska. 
This  state  takes  its  name  from  the  Nebraska  or  Platte  River,  by  which  it  is 
traversed  from  west  to  east,  through  a  series  of  elongated  meanderings.  Except 
on  the  north-eust  and  east  where  it  is  bordered  by  the  Missouri,  separating  it  from 
South  Dakota,  Iowa  and  Missouri,  Nebraska  is  everywhere  bounded  by  conven- 
tional straight  lines  forming  the  frontiers  towards  Dakota  on  the  north,  Wyoming 
87 


'^mmMm&-^mmmi^» 


^iaiii 


822 


THK  UNITED  STATES. 


and  rolitriiflo  on  the  west,  mid  Kan  .<  on  th«'  Houth.  It  ihiiH  forinn  a  I<>n;»  parulhlo- 
graiii  riniii^  from  tlu>  MJMHoiiri  valloy  hy  iriHriiNiMc  gradations  ihroiigli  lliu  Htcppo 
ri'pion  and  tho  Great  Sand  HIIIh  towardu  the  Rocky  MountaiiiH.  In  the  cxtreino 
north-wtmt  \\ui  ravini'd  platraux  of  the  "  Had  LandH"  (tho  Mtinvainca  Tcrren  of  the 
(Canadian  iiiont'orH)  revoal  thtir  storied  cirqiu's,  their  fantastic  donien  and  decorated 
Iiinnach'H.  IJut  this  ahsolutely  barren  tract,  with  ilH  strangely  Hhaped  clayey  ninsHos 
Hlioolinp;  up  to  hoijfhts  of  from  ;"»(•  to  Iv'OD  feel ,  occupies  but  a  comparatively 
wmall  p;irt  of  tho  state.  In  the  north  u  far  more  extensive  space  is  covered 
with  ranges  of  sandhills,  with  intervening  alluvial  bottom-lands  forming  truulcss 
steppes,  which  could  bo  rendered  productive  only  by  urtiHcial  irrigation. 

Although  Nebraska  is  essentially  an  agricultural  region,  nuiny  industries  have 
sprung  up  and  continue  to  progress  with  the  development  of  tho  railway  system  in 
the  eastern  districts.  Thanks  to  its  favourable  position  on  the  main  commercial 
highway  between  tho  oast  and  west,  the  population  has  increased  with  great 
rapidity  in  recent  years,  advancing  from  little  over  20,000  in  1M70  to  upwards  of 
1,000,000  in  1W)0.  It  consists  almost  exclusively  of  whites,  partly  Anglo-Ameri- 
can settlers,  partly  imnn'grants  from  Europe.  A  few  narrow  tracts,  like  islands 
surrounded  by  the  surging  tide  of  white  colonij-utitm,  had  been  reserved  for  tho 
aborigines.  Such  was  tho  enclave  of  the  Santees  (Isanti),  a  Dakotan  tribe  of  about 
700  souls,  wlio  after  having  taken  i)art  in  the  Minnesota  massacres  of  lS(i:i,  had 
been  relegated  to  this  district,  where  they  have  been  gradually  merged  in  tho  sur- 
rounding populations.  In  other  words  thoy  have  abandoned  their  tribal  usiiges, 
and  have  thus  become  American  citizens,  each  owning  a  separate  plot  or  holding, 
which  he  can  sell  or  exchange  ut  pleasure.  Tho  result  is  that  a  considerable  part 
of  the  reserve  has  already  passed  into  the  hands  of  tho  "  palefaces,"  while  the 
owners  are  disappearing. 

Like  the  other  West  Control  States,  Nebraska  became  part  of  the  United 
States  domain  by  the  Louisiana  purchase  of  1803.  It  successively  formed  part  of 
the  Louisiana  and  Missouri  Territories  down  to  the  year  1854,  when  the  so-called 
Missouri  Compromise  of  1820  was  revoked,  and  the  eventful  Nebraska  bill  voted 
by  the  Federal  Congress,  after  a  fierce  politicsl  struggle  between  the  Abolitionist 
and  Slave  parties.  Bufc  general  progress  was  so  slow  that  Nebraska  was  not 
organised  as  a  state  till  tho  year  18G7.  Since  then,  but  especially  since  the 
completion  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  traversing  its  territory,  Nebraska  has 
entered  on  a  career  of  remarkable  prospeiity,  checked  only  by  an  occasional  visi- 
tation of  locusts  from  the  great  plains  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Omaha,  former  capital  of  Nebraska,  still  remains  its  largest  city.  Founded  in 
1854,  it  owes  its  prosperity  to  its  favourable  position  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Missouri  opposite  Council  Bluffs,  and  at  the  most  frequented  crc'Cg  of  the 
river.  This  position,  combined  with  its  extensive  railway  communications,  has 
raised  it  to  an  important  position  amongst  the  industrial  and  commercial  cities  of 
the  Union  ;  in  the  meat-packing  business  it  takes  a  particularly  high  rank.  One 
of  the  two  bridges  spanning  tho  Missouri  at  this  point,  which  lies  18  miles  above 
the  Platte  confluence,  is  a  magnificent  structure  erected  at  a  cost  of  ^1,500,000. 


WMiif»i6l,-|iJ„  .Ml 


'■■■■''    -■''-'•■■,■  ^-  '•'  •■     ■■-  '  ■.■Aii;.!.;;-^- ji...;.-  :-j\:^:^?-.^-.saif,.^i.lMi^:i3^ 


i;,'  punilNlo- 

1     lIlO  Htt'ppO 

the  •'Xfrt'ino 
TirifH  of  tho 
1(1  dvconitt'd 

iii|)ai'ulivcl_v 
»  in  coveri'd 
ling  trut'loMH 
n. 

\iMtricH  Imve 
iiy  MyBloiu  ill 
coiiiinurciul 
with  greut 
I  upwards  of 
iiglo-Ainei'i- 
liUo  isluiidH 
irved  for  the 
ribo  of  about 
r)f  lS(i:{,  had 
d  in  the  sur- 
ribul  U8!igcH, 
t  or  Iiolding, 
idorablo  part 
,"  while  the 

'  the  United 
rmed  part  of 
the  so-called 
ka  bill  voted 
5  Abolitionist 
ska  was  not 
Uy  since  the 
^^ebraska  has 
casional  visi- 

Founded  in 
bank  of  the 
;"'Eg  of  the 
[locations,  has 
ircial  cities  of 
I  rank.  One 
B  miles  above 
t  $1,500,000. 


9) 

o 

O 


t 


NEBEASKA. 


828 


Lincoln,  present  capital  of  Nebraska,  lies  50  miles  south-west  of  Omaha  on  Salt 
Creek,  in  the  middle  of  the  prairie  where  it  sprang  almost  suddenly  into  existence. 
Its  first  houses  were  erected  in  1867,  and  the  very  next  year  it  became  the  state 

Fipr.    145.~VlKW   TAKFN    IN   THB    Ba.D    LaNDS,    NkBKASKA. 


capital.  Here  are  the  Nebraska  State  University  and  Agncultural  College,  open 
to  students  of  both  sexes.  Nebraska  City,  on  the  Missouri,  lies  50  miles  south- 
east of  Lincoln,  and  is  accessible  to  large  steamers  both  from  the  upper  and  lower 
reaches.     This  place  faces  East  Nebraska  City,  a  small  station  on  the  opposite 


32-4 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


i 


(Towa)  side  of  the  river.     A  little  higher  up  standi  PUillsmout/i,  wiihiu  two  miles 
of  the  Platte  confluence,  which  is  visible  from  this  point. 

Beatrice  lies  40  miles  in  a  \»ee  line  south  of  Lincoln,  on  the  Big  Blue  River,  a 
northern  affluent  of  the  Kansas.  From  its  position  on  this  river  it  has  taken  the 
fanciful  title  of  the  "  Queen  of  the  Blue."     Here  are  some  quarries  of  magnesian 

Fif,'.  146.— Missouri -Nebraska  Confluence. 

Scale  1  1  04,1)00. 


95'56'  Weat  op  GreewwicU, 


95'54." 


.  2i  MUes. 


limestone,  an  excellent  building  material.  Towards  the  centre  of  the  state  the 
most  important  trading  places  are  Grand  Island  and  Eastings,  the  former  on  the 
Platte  River  at  a  point  wliere  the  stream  bifurcates  round  an  island  50  miles  long. 

16. — Missouri. 
This  stale,  in  some  respects  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  Union,  takes  its 
name  from  the  great  river  which  forms  its  north-west  frontier  towards  Nebraska. 


■  ^fti'i^iyiiy ji,  ;i  !';j'  i  ^" " 


MISSOUEI. 


825 


u  two  miles 

ue  River,  a 
18  taken  the 


magnesiun 


41 


the  state  the 
)nner  on  the 
lO  miles  long. 


ion,  takes  its 
rds  Nebraska 


and  Kansas,  and  then  traverses  it  from  west  to  east.  The  east  frontier  towards 
Illinois,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  is  formed  by  the  Mississippi,  which  iu  this  section 
of  its  course  is  joined  by  its  two  great  tributaries  from  the  east,  the  Illinois  and 
the  Ohio.  The  state  of  Missouri  thus  occupies  the  true  hydrographic  centre  of 
the  United  States,  with  the  immense  advantage  of  direct  access  to  many  thousand 
miles  of  navigable  waterways  radiating  in  all  directions.  Hence  its  very  position 
naturally  made  it  one  of  those  regions  which  were  most  hotly  contested  by  the  free 
Northern  and  slave-holding  Southern  States.  When  the  inhabitants  of  Missouri, 
at  that  time  controlled  by  a  small  aristocracy  of  planters,  applied  for  the  admis- 
sion of  their  territory  into  the  Union,  they  refused  to  consent  to  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  as  stipulated  by  previous  conventions  agreed  to  by  both  parties.  Such 
was  the  bitterness  of  feeling  called  forth  by  this  refusal,  that  a  sanguinary  con- 
flict long  seemed  all  but  inevitable.  At  last  rival  interests  were  to  some  extent 
reconciled  by  the  "  Missouri  Compromise,"  in  virtue  of  which  the  new  state 
entered  tho  Federal  Union  without  abolishing  servitude,  but  on  the  express  con- 
dition that  henceforth  this  institution  should  never  be  introduced  into  any  other 
territories  north  of  36'^  30'  north  latitude.  Nevertheless  the  struggle  broke  out 
again  during  the  early  years  of  the  settlement  of  Kansas,  and  during  the  Civil  War 
the  Northern  and  Southern  forces  came  into  violent  collision  in  south  Missouri. 

In  the  northern  section  of  Missouri  the  plains,  of  glacial  origin,  are  continuous 
with  the  Iowa  region,  and  are  almost  flat,  or  but  slightly  rolling.  But  south 
of  the  great  watercourse  intersecting  the  state  the  aspect  of  the  land  is  greatly 
diversified  by  the  Silurian  Ozark  Mountains  towards  the  centre  and  by  the  fertile 
and  well-timbered  marshy  and  submerged  tracts  in  the  south-eastern  parts. 
Nearly  the  whole  surface  of  the  state  is  suitable  for  tillage,  and  agricultural  pro- 
duce, such  as  maize,  wheat,  barley,  hemp,  tobacco,  fruits,  fodder  and  livestock, 
constitutes  its  chief  wealth.  Nevertheless  its  mineral  resources,  especially  lead, 
iron,  coal,  and  zinc,  are  steadily  acquiring  increasing  importance,  while  the  large 
cities  are  assuming  more  and  more  the  aspect  of  great  manufacturing  centres. 
The  lead  zone,  which  traverses  the  state  from  east  to  west,  is  practically  inexhaus- 
tible, containing  sufficient  of  this  metal  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  whole  world  for 
an  indefinite  period.  The  chief  coal-measure,  mainly  cannelite  or  bituminous, 
covers  a  total  area  of  over  20,000  square  miles,  about  one-third  of  which  can  be 
profitably  worked.  Stores  of  excellent  hematitic  and  magnetic  iron  ores  existed 
in  the  Iron  Mountain,  Pilot  Knob  and  Shepherd  Mountain  districts,  but  some  of 
them  are  now  exhausted.  Amongst  the  other  mineral  treasures  are  nickel  and 
copper  ores,  cadmium,  some  gold  and  silver,  barium  sulphate,  kaolin,  glass-sand, 
and  fireclay. 

Owing  to  the  two  currents  of  immigration  from  the  Southern  and  the  free 
Northern  States,  the  population  of  Missouri  is  of  a  very  mixed  character,  and  still 
comprises  over  150,000  blacks.  Of  foreigners  the  most  numerous  class  are  the 
Germans,  who  were  estimated  in  1890  at  800,000,  including  those  born  in  the 
States.  On  the  oth.r  hand  the  full-blood  aborigines  have  disappeared,  althcugh 
hulf-breeds  are  numerous  amongst  the  French  inhabitants. 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Missouri  was  first  settled  by  the  French,  who  built  Fort  Orleans  near  the  site 
ol  the  present  Jefferson  City  in  1719,  St.  Genevieve  in  1755,  and  Saint  Louis  nine 
yijars  later.  The  whole  region  was  included  in  the  province  of  Louisiana,  and 
although  portions  were  cluiincd  by  Spain,  it  passed  to  the  United  States  with  the 
Louisiana  purchase  in  1803.  After  the  "Missouri  Compromise  "  of  1820,  it  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  in  1821,  the  section  not  comprised  in  the  state  retaining 
the  title  of  Missouri  Territory  down  to  the  year  1854.  This  territory  was  of  vast 
extent,  stretching  westward  to  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  northwards 
to  British  North  America.  The  state  itself  was  not  finally  adjusted  to  its  present 
limits  till  the  year  1835.  But  long  after  that  period  it  continued  to  be  convulsed 
with  social  troubles  due  to  the  divided  character  of  the  inhabitants,  the  democrats 
from  the  South  clinging  tenaciously  to  the  institution  of  slavery,  to  which  the 
Northern  republicans  were  fiercely  opposed.  Thus,  during  the  Kansas  troubles  of 
1854,  the  inhabitants  of  the  western  districts  violently  resisted  thfe  free-state 
movement,  and  this  conflict,  which  was  continued  with  little  interruption  down  to 
the  Civil  War,  gradually  spread  to  almost  every  part  of  the  state.  It  was  every- 
where attended  by  riots  and  disorders  of  all  kinds,  and  a  sort  of  guerilla  warfare 
was  kept  up  in  some  districts  for  over  ten  years  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War. 

The  slave  party  were  at  no  time  strong  enough  to  induce  the  state  to  join  the 
Confederates ;  but  many  districts  were,  nevertheless,  the  scene  of  several  hotly 
contested  conflicts  between  the  hostile  forces.  Since  the  restoration  of  order  the 
"  Pennsylvania  of  the  West,"  as  Missouri  has  been  called,  has  made  steady  though 
not  rapid  progress  in  the  development  both  of  its  agricultural  and  mineral  resources. 
The  growth  of  the  population  has  also  been  retarded  by  the  emigration  of  many 
thousand  descendants  of  the  early  French  and  English  settlers,  who  have  largely 
contributed  to  the  settlement  of  California,  Oregon  and  other  Pacific  states. 

A  few  busy  agricultural  centres,  such  as  Hannibal  and  Loumana,  have  sprung 
up  along  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  above  the  Missouri  confluence.  More 
important  are  the  towns  situated  on  the  section  of  the  Missouri  forming  the  north- 
west frontier.  Saint  Joseph  especially  has  become  one  of  the  great  converging 
points  of  the  trans- Mississippi  railways.  Nevertheless,  the  development  of  the 
railway  system  has  deprived  it  of  the  importance  which  it  formerly  possessed  as 
tho  point  of  departure  and  chief  depot  of  the  convoys  which  were  here  prepared 
for  the  long  and  dangerous  journey  across  the  western  solitudes  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Near  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri,  where  it  has  already  entered 
the  state,  stands  the  village  of  Independence,  which  played  a  corresponding  part  to 
Saint  Joseph  in  organising  convoys  of  traders  for  New  Mexico  in  the  south-west. 
This  place  was  at  that  time  the  most  advanced  outpost  of  American  civilisation 
on  the  verge  of  the  desert,  some  220  miles  west  of  St.  Louis.  Kansas  City,  one 
of  the  great  urban  groups  of  the  Far  West,  lies  10  miles  west  of  Independence, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri,  half  a  mile  below  the  Kansas  River  confluence. 
Kansas  City  consists  officially  of  two  cities  separated  by  a  conventional  line,  one, 
much  the  largrer  of  the  two,  in  the  state  of  Missouri,  the  other  in  the  adjacent 
state  of  Kansas.     The  eastern  quarter  is  the  more  commercial,  the  western  the 


ii!i*ltoW>WWft'W^i><»WW>»«^ 


Mtr«WMIIB!iW<ML'>toM«iWtaW^^ 


iiiWiiiiiiiMhitMiiiiiJliiliyMfiW^i^iliiiirtiii^^ 


MISSOURI. 


827 


ir  tlie  site 
Louis  nine 
slana,  and 
J  with  the 
20,  it  waa 
I  retaining 
rus  of  vast 
lorthwards 
its  present 
convulsed 
democrats 
which  the 
troubles  of 
free-state 
m  down  to 
was  every- 
Ua  warfare 
Civil  War. 
to  join  the 
i^eral  hotly 
:  order  the 
ftdy  though 
1  resources, 
a  of  many 
ivo  largely 
Eites. 

ive  sprung 
ice.  More 
the  north- 
converging 
ent  of  the 
ossessed  as 
e  prepared 
the  Rocky 
dy  entered 
ing  part  to 
south-west, 
civilisation 
s  City,  one 
ependence, 
confluence, 
line,  one, 
le  adjacent 
eateru  the 


more  industrial,  over  a  hundred  foundries,  meat-packing  establishmonts,  machine 
fuctorios  and  other  workHhops  biing  here  grouped  on  the  bottom-land  which  skirts 
the  river,  and  which  is  crossed  by  magnificent  viaducts  and  connected  by  a  pro- 
digious network  of  railways  with  the  surrounding  regions.  Kansas  City  rivals 
Chicago  itself  in  the  beef  and  pork  packing  business;  in  1890  it  received  by  rail 
as  many  as  2,890,000  hogs  and  1,550,000  head  of  cattle.  The  population  advanced 
from  less  than  5,000  in  1800  and  32,000  in  1870,  to  over  170,000  in  1890, 
including  the  suburb  on  the  Kansas  side  of  the  Missouri.  Here  the  river  is  spanned 
by  a  superb  iron  bridge  which  carries  the  lines  of  several  railway  compunies. 

Saint  Louis,  founded  in  176  i  by  Pierre  Ijaclede  Liguest,  as  a  trading  station 
for  peltries,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  over  forty  years  after  the  erection 
of  the  more  westerly  post  of  Fort  Orleans  at  the  Missouri-Osage  confluence,  has 
long  ceased  to  be  French  except  in  nanie.  Most  of  the  inhabitants,  although  of 
Franco- Canadian  origin,  no  longer  speak  the  language  of  their  forefathers;  even 
the  French  names  of  the  neighbouring  localities  have  been  modified  or  asi?imilated 
by  popular  etymology  to  Anglo-Saxon  forms.  Thus  the  village  of  Vide-Pochr, 
where  the  young  bucks  of  those  days  gaily  "emptied  their  pockets"  at  the 
suburban  pleasure  resorts,  was  transformed  by  the  American  settlers  to  White  Bush, 
an  absolutely  meaningless  designation ;  at  present  it  forms  the  Carondelet  quarter, 
which  has  been  swallowed  up  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city.  Next  to  the 
Anglo-Americans  the  largest  section  of  the  community  are  the  more  recent 
German  settlers,  who  have  hero  preserved  their  nationality  and  their  mother- 
tongue  more  faithfully  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  Union  except  West 
Pennsylvania  and  Milwaukee.  In  the  municipal  and  political  elections  their  influ- 
ence is  often  decisive.  Saint  Louis  occupies  two  terraces  rising  one  above  the 
other  like  the  two  outer  steps  of  a  plateau  some  12  miles  below  the  ^Missouri 
confluence,  about  175  miles  above  that  of  the  Ohio  on  the  opposite  side,  and  1,150 
miles  above  New  Orleans.  At  the  time  when  Laclede  and  his  companions  here 
erected  their  log-huts  the  trading  post  lay  more  than  18  miles  south  of  the 
confluence ;  but  during  the  present  century  the  city  has  acquired  such  a  prodigious 
expansion  that  the  distance  has  been  reduced  by  about  one-third.  In  1888  Suint 
Louis  had  a  frontage  towards  the  Mississippi  of  no  less  than  16  miles,  with  an 
extreme  breadth  from  east  to  west  exceeding  6  miles ;  it  thus  covered  a  superficial 
area  of  some  40,000  acres,  more  than  double  that  of  Paris,  within  its  present 
enclosures.  In  this  area,  however,  are  comprised  as  many  as  eighteen  public  parks, 
one  of  which  covers  no  less  than  1,400  acres,  besides  vast  spaces  occupied  by  the 
factories,  workshops,  goods  and  passenger  stations  of  the  numerous  railways. 
Saint  Louis  is  connected  with  its  suburb  of  East  Saint  Louis  on  the  Illinois  side 
by  one  of  the  noblest  bridges  in  the  world,  which,  like  the  New  York-Brooklyn 
structure,  serves  at  once  for  railway  carriage  and  pedestrian  trafiic.  This  viaduct, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  over  ^10,000,000,  by  the  same  engineer,  Mr.  Eads,  who  after- 
wards opened  the  Mississippi  to  the  largest  vessels,  by  piercing  its  bar,  has  the 
immense  length  of  2,200  yards,  including  the  bind  approaches.  The  bridge  proper, 
consisting  of  three  steel  spans,  gracefully  curved  and  rising  to  a  height  of  160 


,  iii!Hi|,|iiUii  .nj 


328 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


feet  above  the  strerxra,  is  only  1,590  feet  long  from  shore  to  shore.  This  grand 
monument  of  American  engineering  skill  is  famous  iu  the  records  of  the  mechanical 
industries,  for  the  numerous  processes  which  were  for  the  first  time  applied 
in  its  erection.  Connected  with  the  viaduct  is  a  railway  tunnel,  which  extends 
4,800  feet  under  the  city.  Since  the  completion  of  these  works  a  second  viaduct, 
known  as  the  "  Merchants'  Bridge,"  has  been  constructerl  higher  up  the  Mississippi. 

During  the  half-century  following  its  foundation.  Saint  Louis  continued  to 
be  nothing  more  than  a  fur-trading  station.  But  with  the  progress  of  settle- 
ment the  products  of  the  chase  gradually  gave  place  to  those  of  husbandry.  The 
metropolis  of  Missouri  became  a  great  forwarding  depot  fur  the  wheat  and  flour 
of  the  West,  and  it  now  rivals  Chicago  in  this  branch  of  trade.  Since  the  Civil 
War  it  has  also  become  the  outlet  for  the  cotton  of  Arkansas.  Of  local  industries 
the  most  extensive  is  brewing,  which  draws  an  unlimited  supply  of  barley  from 
the  surrounding  states.  One  of  the  large  breweries,  covering  a  space  of  30  acres, 
employs  1,200  hands,  and  exports  its  beer  in  large  quantities  to  the  West 
Indies,  South  America,  and  Australia.  Saint  Louis  also  possesses  several 
important  flonr-mills,  as  well  as  one  of  the  great  refineries  of  the  world,  in  which 
are  treated  all  the  sugars  of  Louisiana  and  Hawaii,  besides  some  of  those  grown 
on  the  plantations  of  Havana  and  Matanza  in  Cuba.  The  foundries  and  other 
metallurgio  works  receive  their  supply  of  ores  from  the  interior  of  the  state, 
and  their  coal  from  Illinois.  The  plate-glass  industry  is  also  centred  in  Saint 
Louis  and  its  extensive  environs,  where  Crystal  City,  lying  also  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  some  30  miles  further  down,  has  been  called  the  Saint  Gobain 
of  America.  In  1887  the  trade  carried  on  by  rail  and  river  represented  a  total  of 
nearly  14,500,000  tons,  an  amount  of  traffic  exceeded  by  few  maritime  porta. 

Thus  Saint  Louis,  geographically  the  most  central  of  all  the  large  cities  of  the 
Union,  has  now  also  become  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  middle  Mississippi 
basin.  Its  prospects  in  this  respect  are  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  the  great 
emporium  of  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Saint  Lawrence  basin.  It  also  takes  a  high 
rank  amongst  literary  and  scientific  circles,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Saint  Louis  and 
the  Washington  University. 

Saint  Gvmvieve,  on  the  Mississippi  about  60  miles  below  Saint  Louis,  and  Cape 
Girardeau,  80  miles  still  lower  down,  have  but  little  trade  ;  their  interest  is  chiefly 
historical,  both  dating  from  the  French  period  and  recalling  the  pioneers  of  coloni- 
sation along  the  banks  of  the  middle  Mississippi.  Saint  Genevieve  was  founded 
in  the  year  1763,  when  many  of  the  French  settlers  on  the  opposite  side,  at  that 
time  somewhat  numerous,  moved  westwards  and  formed  the  new  settlement  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river.  But  it  stood  too  near  the  stream,  and  to  avoid  the 
periodical  floodings  it  had  to  be  removed  farther  inland.  New  Madrid,  which 
the  Spanish  Government  had  peopled  with  French-Acadians  who  had  sought  a 
refuge  in  New  Orleans,  has  remained  an  obscure  village  on  the  Mississippi  about 
40  miles  by  the  direct  route  south-west  of  Cairo.  The  very  traces  have  dis- 
appeared of  the  ambitious  plan  which  was  to  make  Nueva  Madrid  "  the  finest 
city  in  the  universe."     All  these  early  settlements  of  the  French  squatters  have 


'■•^riiiiiiiwiiiiiiiMjii'iiMtawimiitiiBMwMM**^^ 


m'm?9^^wmuwimf»mwmf-''^-^iKri»mi-^~»l^'i*tmm'<KVf4;itW^ikXXi^ 


^v"?ifjr?,-^" 


This  grund 
mcchanicul 
lie  applied 
ch  extends 
id  viaduct, 
Mississippi. 
>ntiiiued  to 
of  settle- 
dry.     Tie 
and  flour 
e  the  Civil 
1  industries 
arley  from 
of  30  acres, 
the  West 
ses    several 
d,  ill  which 
ose  grown 
and  other 
t  the  state, 
)d  in  Saint 
right  bank 
iint  Gobain 
d  a  total  of 
)  ports, 
cities  of  the 
Mississippi 
f  the  great 
takes  a  high 
it  Louis  and 

is,  and  Cape 
est  is  chiefly 
irs  of  coloni- 
H'as  founded 
side,  at  that 
sttlemcnt  on 
to  avoid  the 
adn'd,  which 
ad  sought  a 
ssippi  about 
Bs  have  dis- 
"  the  finest 
uatters  have 


-!sg:->~ 


KANSAS. 


820 


boon  eclipsed  by  several  more  modern  plucos  in  the  interior  of  the  state,  which 
although  less  favourably  situiited  for  trading  purposes,  have  the  advantage  of 
lying  in  the  ceutro  of  rich  agricultural  and  niiuerul  districts.  Such  are  Sit/tilia 
ond  Spriiiijficld,  the  former  I'JO  miles  by  rail  west  of  Saint  Louis,  with  extensive 
railwdy  rolling-stock  works,  the  latter  240  miles  south-west  of  Suiiit  Louis,  with 
woollen,  machinery,  engine  and  boiler  manufactories. 

In  south  Missouri  the  two  chief  groups  of  mines  are  those  of  Iron  Mountain 
and  the  lead  and  zinc  deposits  of  which  Joplin  ond  Oranby  are  the  industrial 
centres.  The  hill  from  which  Iron  Mountain  tokes  its  name  lies  80  miles  south 
by  west  from  Saint  Louis,  and  rises  about  300  feet  above  the  neighbouring  plain. 
It  consists  mainly  of  excellent  hematite  ore  containing  about  70  per  cent,  of 
metal,  and  described  as  heaped  up  "  in  masses  of  all  sizts  from  a  pigeon's  egg  to 
a  middle-sized  church."  Jopliu  and  Granby  are  situated  in  the  south-western 
corner  of  the  state  in  the  midst  of  numerous  productive  lead  and  zinc  mines. 
Joplin,  where  mining  operations  are  most  active,  has  sprung  up  suddenly  in  the 
midst  of  tt  mining  population  already  numbering  over  50,000.  Hero  the  lead 
and  zinc  ores  are  treated  directly  in  numerous  furnaces  and  other  workshops.  The 
output  of  the  Joplin  zinc-mines  representa  three-fourths  of  the  total  yield  in  the 
United  States,  and  perhaps  one- seventh  of  that  of  the  whole  world. 

17. — Kansas. 

This  state  has  a  natural  frontier  only  at  its  north-east  corner,  where  it  is 
separated  from  Missouri  by  the  course  of  the  Missomi  River.  Elsewhere  all  the 
lines  of  demarcation  coincide  with  meridians  or  with  parallels  of  latitude  ;  on  the 
north  the  40°  north  latitude  separating  it  from  Nebraska,  on  the  west  the  104° 
west  longitude  from  Colorado,  in  the  south  the  37°  latitude  from  Oklahoma  and 
Indian  Territory,  and  on  the  east  the  meridian  of  94**  38'  west  from  Missouri. 
The  river  whence  the  state  takes  its  name  traverses  it  from  west  to  east,  and 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  this  fluvial  basin  is  comprised  within  its  limits.  A 
section  of  the  Arkansas  also  flows  through  the  south-western  district.  Within 
its  conventional  limits  Kansas  stretches  east  and  west  about  400,  north  and  south 
some  200  miles,  with  a  superficial  area  almost  exactly  equal  to  that  of  Great 
Britain  less  the  principality  of  "Wales.  The  surface  is  mainly  a  rolling  plain  at 
a  mean  height  of  about  2,000  feet  above  sea-level,  but  gradually  rising  from  the 
banks  of  the  Missouri  (600  or  700  feet)  to  the  Colorado  frontier,  which  has  a  mean 
altitude  of  considerably  over  3,000  feet.  The  monotony  of  the  undulating  steppe 
is  scarcely  anywhere  broken  except  by  the  broad,  wooded  bottom-lands  traversed 
at  intervals  by  the  watercourses,  and  presenting,  so  to  say,  ready-made  cuttings 
for  the  lines  of  railways  constructed  along  the  foot  of  the  lateral  escarpments. 

Although  the  region  at  present  occupied  by  the  state  of  Kansas  formerly 
figured  on  maps  as  the  "American  Desert,"  it  by  no  means  deserves  this  designa- 
tion, despite  the  occasional  long  periods  of  drought  to  which  it  is  subject,  and 
which  often  cause  great  distress.     Between  the  years  1888  and  1890  the  popula- 


'-'mm-:.- 


"i'iiVV  '"- 


sjawwwFv-? 


*r 


■■«*«MpMMlM«#HNrtiH 


8B0 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


tion  oven  diniiniHhrd  by  about  90,000,  and  furnu'r«  emigrated  in  thousiuids  to  tho 
surrounding  wtutes.  Tho  crops  huvo  also  frociucntly  Huilorod  much  from  tho 
visitation  of  hjcuMts.  ]lut  in  fuvourabh-  seasons  Kansas  tukes  u  foremost  position 
amongst  the  States  of  tho  Union  for  tlio  production  of  cereals  and  corn,  which  in 
18!)l  roproscntcd  u  total  sum  of  about  ^'200,000,000.  Tho  soil  consisting  almost 
everywhere,  and  ospocially  in  tho  river  bottoms  and  bcnch-lunds,  of  a  rich  black 
loam,  is  well  suitod  for  tillage  and  adapted  for  tho  cultivation  of  uU  those  plants 
that  flourish  best  in  the  middle  temperate  zone. 

Kansas  might  seem  to  have  as  good  a  right  to  the  title  of  the  Central  State  as 
has  Missouri.  The  latter  no  doubt  occupies  the  hydrographic  centre  of  tho  Union, 
whereas  tho  former  lies  in  the  geometric  centre,  though  at  some  distance  from  the 
axis  of  tho  Mississippi  basin.  Excluding  Alaska,  the  mathematical  centre  of 
the  United  States  is  approximately  indicated  by  a  monument  set  up  near  the  city 
of  Fort  Riley,  at  the  converging  point  of  Smoky  Hill  and  Ropublicun  Kivers, 
whoso  junction  forms  tho  Kansas.  From  a  characteristic  flower  of  its  prairies, 
Kansas  has  also  been  called  the  "  Sunflower  State."  Tho  river  banks  and  bottoms 
are  still  covered  in  places  with  forest  trees,  such  as  tho  ash,  elm,  cotton- wood, 
mulberry,  and  several  species  of  maple  and  oak.  Hut  scarcely  five  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  area  is  under  timber,  and  all  the  magnificent  black  walnut-trees  that 
formerly  fringed  the  banks  of  the  Kaw  or  Kansas  have  long  disappeared. 

Admitted  late  into  the  Union,  Kansas  was  from  the  first  a  fiercely-contested 
battlefield  between  the  slave-holding  planters  and  the  northern  abolitionists.  So 
frequent  were  the  collisions  that  at  that  time  it  was  known  as  "  Bleeding  Kansas," 
and  the  electors  went  to  the  voting  booths  with  their  ticket  in  one  hand  and  a  bowie- 
knife  in  the  other.  According  to  the  Missouri  compromise  of  1820  slavery  was  cer- 
tainly interdicted  in  this  territory,  but  the  pro-slavery  planters  from  Missouri  made 
the  most  strenuous  efforts  to  extend  their  institutions  to  the  new  State.  At  one 
time  their  success  seemed  assured,  supported  as  they  were  by  the  Federal  forces,  and 
by  the  unconstitutional  weapons  of  the  so-called  "  border  ruffians,"  that  is  bands  of 
armed  desperadoes  whom  they  sent  into  Kansas  to  control  the  elections,  or  falsify 
the  returns,  and  even  to  destroy  the  settlements  of  those  who  advocated  the  doctrine 
of  "squatter  sovereignty."  Rival  constitutions  were  even  set  up,  such  as  the 
Free  State  Constitution  framed  at  Topeka  in  1 855,  and  an  opposition  government 
proclaimed  by  the  slave  party  at  Lecompton  in  1857,  though  both  remained 
inoperative.  At  last,  after  many  sanguinary  conflicts,  in  which  many  livob  were 
lost  and  much  property  destroyed,  Kansas  was  adn.itted  into  the  Union  as  a  free 
state.  Then  came  the  Civil  "War,  in  which  she  took  comparatively  speaking 
a  more  active  part  than  any  other  state  in  the  West,  furnishing  proportionately 
more  troops  to  the  Federal  cause,  and  also  simultaneously  maintaining  a  fierce 
party  struggle  all  along  the  borders,  and  beyond  them,  into  some  of  the  con- 
terminous states.  After  the  general  peace  Kansas  rapidly  recovered  from  her 
wounds,  and  entered  on  an  era  of  steady  material  progress.  Besides  its  immense 
agricultural  resources,  this  state  possesses  considerable  mineral  wealth,  especially 
many  thousand  square  miles  of  middle  and  upper  carboniferous  strata,  the  former 


■■ 


KANSAS. 


831 


iiuls  to  tho 
from  tho 
iHt  poNitiou 
1,  which  in 
ing  almost 
rich  bluck 
1080  plants 

•ul  State  u8 
tho  Union, 
!e  from  the 
centre  of 
ar  tho  city 
sun  Kivers, 
ta  prairies, 
nd  bottoms 
)tton-wood, 
per  cent,  of 
t-trecs  that 

3d. 

y-contested 
ionists.     So 
ig  Kansas," 
nd  a  bowie- 
jry  was  cer- 
ssouri  made 
te.     At  one 
[  forces,  and 
,  is  bands  of 
8,  or  falsify 
the  doctrine 
such  as  the 
government 
ti   remained 
y  liveu  were 
)n  as  a  free 
ly  speaking 
portionately 
ng  a  fierce 
af  the  con- 
d  from  her 
its  immense 
h,  especially 
the  former 


very  prodiictivo  and  abundant  in  tho  south-eastern  districts.     Rich  lead  und  z!no 
deposits  uIno  occur  in  tlio  valley  of  tho  Neosho  aillucnt  of  tho  Arkansas  lUvor. 

Tho  Kansas  valloy  was  first  viiitcd  by  tho  Spanish  expedition  under  ('oroiiado, 
who  traversed  tho  whole  region  from  south  to  north.  It  wus  oguin  explored  in 
171!)  by  some  French  adventurers,  led  by  Dutisn?;  but  no  permanent  white 
settlements  appear  to  have  boon  anywhere  mudo  before  tho  present  century.  Most 
of  this  region  became  part  of  tho  Union  through  tho  Louisiatui  purchase  of  IHOJ ; 
but  the  south-western  district,  originally  claimed  by  Spain,  roinaiiied  an  integral 

Fig.  147.— TiiR  Two  Kanhas  Cities. 
BoKle  1  :  !J!tO,0(w. 


8  Miles. 


part  of  Texas  until  five  years  after  its  annexation.  In  1850  Texas  ceded  this 
region  to  the  Federal  Government. 

In  1825  a  first  serious  attempt  was  made  to  open  the  country  by  establishing 
the  so-called  "  Santa  F^  Trail,"  by  which  an  extensive  overland  trade  was  de- 
veloped with  the  southern  and  south-western  regions.  In  1831,  the  first  Protestant 
missions  were  founded  among.st  the  local  Indian  tribes,  and  these  were  soon 
followed  by  those  of  the  Roman  Catholics  conducted  by  the  Jesuits,  who  foxuided 
the  Osage  and  the  Pottawatomie  missions  in  1847. 

The  population  is  concentrated,  especially  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  state, 
along  the  banks  of  the  Missouri  and  Lower  Kansas.  Here  Atchison  and  Leaven- 
worth occupy  analogous  positions  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri,  the  former  35. 


MMM»^»%Mil«> 


liWf-'lll  M>l|f_l|Jl|»L 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


tho  latter  70  niiloH  helow  Saint  Jowph.  Near  Leuvonworth  Rtaudii  ii  fort  wliich 
WUB  erected  in  IH'JT,  before  flu«  lirHt  wimifterM  hud  yet  croiwed  tho  MiMsouri.  ThiH 
iiiilitiiry  Ntiition,  whicli  long  fornied  the  hiilwurk  of  tho  We^t  agiiiuHt  the  IiidiaiiH, 
WHS  uIho  the  bturting  point  of  nuinerouH  Neienlilic  expeditionn  to  the  Koeky 
MonntiiiiiH.  Ilenee  the  freqiioiit  motition  of  Fort  Ltd  mi  north  in  tho  reeonU  of 
geopfraphieal  oxph)ration  down  to  tho  miihile  of  tho  century.  Topeka,  capital  of 
tho  state  and  rival  of  Leuvonworth  in  commercial  importance,  stundH  on  the 
south  hank  of  the  KunmiH  over  aguintt  an  extenwivo  auburb  on  tho  oppoN'to 
iide.  ItH  Indian  name  in  naid  to  be  derived  from  tho  wild  potatoes,  which  Btlll 
grow  in  ahundaiieo  on  tho  neiglihonring  hottom-landH.  Topeka,  whicli  i^  dintant 
(i7  milcH  weet  of  KunH;iH  Tity,  MisMouri,  in  (he  seat  of  Washburn  College  (Oon- 
gregutional),  and  of  several  other  educational  itiHtitiitions.  Lairrcncc,  on  the  south 
bank  of  tho  Kansas  lliver,  about  midway  between  Topeka  and  the  MiMsouri  con- 
fluence, is  pre-eminently  tho  historical  city  of  Kansas.  Its  first  settlers,  all  aboli- 
tionists  from  Now  Englund,  had  named  it  New  Itrnton,  which  the  pro  slavery 
immigrants  from  Missouri  afterwards  changed  to  Ydiikcctown.  They  several  times 
plundered  it  during  tho  troubles  of  18  >0,  and  again  in  1803  during  tho  civil  war. 
Although  chosen  as  tho  scat  of  tho  Univeraity  of  Kansas,  founded  in  1804  and 
open  to  both  sexes,  Lawrence  hos  progressed  less  rapidly  than  its  neighbour, 
IvnmiH  Citij,  which  lies  at  tho  junction  of  tho  Kansas  and  Missouri  Rivers. 
Although  comnjorciuUy  little  more  than  a  western  suburb  of  Kansas  Cit/, 
Missouri,  this  place  is  already  tho  largest  city  in  Kansas,  with  a  population  of 
over  4(),()00,  in  1H91.  Fort  Scott,  on  a  small  attluont  of  the  Osnge,  in  tho  south- 
eastern part  of  the  state,  dates  from  tho  year  1842,  when  a  fortified  post  was 
erected  here  as  a  bulwark  against  the  Indians.  At  that  time  it  was  an  important 
military  station,  at  present  it  is  a  flourishing  centre  of  trade,  industry,  and  coal- 
mining. In  tho  section  of  the  Arkansas  lliver  lying  within  the  limits  of  the 
state,  the  chief  place  is  Wichita,  which  stands  ot  tho  head  of  tho  fluvial  naviga- 
tion, and  at  the  confluence  of  the  Little  Arkansas,  8>0  miles  south-west  of  Emporia. 
Thanks  to  its  advantageous  position,  Wichita  has  beoomo  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing cities  in  Kansas,  with  a  population  of  about  25,000. 


18. — Arkansas. 

Arkansas,  pronounced  Arkonsaw,  takes  its  name,  like  Kansas,  from  tho  river, 
the  lower  course  of  which  traverses  the  state  from  west  to  east  to  the  Mississippi 
confluence,  about  midway  between  Memphis  and  Vicksburg,  On  tho  east  side  the 
great  river  forms  a  natural  frontier  towards  Tennessee  and  Mississippi,  but  almost 
everywhere  else  the  boundaries  are  formed  by  geometrical  lines,  on  the  north 
towards  Missouri,  west  towards  Indian  Territory  and  Texas  and  south  towards  Louis- 
iana. The  monotony  of  these  lines,  however,  is  somewhat  broken  in  the  north- 
east by  an  intruding  corner  of  Missouri,  and  in  the  south-west,  where  for  a  short 
distance  the  Red  River  bounds  an  intruding  corner  of  Texas.  The  surface 
is  mainly  u  rolling  prairie  diversified  chiefly  by  the  broken  range  of  the  Ozark 


.mm 


AUKAN\SA8. 


sua 


fort  wliich 
luri.     This 
H>  IiuliaiiN, 
iho    llorky 
recorcU  of 
cupitiil  of 
ilrt    on  tho 
10  oppoHitp 
which  Btlll 
in  (liHtunt 
llcj^t'  ((Jon- 
i  llio  south 
iiHOiiri  con- 
I,  ull  aboli- 
pro  sluvory 
veriil  times 
civil  wur. 
n  18(i4  und 
neighbour, 
uri  Rivers, 
nisas  Cit/, 
puhition  of 
tho  Houth- 
(1  post  was 
n  important 
y,  and  coal- 
nits  of  the 
iul  navijra- 
of  Emporia, 
oat  fluurish- 


n  tho  river, 

Mississippi 

;ast  side  the 

but  almost 

1  the  north 

vfirds  Louis- 

the  north - 

for  a  short 

The   surface 

'  the  Ozark 


Fig.  148.— Hot  Sprinos. 


MounfaiiiR,  which  stretch  Bouth-wo«t\vurd«  hptwoon  MiNMoiiri  niid  tho  ArkaiiNiM 
Uivor,  with  nutiiorous  outlyiiif?  Npurs,  Huch  u«  tho  Hhuk  Hills  in  tho  innlh,  iho 
Washita  Mills  in  tho  Hoiith,  uud  tho  Cane  Mills  in  tho  north-wost,  all  upparontly 
holonging  to  the  sumo  orographic  HyHtoni,  but  uowhoro  attaining  any  groat  ulovu- 
tion.  KastwurdM,  along  tho  couriso  of  tho  MiHHiB<<ip[)i,  thoro  are  vast  marshy  rivor- 
bottoniH  intorsporsed  with  lak(<H  or  lagoons,  bayous  or  baokwutors,  gonorally  Inw- 
lyinjf,  'Hit  protected  from  tho  poriitdical  inundations  by  an  elaborate  system  of 
^;oBtly  dykt'S  and  ombankinontH.  From  tho  swampy  region  tho  ground  rolls 
wont^vards  gradually  up  to  tho  more  hilly  districts,  miiny  parts  of  which  aro 
finely  timbori '1  with  tho  walnut,  cypress,  hornbeam,  locust,  hickory,  ouk  and 
otlit^r  useful  forest  growths.  JSouthwanls  stretch  numerous  prairie  trucks,  while 
tho  extremely  fertile  soil  of  tho  south-eastern  districts  is  mainly  under  mai/e  and 
cotton.  On  thu  otli^r  hand,  it  will  be  dillicult  ever  to  bring  under  tillage  much 
of  the  swampy  and  oven  Hooded 
north-eastern  region  between  tho 
8t.  Francis  und  Mississippi  Rivers. 
Arkansas  possesses  considerablo 
mineral  resources,  such  as  coal  of 
good  quality  uhmg  both  sides  of 
the  Arkansus  River,  lignite  in  tho 
south-eastern  torfiary  formations, 
productive  argentiferous  galena, 
zinc,  and  iron  ores  in  several 
districts,  copper,  bauxite,  kaolin, 
and  grindstones.  The  valuable 
novaculite,  literally  "  ruzor-stone  " 
or  "  hone-stone,"  an  extromoly 
compact  form  of  hornstono,  occurs 
in  large  quantities,  supplying  the  material  for  whetstones,  the  preparation  of 
which  has  long  been  on  important  local  industry.  Despite  these  varied  resources, 
the  colonisation  of  Arkansas  has  hitherto  proceeded  at  a  slow  pace.  The  difficulties 
of  the  navigation  on  tho  Arkansas  and  White  Rivers,  tho  absence  of  suitable 
sites  for  settlements  along  the  low-lying  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  und  especially 
the  position  of  the  state  itself,  remote  from  the  great  historic  highways,  have  tendi'd 
to  defleet  the  stream  of  immigrati(m  from  this  region.  The  first  settlers,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  Canadian  voyagours  and  half-breeds,  were  regarded  as  tho  rudest 
and  least  civilised  community  in  the  Union.  But  the  obitaclea  till  recently 
opposed  to  progress  have  at  lust  been  removed  or  neutralised  by  tho  development 
of  the  railway  system  and  of  cotton  culture,  combined  with  the  exploitation  of 
the  thermal  waters  and  of  various  mines,  especially  of  bauxite,  which  is  now 
utilised  for  the  preparation  of  aluminium.  Formerly  a  par*:  of  French  Louifciana, 
Arkansas  passed  to  the  United  States  in  1803,  and  in  1812  was  included  in 
Missouri  territory.  Seven  years  later  it  was  detached  and  organised  as  a  separate 
territory,  and  in  1836  admitted  to  the  Union  with  its  present  limits. 


fli'S'        Watt  oR  Greenwich 


a.^JoO  Vur.i-, 


•."AVn'<«niiiiiii'i>itr'iri\»~'':r' 


884 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Litl/e  Rock,  capital  and  chief  commercial  city  of  Arkansas,  occupies  a  central 
position  134  miles  west  by  south  of  Memphis.  It  crowns  a  slaty  bluff  50  feet  high 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Arkansas  River,  which  is  accessible  to  this  point  by  large 
steamers  from  the  Mississippi  for  nine  months  in  the  year.  The  "  Little  Rock  " 
occupied  by  tho  city  is  so  named  in  contradistinction  to  another  slaty  bluff,  the  so- 
called  "  Big  Rock,"  which  stands  two  miles  farther  up,  and  rises  about  200  feet 
above  the  stream.  The  Ifot  Sprimjs,  seventy  in  number,  which  are  situated  in  a 
narrow  gorge  about  50  miles  south-west  of  Little  Rock,  attract  crowds  of  visitors 
during  the  summer  months.  These  springs  belong  to  the  Federal  Government, 
which  leases  them  to  private  speculators.  The  waters,  which  hold  carbonic  acid 
and  several  carbonates  in  solution,  range  from  a  cold  temperature  to  100°,  and 
even  153"  F.,  and  appear  to  be  really  efficacious  for  the  cure  of  numerous  chronic 


Fig  149 —Van  Bubex  and  Fobt  Smith. 
Scale  1  :  240,000. 


■94°2B- 


Wast  op  Cceenwich 


94*15- 


,  3Ui1m. 


disorders.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  a  deposit  of  excellent  novaculite.  The  city, 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  "  hot  springs,"  has  acquired  somewhat  eccentric 
outlines  by  its  expansion  northwards  up  a  narrow  gulch  between  the  hills,  and 
southwards  over  the  surrounding  plain,  the  two  sections  being  connected  by  a 
slender  stem  across  the  gorge. 

This  hilly  district,  which  belongs  to  the  Ozark  system,  constitutes  the  only 
important  mountain  group  in  the  vast  central  region  between  the  Appalachians 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi  the  most  frequented  riverine  port  is 
HclenUi  which  stands  on  the  last  swellings  of  the  only  rising  ground  that 
approaches  the  right  bank  of  the  river  below  the  Ohio  confluence.  Here  consider- 
able quantities  of  cotton  are  shipped  for  New  Orleans.     At  the  other  extremity 


iiyi'"'  '»>- 


ij-itMMiiiimjWBWiiiiMiMii 


MWIiiiiiiiiM 


y^fli'yijqii'^yjimi^i'**  i^K,  ^  jiwj  i;''v  .1 ; 


iijSli^ife 


INDIAN  TEBRITOEY. 


336 


?a  a  central 
50  feet  high 
int  by  large 
ttle  Rock" 
)luff,  the  80- 
ut  200  feet 
ituatcd  in  a 
is  of  visitors 
loverument, 
urbonic  acid 
0  100°,  and 
-ous  chronic 


.  The  city, 
lat  eccentric 
he  hills,  and 
lected  by  a 

ites  the  only 
Appalachians 

Tine  port  is 
ground  that 
ere  consider- 
er  extremity 


of  the  state  the  twin  cities  Van  Buren  and  FoH  Smith,  facing  each  other  across  a 
sharp  bend  of  the  Arkansas,  resemble  the  busy  hives  of  the  north  in  their  brisk 
life  and  enterprising  spirit.  They  are  the  great  depots  of  supplies  for  the  neigh- 
bouring Indian  tribes,  and  more  especially  for  the  Chcrokees  and  Choctaws,  whose 
domain  begins  immediately  to  the  west  of  the  Arkansas. 

19,  20. — Indian  Tehritory  and  Oklahoma. 

Until  recently,  Indian  Territory  embraced  an  area  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
Kansas,  and  occupied  the  region  lying  between  Kansas  on  the  north,  ^lissouri 
and  Arkansas  on  the  east,  Texas  on  the  south  and  west  sides.  In  1)^00  the 
western  portion  of  this  region,  together  with  a  long  narrow  strip  lying  between 

Fig.  160— Oklahoma  and  Indian  Tekbitoby  in  1892. 

Scale  1  :  6,000,000. 


124  Miles. 


Texas  on  the  south,  Kansas  and  Colorado  on  the  north,  and  New  Mexico  on  the 
west,  was  erected  into  the  new  Territory  of  Oklahoma.  The  fronti'  ra  of  both 
Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory  are  everywhere  conventional  straight  lines,  except 
on  the  south  side,  where  the  boundaries  towards  Texas  coincide  with  the  course  of 
the  Red  River.  Although  watered  by  this  stream,  by  the  northern  and  southern 
forks  of  the  Canadian,  the  Cimarron  and  other  affluents  of  the  Arkansas,  as  well 
as  by  the  Arkansas  itself,  this  region  receives  too  slight  a  supply  of  rainfall 
for  all  the  land  to  be  brought  under  cultivation.  But  the  bottom-lands  and  the 
tracts  capable  of  artificial  irrigation  yield  abundant  crops,  while  the  rest  of  the 
country,  formerly  roamed  by  the  bison  and  antelope,  may  be  described  as  a  vast 
cattle-run  afEording  pastures  for  multitudes  of  live-stock.  Indian  Territory  contains 


•^rr 


iiiii'''()">l'."l'M*'"^' ."-■!' 


886 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


extensive  coul  and  other  minorul  resources.  The  coal  is  of  a  semi  bitumiuous 
character  and  of  good  quality. 

Until  1889  this  entire  region  had  been  virtually  reserved  as  an  agricultural  and 
pastoral  domain  for  those  Indian  tribes  that  had  been  elsewhere  dispossessed  of 
their  original  lands.  Hence  strangers,  that  is,  peoples  of  non-Indian  race,  could 
acquire  rights  of  residence  only  by  becoming  adopted  in  some  native  community, 
or  by  intermarrying  with  the  Indians.  Such  alliances  became  tolerably  frequent, 
though  the  whites  thereby  lost  caste,  and  were  dubbed  with  the  opprobrious 
name  of  "  squaw-men."  Meanwhile  the  number  of  palefaces  thus  increased  from 
year  to  year  to  over  100,000,  and  their  claims  to  maTiipulate  the  public  funds 
and  take  command  of  the  tribes  led  at  times  to  much  angry  discussion.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  railway  companies,  interpreting  in  their  own  interests  certain 
conventions  which  granted  them  a  strip  of  ground  along  the  tracks,  have  laid 
claim  to  extensive  tracts  in  the  Territory.  "  "^ 

The  Territory  has  taken  the  Federal  Union  as  the  model  of  its  political  orga- 
nisation. In  the  year  1870  the  delegates  of  the  various  tribes  which  had  received 
allotments  of  lands  from  the  government,  assembled  at  the  village  of  Ockmulgee 
and  decided  that  the  common  interests  of  their  respective  nations  should  hence- 
forth be  administered  by  a  committee,  a  sort  of  congress,  with  senate  and  a  lower 
house,  in  which  each  tribe,  however  small,  should  be  represented.  Nevertheless, 
the  preponderance  in  this  "  parliament  of  nations  "  naturally  belongs  to  the  Chero- 
kee people,  by  far  the  most  numerous  and  the  mo.st  civilised.  During  the  early 
years  of  the  white  settlement,  the  Cherokees,  or  Tsallaki,  as  thoy  called  them- 
selves, dwelt  in  Virginia  on  the  banks  of  the  Appomatox,  affluent  of  the  James 
River.  But  thoy  were  gradually  crowded  out  by  the  planters,  and  driven  towards 
the  mountainous  regions  of  the  south- w^est.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  this  Indian  nation  occupied  a  number  of  villages  scattered  over  the 
upland  valleys  of  the  Carolina  Ranges;  a  few  family  groups  had  even  taken  refuge 
much  farther  west  in  Tennessee  and  Alabama.  They  were  followed  to  their  new 
domain  by  the  colonists  of  the  white  race ;  but  being  protected  by  properly 
formulated  treaties,  the  Cherokees  long  defended  themselves  in  the  lands  which 
had  been  assigned  to  them.  In  the  end  they  had  to  yield,  and  in  1835  they  were 
transported  bodily  beyond  the  Mississippi,  to  the  territory  which  they  at  present 
occupy  in  the  Indian  country.  Of  this  territory  they  have  been  declared  the 
perpetual  owners,  unless  by  becoming  American  citizens  they  cease  to  exist  as  a 
distinct  nation,  in  which  case  they  would  be  free  to  sell  their  lands  at  option. 
In  many  respects  the  Cherokees  have  already  adapted  themselves  to  the  forms 
and  spirit  of  American  culture.  They  have  adopted  not  only  the  political 
institutions,  but  to  a  large  extent  the  very  usages  of  the  white  populations.  Thus 
they  have  built  churches,  and  make  use  of  the  same  religious  terms  in  their  hymns, 
prayers,  and  sermons.  They  support  schools  in  which  the  discipline  and  order  of 
studies  are  assimilated  to  those  of  the  Massachusetts  schools.  Their  courts  of 
justice  also  have  copied  the  American  models,  and  their  judges  and  pleaders  have 
already  learnt  to  speak  the  same  legal  jargon.     Lastly  the  Cherokee  periodical 


KOvMiMN 


ttmmm 


MtMlMlialli 


INDIAN  TEREITORY. 


887 


bilumiuous 

iiltural  and 
)OBse88ed  of 
race,  could 
ioinraunity, 
y  frequeut, 
approbrious 
reased  from 
iiblio  funds 
1.  On  the 
ests  certain 
i,  have  laid 

litical  orga- 
lad  received 
Ockmulgee 
.ould  hence- 
and  a  lower 
ifevertheless, 
o  the  Chero- 
ig  the  early 
palled  them- 
f  the  James 
ven  towards 
the  present 
ed  over    the 
taken  refuge 
to  their  new 
by  properly 
lands  which 
io  they  were 
jy  at  present 
declared  the 
to  exist  as  a 
is  at  option, 
to  the  forms 
the   political 
itions.     Thus 
their  hymns, 
and  order  of 
eir  courts  of 
leaders  have 
ee  periodical 


Fig.  161. — Cbbbokbk  Indian. 


.*?f/; 


press  is  nonducted  in  the  same  way  as  that  which  employs  the  English  lunguago. 
The  Cherokee  language  itself  is  no  longer  preserved  except  through  a  sentiment 
of  national  pride,  and  the  syllabic  alphabet  of  80  letters,  invented  in  18l;i2  by  the 
Cherokee  Sequoyah,  bettor  known  as  George  Guest,  and  still  employed  in  an  oiHcial 
journal,  is  gradually  falling  into  disuse. 

The  Cherokecs  huvo  also  become  assimilated  to  the  whites  physically  as 
well  as  in  thoughts  and  social  habits.  While  their  ancestors  still  dwelt  in 
the  region  now  forming  the  Carolinas,  some  Scotch  adventurers  of  Celtic  race 
had  formed  alliances  with  thoir  daughters,  fairest  and  most  charming  of  Indian 
women,  and  ever  since  that  epoch  such  interminglings  have  been  going  on. 
Hence  amongst  the  Cherokees  living  under  the  tribal  organisation,  half-breeds  of 
white  as  well  as  of  black  race  are  numerous.  Moreover,  hundreds  of  whites 
engaged  either  in  the  indus- 
tries or  in  politics,  are  con- 
stantly applying  to  the  Red- 
skins for  Cherokee  naturali- 
sation papers.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  even  of  the  full- 
blood  Indians  have  separated 
themselves  from  the  nation, 
and  now  enjoy  equal  civil 
rights  with  all  other  Ameri- 
can citizens.  Hence  it  is 
scarcely  any  longer  possible 
to  form  a  correct  estimate  of 
the  general  movement  of  the 
Cherokee  population,  regard- 
ing which  contradictory  sta- 
tistics have  been  published. 
Nevertheless,  they  are  known 
to  have  certainly  increased  in 
numbers.      At   the   time   of 

the  last  great  exodus  they  numbered  little  over  twelve  thousand,  and  since 
then  they  have  increased  to  sixteen  thousand.  They  have  also  advanced  in 
social  comfort.  Being  excellent  farmers,  they  grow  a  superabundance  of 
cereals  and  raise  large  herds  of  cattle,  which  are  exported  to  the  surrounding 
states.  The  Cherokees  occupy  the  most  favourable  locality  in  Indian  Territory, 
at  the  north-east  angle  of  the  country,  on  the  borders  of  Kansas,  Missouri,  and 
Arkansas.  Moreover,  several  smaller  tribes — Quapaws,  Pcorias,  Ottawas, 
Shawnees,  Wyandotts,  Iroquoian  Senecas — are  grouped  near  them  in  the  same 
district,  like  chicks  gathered  under  the  mother's  wing.  Tahlequah,  seat  of  the 
Cherokee  legislature,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Arkansas,  in  a  rich  grazing  country, 
has  acquired  some  importance  as  a  market,  thanks  to  its  position  near  the  govern- 
mont  station  of  Fovt  Gibson,  on  the  Naosho  River. 
S8 


■r-i//^0l//-//}/i"' 


-^v 


388 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


St 

W 


The  south-east  angle  of  the  Territory  belongs  to  another  "  civilised  nation," 
that  of  the  Choctuws,  the  ancient  "  flut-head  Chactas "  of  the  Mississippi  and 
Louisiana,  who,  like  the  Cherokees,  are  increasing  in  numbers,  and,  like  them, 
have  grown  wealthy  by  agriculture  and  stock-breeding.  Their  western  neighbours 
are  the  Chickasaws,  who  formerly  dwelt  within  the  limits  of  the  present  states  of 
Tennessee,  Mississijjpi  and  Alabama.  Both  of  these  nations  were  removed  about  the 
year  1830  to  Indian  Territory,  where  they  live  in  close  alliance,  with  a  common 
legislature,  and  an  engagement  not  to  sell  their  lands  without  mutual  consent. 
Their  chief  station  is  Tishomingo,  on  the  False  Washita.  The  Creeks,  or  Muskhogees, 
that  is,  "  Marshlanders,"  who  were  removed  from  Georgia  in  1H36,  also  possess  a 
separate  domain  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Territory  between  the  Cimarron  and 
Canadian  Rivers.  Th^ir  neighbours  and  kinsmen,  the  Seminole?,  now  located  on 
the  banks  of  the  Canadian  Hiver,  ore  descendants  of  those  Florida  warriors  who 
offered  such  a  stout  resistance  to  the  whites,  holdiag  out  against  their  disciplined 
forces  for  several  campaigns. 

Westwards  from  these  reservations  and  extending  to  the  Texas  frontier,  much 
of  the  Indian  country  had  never  been  allotted  to  specified  tribes,  and  the  remainder 
was  being  gradually  repurchased  from  the  Indians  by  the  Federal  Government, 
but  was  withheld  from  settlement.  In  the  spring  of  1889,  however,  a  portion  of 
this  repurchased  region,  the  Oklahoma  country  (Delightful  Land),  a  natural  park 
situated  exactly  in  the  centre  of  Indian  Territory,  on  both  sides  of  the  Cimarron 
River,  was  thrown  open  to  white  settlers.  All  the  preliminary  stops  had  been 
taken  by  the  railway  companies,  stock-breeders,  and  speculators,  in  anticipation 
of  this  opening,  to  take  possession  of  the  "  land  of  promise."  The  very  plans 
of  cities  had  already  been  prepared,  and  allotments  were  bought  and  sold  by 
auction  even  before  the  purchasers  had  visited  them.  At  the  appointed  hour 
nearly  30,000  settlers,  men,  women,  and  children,  crossed  the  frontiers  from 
Kansas,  and  hastened  to  take  possession  of  the  new  lands.  Those  holding  pre- 
emptive rights  laid  down  their  boundaries  ;  carts  and  waggons  already  traced  by 
their  ruts  the  line  of  future  highways ;  tradesmen  pitched  their  tents  on  the  sites 
of  their  prospective  stores  ;  suddenly  the  wilderness  was  alive  with  the  noise  and 
bustle,  the  social  and  economic  life  of  an  American  city.  Thus  appeared  the 
cities  of  Oklahoma  and  Guthrie,  the  latter  chosen  as  capital,  both  rising  in  a  few 
days  in  the  midst  of  the  prairie.  In  consequence  of  this  rapid  settlement  of  the 
relatively  small  Oklahoma  district  which  had  been  opened  to  the  public,  the  whole 
western  half  of  Indian  Territory  was  organised  as  the  Territory  of  Oklahoma  in 
1890,  and  is  being  thrown  open  to  white  settlement  as  soon  as  the  Indian  title  to 
the  land  is  extinguished. 

21. — LOUISIAXA. 

Within  its  present  narrow  b'mits,  Louisiana  represents  a  mere  fraction  of  its 
former  extent,  when  it  embraced  all  that  part  of  the  North  American  continent 
south  of  the  Great  Lakes  which  had  been  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Louis  XlV., 
and  which  was  named  from  him.  From  the  dimensions  of  half  a  continent,  it 
has  now  shrunk  to  somewhat  less  than    the  average  size  of  the  states  of  the 


■■■mmimimmmitm 


H't'DMiiillilMIM 


iMWtaaiiiMMtl 


-jm^ 


LOUISIANA. 


889 


i  nation," 
Bsippi  and 
like  them, 
aeighbours 
it  states  of 
i  about  the 
a  common 
lal  consent, 
[uskhogees, 
10  possess  a 
narron  and 
T  located  on 
irriors  who 
■  disciplined 

)ntier,  much 
le  remainder 
Jovernment, 
a  portion  of 
natural  park 
he  Cimarron 
ips  had  been 
anticipation 
3  very  plans 
and  sold  by 
)ointed  hour 
ontiers  from 
holding  pre- 
dy  traced  by 
I  on  the  sites 
the  noise  and 
appeared  the 
ing  in  a  few 
ement  of  the 
ic,  the  whole 
Oklahoma  in 
ndian  title  to 


raction  of  its 
jan  continent 
;  Louis  ilV., 
,  continent,  it 
states  of  the 


Union.  Limited  northwards  by  the  33°  north  latitude,  which  separates  it  from 
Arkansas,  it  is  conterminous  only  with  two  '>ther  states,  Texas  on  the  west  aud 
Mississippi  on  the  east  side.  The  frontiers  towards  these  states  are  mainly  formed 
by  the  course  of  the  Sabine  and  the  Mississippi  respectively  ;  but  east  of  the  delta, 
a  small  region  between  the  coast  and  the  31st  parallel,  reaching  as  far  ao  the  Pearl 
River,  is  included  within  its  borders.  Next  to  Florida,  Louisiana  presents  the 
largest  extent  of  land  under  water,  lakes,  lagoons,  bayous,  swamps,  and  flooded 
tracts.  These  watery  wastes  might  possibly  be  reclaimed  and  brought  under 
cultivation  by  constructing  a  clear  parting-line  between  land  and  water,  and  trans- 
forming Louisiana  to  a  second  Holland  by  an  elaborate  system  of  dikes,  levees,  and 
inner  barriers.  As  it  is,  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  and  of  the  chief  bayous 
have  at  least  been  protected  from  the  fluvial  inundations  by  continuous  lines  of 
levees.  The  north-western  parts  of  the  state  also,  which  are  watered  by  the 
affluents  of  the  Red  River,  consist  of  terraces,  hilly  ground,  and  prairies  standing 
at  a  higher  level  than  the  low-lying  alluvial  tracts.  Hence  the  population  tends 
to  gravitate  towards  these  healthy  districts,  whose  agricultural  resources  difter 
little  from  those  of  the  neighbouring  state  of  Arkansas.  But  even  here  no  port 
of  the  land  rises  more  than  about  260  feet  above  sea-level.  Some  of  the  higher 
grounds  are  well  wooded  with  valuable  forest  trees  such  as  oaks,  elms,  cottonwood, 
hickory,  locust,  and  especially  pines,  the  Great  Pine  Belt  stretching,  with  some 
interruption,  from  the  state  of  Mississippi  across  the  whole  region  westwards  into 
Texas.  But,  being  mostly  of  alluvial  or  post-tertiary  formation,  this  state 
possesses  little  mineral  wealth  beyond  the  rich  deposit  of  rock  salt  at  Petit 
Anse,  an  extensive  bed  of  tolerably  pure  sulphur  in  the  south-west,  and  else- 
where some  iron  ores,  lignite,  and  highly-fertilising  mads.  In  the  low-lying 
region  the  preparation  of  sugar  is  the  staple  agricultural  industry,  and  in  this 
respect  the  Mississippi  delta  takes  the  first  place  in  the  Union.  The  rice-fielda, 
also,  are  already  more  extensive  than  those  of  South  Carolina,  and  might  be 
indefinitely  extended  along  the  seaboard,  which  is  more  salubrious  than  that 
of  the  Atlantic  coast,  thanks  to  the  more  rapid  flow  of  the  surface  waters. 

The  blacks,  who  outnumber  the  white  population  in  Louisiana,  here  find  a 
congenial  soil  for  founding  rural  settlements,  remote  from  the  cities  and  beaten 
tracks.  Hence  in  some  districts  they  have  succeeded  in  breaking  up  the  large 
estates  and  establishing  a  system  of  small  holdings,  which  is  the  best  guarantee  of 
their  independence.  Fi'ench  is  still  the  mother-tongue  of  numerous  communities, 
some  descended  from  the  first  colonists  or  from  the  Acadians  expelled  from  Nova 
Scotia  in  1755,  some  more  recent  arrivals  belonging  to  the  trading  or  artisan 
classes  ;  lastly  the  "  Creole  "  negroes,  bred  on  the  plantations  belonging  to  French 
proprietors.  The  title  of  "  Creole  State "  given  to  Louisiana  has  reference  to 
the  earliest  white  settlers  in  the  country.  The  proportion  of  those  whose  mother- 
tongue  is  French  is  still  estimated  at  from  an  eighth  to  a  fifth  of  the  whole  popu-' 
latioh.  They  are  numerous  especially  in  New  Orleans,  where  an  "  Athenee 
Louisianais  "  has  been  established  to  maintain  the  purity  and  extend  the  culti- 
vation of  the  French  language. 


840 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


After  La  Sallo's  visit  in  1691,  and  Iberville's  unsuccessful  attempt  to  found  a 
permanent  settlement  in  lfif)9,  Louisiuna  was  granted  by  the  French  crown  to 
Crozat  in  1712,  and  five  years  afterwards  purchased  by  the  Mississippi  Company, 
of  which  the  financier  John  Law  was  president.  The  same  year,  1717,  witnessed 
the  foundation  of  Now  Orleans,  which,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  transfer  of 
Louisiana  to  Spain  in  17G3.  Three  years  after  its  restoration  to  France  in  1800, 
the  whole  province,  comprising  all  the  remaining  French  possessions  in  North 
America,  was  sold  to  the  United  States  for  ^16,000.000.     From  the  purchase, 


Fig.  162.— iBTHMtm  o»  New  Obleans. 

Scale  1  :  440,000. 


90-S 


We«t  oF  Greenwich 


89*45  ■ 


'  Lighibouie. 


,  9  Miles. 


however,  was  excluded  the  south-eastern  district  between  the  delta  and  the  Pearl 
River,  which  at  that  time  formed  part  of  the  Spanish  colony  of  West  Florida,  and 
which  passed  to  the  United  States  with  the  F'^^rida  purchase  in  1819.  The 
Territory  of  Orleans  was  organised  in  1804,  and  ii:  1812  Louisiana  was  admitted 
to  the  Union  with  nearly  its  present  limits.  A  memorable  event  in  the  local 
history  was  the  total  defeat  of  the  British  forces  by  General  Jackson  below  New 
Orleans  in  1815.  During  the  Civil  War  Louisiana,  being  a  slave  state,  took  an 
active  part  on  the  side  of  the  Confederates.     Even  after  the  war  patty  spirit 


mm 


mmmimiMmmi 


^uassa 


to  found  a 
1  crown  to 
Company, 

witnessed 
iransfer  of 
e  in  1800, 

in  North 
!  purchase. 


!!s  > 


.ii'V-'r    r  >•     II   '  »'. 


LOUISIANA  — NKW  ORLEANS. 


841 


continued  to  run  bigli,  and  the  projifress  of  tho  state  wus  greutly  rctiirded  by  the 
consequent  local  strife,  often  attended  by  deeds  of  violence. 

The  right  bank  of  tho  MisHissippi  lioa  at  too  low  a  level  to  offer  any  convenient 
Bites  for  the  foundation  of  settlements  opposite  tho  cities  of  Vicksburg  und 
Natchez,  which  crown  the  heights  on  the  loft  bunk.  Hence  on  the  Louis- 
iana side  nothing  is  to  be  sev.  ?xoept  scattered  houses  or  a  few  modest  little 
riverine  ports  at  the  landing  stages.  Even  the  region  of  tho  confluence,  where 
tho  Mississippi  and  the  Red  River  intermingle  their  waters,  and  where  some 
important  trading  place  might  certainly  have  sprung  up  on  one  or  other  of  the 
headlands  rising  high  above  the  stream,  has  hitherto  remained  almost  uninhabited. 
The  Rod  River  must  be  ascended  some  considerable  distance  before  any  large  towns 
are  met.  Such  is  Alexandria,  which  lies  150  miles  above  the  confluence,  near 
some  rapids,  by  which  the  navigation  of  large  steamers  is  completely  arrested. 
Alexandria,  which  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  tobacco-growing  district,  also  forwards 
cotton,  rice,  fruits,  and  sugar. 

Below  the  confluence  are  still  seen  the  remains  of  Port  ITiidson,  which,  after  a 
short  resistance,  was  surrendered  to  General  Banks  on  July  9,  1863.  About  22 
miles  below  Port  Hudson  follows  the  village  of  Haton  Rouge,  which  takes  its 
name  from  a  "  red  staff,"  or  symbol  of  war,  found  here  by  the  French  pioneer 
explorers.  It  stands  25  feet  above  high- water  mark  on  the  southernmost  of  the 
bluffs  commanding  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  ;  but  the  low  headland  with 
its  rounded  crest  differs  altogether  from  the  bluffs  higher  up,  whose  ravined 
escarpments  rise  abruptly  above  the  stream.  Thanks  to  its  healthy  climate  and 
central  position.  Baton  Rouge  was  selected  as  the  state  capital  in  1847,  and  has 
since  continued  to  enjoy  this  honour,  except  for  some  time  after  1864,  when  the 
seat  of  government  was  temporarily  removed  to  New  Orleans. 

Below  Baton  Rouge  both  banks  of  the  river  are  lined  with  a  continuous  succes- 
sion of  planters'  villas  and  gardens  for  125  miles  all  the  way  to  New  Orleans,  the 
ancient  metropolis  of  French  Louisiana,  and  the  great  seaport  of  the  Mississippi 
basin.  It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  to  which  it  presents  a  vast  frontage 
with  its  double  crescent  of  houses,  convex  above,  concave  below,  the  whole  com- 
prising several  towns  or  quarters  which  have  been  gradually  soldered  together  for  a 
space  of  about  12  miles.  Yet  the  position  seemed  far  from  favourable  for  the  site 
of  such  a  huge  agglomeration  of  structures.  Although  it  stands  about  100  miles 
above  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  the  ground  has  scarcely  more  than  a  mean 
elevation  of  10  feet,  while  in  the  suburbs  lying  farthest  from  the  river  the  low 
spongy  soil  stands  almost  at  sea-level.  Before  1727,  when  still  unprotected  by  any 
embankments,  New  Orleans  was  periodically  flooded,  and  the  isthmus  separating 
the  fluvial  waters  from  those  of  Lake  Pontchartrain  almost  disappeared  during  the 
inundations.  Thanks  to  the  completion  of  the  embankment  works,  bef^un  over  150 
years  ago,  New  Orleans  has  ceased  to  be  amphibious.  A  magnificent  leveo  over  a 
hundred  yards  wide  protects  it  for  a  distance  of  about  12  miles  towards  the  river, 
while  powerful  steam  engines  are  continually  at  work  pumping  up  the  rain  or 
surface  waters  and  discharging  them  through  a  broad  drain  or  channel  luto  Lake 


■■^•ftMMMiUi^i** 


842 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


m 


Pontchartroin.  Mtmt  of  the  houses  are  iilightly  constructed  of  wood  or  brick, 
while  the  public  buildiiigB,  heuvily  weighted  by  their  elevation  and  stone,  grunito 
or  marble  facings,  rest  on  piles  sunk  to  a  depth  of  25  or  30  yards  below  sea-level. 
The  sediment  deposited  by  the  current  along  the  convex  section  of  the  lower  curve 
of  the  city  continually  broadens  the  shelving  frontage,  thus  leaving  more  and  more 
space  for  the  construction  of  new  streets.  But  the  reverse  process  is  in  operation 
higher  up,  where  the  concave  front  of  the  CarroUton  suburb  is  exposed  to  such 
extensive  erosions  that  a  whole  quarter  has  had  to  be  abandoned. 

Although  the  normal  plan  of  New  Orleans  resembles  that  of  most  other  North 
American  cities,  the  double  bend  of  the  river  frontage  has  interfered  with  the 


Fig.  163.— New  Obuunb. 
Bo^le  1  ;  ISO.OOO. 


Vvest  op  Greenwich 


•  LighthonM. 


.  ai  Miles. 


usual  rectangular  development  of  the  streets  from  one  extremity  to  the  other. 
Thus  the  "  French  quarter  "  occupying  the  region  of  the  lower  crescent  has  assumed 
the  form  of  a  series  of  trapezes  separated  by  boulevards,  and  turning  their  smaller 
base  towards  the  stream.  On  the  other  hand,  the  northern  suburbs  of  Lafayette, 
Jefferson,  and  CarroUton,  occupying  a  seraici/cular  peninsula  of  the  Mississippi, 
present  their  broader  base  to  the  current,  while  the  intervening  boulevards  converge 
at  a  point  on  the  skirt  of  the  forest  in  the  middle  of  which  the  settlement  was 
originally  founded.  These  northern  quarters  are  the  more  elegant  and  fashionable, 
and  are  surrounded  by  ornamental  grounds,  where  the  atmosphere  is  heavy  with 
the  fragrance  of  the  jasmine,  orange,  and  magnolia.  The  busy  manufacturing 
towns  of  Alffkrs,  MacDonoughville,  and  Gretna,  facing  New  Orleans  on  the  opposite 


i-^,,' 


mmmmmmmm 


1  -3IANA.— NEW  ORLEANS. 


818 


or  brick, 
ic,  gninito 

8cu-lovel. 
iwer  curve 
I  und  inoro 
1  operation 
id  to  Buch 

her  North 
d  with  the 


M  '  .ae«kirf     of  the  groat  city, 
oveifgfow      with  cypress  grove!= 


■tar     on  low- 
WB    la  oU«r( 


90" . 


0  the  other, 
has  aBsumed 

their  smaller 
)f  Ijafayette, 
)  Mississippi, 
irds  converge 
ttlement  was 

1  fashionable, 
is  heavy  with 
lanufacturiiig 
a  the  opposite 


"f  e  j?rop' 
i'  nvillc 
rnt  ](>p[  i 


otithtTfi  ^mporlnni 
««od  no  littio  fore- 
the  future  city. 


of 


[hough    still   near  enough   to 


side,  must  also  be  re<;ar(l 
lying  riverine  tracts  former 

and  rcclaitned  by  a  costly  c  *em  of  em  iikmeiiti* 
Apart  from  the  spongy  clinruotot  <ii  the  * 
occupies  an  admirable  commercial  position,  nn< 
sight  when  in  1717  he  erecte<l  on  this  spot  fhi 
Standing  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  (1> 
the  point  whore  the  stream  ramitios  into  several  bruuchos,  tlie  city  controls  both 
the  inland  and  foreign  trade  of  the  country,  und  has  become  the  natural  exchange 
for  all  tlie  pro<luco  and  products  of  a  vast  region.  Commanding  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  isthmus  between  the  river  on  one  hand  and  lakes  I'ontchartrain  and 
Borgne  on  the  other,  it  enjoys  the  twofold  advantage  of  land  und  sea  communica- 
tions. It  is  thus  both  a  riverine  port  through  the  Mississippi,  and  a  seaport 
through  the  channels  connecting  it  with  Lake  I'ontchartrain.  This  inlet,  however, 
is  visited  only  by  vessels  of  light  draught,  so  that  nearly  all  the  sea-borne  traffic 
is  carried  on  through  the  harbour  formed  by  the  lower  crescent.  Hero  the  quays, 
encumbered  with  bales  of  cotton,  hogsheads  of  sugar  and  other  wares,  are  lined 
with  a  triple  or  quadruple  row  of  palatial  steamers.  The  stream  is  alive  with 
craft  of  every  description,  large  steamers  crossing  each  other  in  all  directions, 
small  tugs  taking  huge  three-masters  in  tow,  steam  ferries  continually  gliding  to 
and  fit).  The  trade  of  Louisiana  with  the  northern  and  central  states  is  carried  on 
almost  exclusively  by  steam.  After  the  cotton  crop  is  garnered  and  the  first 
freshets  have  floated  the  steamboats  taking  in  their  cargoes  at  the  ports  of  the 
various  Mississippi  affluents,  as  many  as  fifty  of  these  leviathans  may  be  seen 
descending  the  river  in  a  single  day,  laden  with  three,  four,  or  even  five  thousand 
bales  of  cotton.  Steam  controls  all  the  traffic  of  the  great  river  above  the  city, 
where  small  sailing  craft  have  become  rare,  while  the  unwieldy  "  Noah's  Arks," 
roughly  put  together  with  huge  beams  and  planks,  are  now  freighted  only  with 
the  oils  of  the  Ohio  basin  and  taken  to  pieces  at  the  end  of  the  voyage.  New 
Orleans  receives  from  the  Central  and  Northern  States  enormous  quantities  of 
agricultural  produce,  and  is  also  a  great  depot  for  the  sugars,  bananas,  and  other 
tropical  products  from  Central  America,  Cuba,  and  the  other  West  Indian  Islands. 
As  a  forwarder  of  cotton  she  holds  the  first  rank,  employing  no  less  than  100,000 
persons  in  this  business.  But  she  takes  only  a  slight  share  in  the  import  trade  of 
manufactured  wares,  while  her  own  cotton  spinning  industry  is  still  but  little 
developed.  Tho  heavy  charges  incurred  by  the  high  railway  freights  and  for  the 
storage  of  bonded  goods  have  diverted  from  New  Orleans  a  great  part  of  her 
traffic.  The  movement  of  the  exchanges  also  naturally  takes  the  more  direct 
route  from  the  Mississippi  valley  to  the  Atlantic  seaports  for  Europe.  Kecently 
the  largest  house  of  business  in  the  south  has  even  proposed  to  found  a  new  city 
on  the  very  mud-flats  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  with  all  the  incidental  harbour 
works,  floating  docks,  railways,  and  a  staff"  of  assistants  more  manageable  than  the 
citizens  of  a  large  emporium.  Such  an  undertaking  might  have  seemed  chimerical 
a  few  years  ago  ;  but  almost  anything  seems  possible  since  commercial  syndicates 


■TiiPii.ri^,i 


T"-- 


844 


TllK  UNITED  STATtM. 


u 


(Iiii|><iao  itf  rovcmioa  {>(|tiiil  to  tlumu  of  (i;roiit  Htutoa.  Ttioro  ia  notbiny^  to  provont 
tbo  urtificiul  iiilut  of  I'oi't  Kudu  from  bring  enlurgcd,  foriiu'd  uit  it  bun  birguly  buoii 
by  tbc  biilliiHt  of  vc^Hflt  oroxHing  ibc  bur. 

New  Orb-iiiiH  bun  MutTored  iiiucb  from  ycUow  fovor  ;  no  other  city  of  tbc  United 
StatoH  liiiviiig  boi'ii  ho  rri>t|U(>ntly  diriniutud  by  tbin  scourge,  wbicb  tirat  mu(K^  itit 
a|i{M<nriini'e  from  tlie  Wist  Indien  in  tbe  yeur  U\\)\).  In  IH.VJ  tbc  opicU'mic  curried 
oif  u  twenlii'tb  of  tbc  normil  poptibition,  altliougb  onc-bulf  of  tbo  inbubituntH  bud 
fle«l  from  tlic  pbiguo  Htrick«'n  npot.  Hut  nincc  tbo  (,'ivil  Wur  bettor  Huuitury 
arruiigementH  buvo  greutly  improved  tbe  beullb  of  Nevr  OrleunM. 

In  tbe  vant  region  of  tbe  (K'ltu  the  only  centrcH  of  ]M)pubition  ure  a  few  obki'ure 
villugcB  in  the  midntof  tbepbintutionn,  und  Hoino  Habing  hamlets  and  watering  pluces 
ulong  tbe  seu-coust  und  on  tbe  neigbl>ouriMg  islunds.  Two  militury  postx  are  seen 
facing  eucb  other  at  u  bend  of  the  river.  These  ur«  Forln  Saint  I'hilip  und  Jitcknon, 
tbe  latter  so  named  in  honour  of  tbo  general  who  defeated  tbo  English  in  IKIA 
at  the  buttle  of  Now  Orleans.  In  the  sjuthern  parts  of  LouiHinnu  tbo  distriota 
travc>rse<l  by  the  Atchafuluyu,  Tcche,  und  Vermilion  bayous,  und  bt»uring  tbo  names 
of  tbe  now  extinct  Opolousu  und  A ttukupu  tribes,  described  us  "  peaceful  unthro- 
])opbugiHts,"  are  still  inhabited  by  communities  of  French  or  Fruucu  Cunudiun 
origin,  who  still  speak  tbe  language  of  their  forefathers. 

The  territory  of  the  Attukapa  Indians,  a  strelcb  of  nagniBccnt  prairies,  is  the 
region  where  Law,  director  of  tbo  fi'mous  "  Compaq  lie  du  Mississippi,"  hud  pro- 
|)08ed  to  settle  six  thousand  Germans  from  the  Pulutlnato.  Further  on  in  tbe 
direction  of  NdtchitovhcH,  the  district  formerly  occupied  by  the  industrial  and 
trading  confederation  of  the  Cuddo  nution  is  now  peopled  by  Spunish  half-breeda, 
for  the  most  part  "  Cowboys,"  associated  with  Italian  immigrants. 

Lastly,  in  the  parish  of  Saint  IJernard,  the  population  consists  to  a  largo  extent 
of  the  63-calIod  Islingues,  that  is,  Islofios,  or  "  Islanders,"  descendants  of  the 
Canary  Islanders  introduced  into  tbo  colony  by  governor  Galvez  at  the  end  of  the 
last  century.  In  tbo  same  neighbourhood  dvell  the  "Gens  do  Manille,"  that  is, 
Spaniards  and  Tuguls  who  arrived  about  the  same  time  from  the  Philippine 
Islands.     Spanish  is  still  current  in  this  pan  of  Louisiana. 

Tbe  numerous  inlets  indenting  the  coast  along  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi 
delta  are  too  shallow  to  give  access  to  any  larger  craft  than  sloops  and  smackg 
engaged  on  the  oyster  grounds.  Nevertheless  the  little  port  of  Morgan  City,  near 
tbe  mouth  of  the  Atchafulayu,  trades  directly  with  Vera  Cruz,  thereby  avoiding 
the  long  detour  by  one  of  the  Mississippi  mouths.  Morgan  City  is  tbe  port  of 
entry  of  St.  Mary's  parish.* 

22.— Texas. 

The  name  of  Texas  is  said  by  some  writers  to  recall  the  cry  of    Tejds,    Tcjns, 

that  is,  "  Friends,  Friends,"  with  which  the  Asinui- Indians  received  the  Spaniards 

o;i  their  first  arrival  in  the  country.     This  state,  which  has  a  larger  superficial 

area  than  any  other  in  the  Union,  occupies  a  space  between  the  llio  Grande,  the 

•  Louisiana  retains  tho  old  Freni'li  adinimstrative  divisions  into  "parishes,"  whioh  correspond  to 
the  "  counties  "  uf  the  other  Federal  States. 


-r»- 


TEXA8. 


340 


to  provont 

tlio  rtiit<>(! 
Ht  inuilt^  itH 
•iriic  currii'd 
ibituntH  had 
ter  flunitury 

f«.«w  obk;Miro 
ering  plucos 
stH  iiro  nevix 
iiul  Jdcknon, 
ish  in  IHl.^ 
tho  diHtriots 
g  tho  imiP'js 
oful  unthro- 
uu  Cuuudiun 

lines,  is  the 
,"  hud  pro- 
r  on  in  tho 
lustriul  uud 
half-breeds, 

argo  extent 
unts  of  the 
0  end  of  the 
e,"  that  is, 
Philippine 

Mississippi 
and  smacks 
n  City,  near 
jy  avoiding 
the  port  of 


Tejds,  Ti'jiis, 
16  Spaniards 
r  superficial 
Grande,  the 
oorroHpond  to 


Nabiii)',  and  tho  (hilf  of  Mexico,  larger  by  many  thotiNaiid  Hciiiaro  milon  than  tho 
wholo  of  France,  in  fact,  within  >\S^W  or  4,000  Mcjiiare  tiiilea  as  largo  as  France, 
KnKlaiid,  and  VValeH  eolleetively,  Ilenco  during  the  luiig  tttruggle  between  tho 
Northoru  abolitionittN  and  the  Southern  pro-slavery  party,  the  latter  often  pro- 
|M)Hcd  t«>  divide  thiM  region  into  five  staten,  so  an  in  thin  way  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  domixtrutii!  senatniH,  and  thus  secure  a  detiiiito  majority  in  the  Up|H!T 
House,  liut  Congress  always  rejected  tiu«  project,  and  Texas  has  preserved  her 
ample  domain  except  at  tho  north-west  corner,  when^  vast  tracts  have  been  ceded 
to  the  Fodernl  (^>vernment  as  public  lands.  In  tho  north,  however,  the  frontiers 
hav<(  not  yet  been  accurately  determined.  In  IHOI,  the  district  of  (ireor  county 
was  claimed  both  by  Texas  and  Oklahoma  Territory.  Texas  is  conterminous  with 
New  Mexico  on  the  west,  Oklahoma  ami  Indian  Territory  on  the  north,  Arkansas 
on  the  north-east,  and  Louisiana  on  the  east  side.  Flscwhero  its  limits  ore  the 
Uepublic  of  Mexico  on  the  south-west,  the  dividing  lino  being  the  course  of  the 
Itio  (irande  del  Norte,  and  on  the  south  the  Qulf  of  Mexico,  with  about  400  miles 
of  a  monotonous  coast-lino. 

Farly  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  Spaniards,  advancing  from  Mexico  north- 
ea«(tward8,  began  tho  settlement  of  the  "New  I'hilippines,"  as  the  province  was 
then  named.  Hut  this  region  had  also  been  claimed  by  tho  French  as  part  of 
their  colony  of  Louisiana,  and  its  possession  long  continued  to  be  a  subject 
of  discussion  between  the  two  powers.  When  Jjouisiana  passed,  in  1803,  to 
the  United  States,  the  French  claim  was  inherited  by  tho  young  republic,  and 
maintained  especially  by  tho  southivn  states,  from  all  parts  of  which  adventurers 
l)egan  at  an  early  date  to  fin  l  their  way  across  the  ill-defined  frontiers. 
These  were  at  last  determined  i'  1819,  when  tho  Sabine  Iliver  was  accepted  as 
the  eastern  limit  of  tho  Texa.n  province  of  Spanish  North  America.  But  the 
arrangement  satisfied  neither  party,  and  the  political  rivalry,  intensified  by  racial 
antipathies,  led  to  a  sort  of  unofficial  v.  Arfare  in  18'35,  attended, by  cruel  butcheries 
and  sanguinary  reprisals,  where  there  was  little  to  choose  between  the  lawless- 
ness of  the  Anglo -American  and  the  treachery  of  the  Ilispano-Mexican  com- 
batants. The  massacres  of  Alamo  and  Qoliad  were  followed  by  Houston's  victory 
on  the  San  Jacinto  River,  and  by  the  capture  of  the  Mexiciu  President,  Santa 
Anna,  who  had  entered  Texas  with  a  considerable  force  for  tho  jmrpose  of 
reducing  the  turbn.lcui  English-speaking  settlers.  These,  however,  were  now 
everywhere  triumpha.nt,  and  forthwith  declared  Texas  an  independent  republic 
(i842),  looking  for  support  from  the  Washington  Oovojnment  on  the  tacit 
understanding  that  the  new  republic  w;ould  eventually  enter  the  Union  as  a 
federal  state  or  territory.  Thus  was  prepared  the  way  for  its  annexation  in  1845, 
a  step  which  was  resented  by  Mexico  and  followed  by  the  war  of  1846,  leading  to 
a  further  dismemberment  of  that  country,  and  to  the  ofiicial  recognition  of  the  Rio 
Grande  as  the  south-western  boundary  of  tho  conterminous  powers.  In  1850,  the 
state  of  Texas  was  reduced  to  its  present  limits,  by  the  surrender  of  all  claims 
to  other  lands  lying  beyond  these  limits,  receiving  in  compensation  a  sum  of 
^10,000,000  from  the  Federal  Government.     Having  seceded  with  tho  slave  states 


i-asjK,.; 


,V'".M.«i»«'i''$jiViii)>i<'tiiV.')V»'iip  "»",ii,i|'i'i»iifiwi"..';. 


346 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ik 


in  1861,  Texas  was  not  readmitted  to  representation  in  Congress  till  the  year 
1870.  Since  then  general  peace  has  been  maintained,  diaturbed  only  by  local 
troubles  with  Mexican  outlaws  and  desperados.  The  title  of  the  "  Lone  Star 
State,"  long  borne  by  Texas,  had  reference  to  the  solitary  star  shown  on  the  flag 
of  the  "  independent  republic  "  before  its  admission  to  the  Union. 

A  state  of  such  vast  dimensions  naturally  presents  a  considerable  diversity  of 
soil,  and  to  some  extent  even  of  climate.  The  terraced  lands  which  follow  in 
ascending  order  from  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  to  the  plateau  of  the  Staked  Pluin 
form  in  this  respect  so  many  distinct  zones.  At  varying  distances  from  the 
coast  begins  the  belt  of  dried  and  fertile  tracts  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  every 
variety  of  semi-tropical  plants.  The  river  bottoms  descending  from  the  north- 
western uplands  prolong  in  that  direction  the  cotton  and  grain-growing  region. 
Farther  on  the  other  less  fertile  terraced  plains  are  scarcely  adapted  for  anything 
except  stock-breeding.  This  is  the  region  of  the  so-called  ranchos,  cattle  or  sheep 
runs,  often  many  thousand  acres  in  extent.  Beyond  it,  in  the  direction  of  the 
north-west,  the  grassy  steppe  merges  gradually  in  arid  wastes,  stony  deserts  and 
saline  depressions.  Texas,  foremost  state  in  the  Union  for  its  live-stock,  also  takes 
the  first  place  in  the  production  of  cotton.  Mississippi  had  long  maintained  its 
pre-eminence  in  this  respect,  despite  the  far  larger  extent  of  land  available  for 
cotton  cultivation  in  Texas.  Since  the  year  ]  887,  however,  the  latter  state  has 
outstripped  all  others,  not  only  for  the  actual  area  under  cotton,  but  also  for  the 
quantity  of  fibre  yielded  by  the  plantations. 

Although  till  comparatively  recent  times  forming  an  integral  part  of  Mexi- 
can territory,  Texas  is  almost  exclusively  inhabited  by  populationei  of  English 
speech,  at  least  throughout  the  eastern  and  central  districts.  Spanish  settlers  were 
at  no  time  numerous  enough  to  maintain  the  balance  against  the  rush  of  immi- 
grants from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  and  especially  from  the  southern  states,  which 
began  about  the  year  1812.  Nevertheless,  colonists  of  Spanish  speech  are  concen- 
trated in  the  western  districts,  and  particularly  along  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande. 
Several  towns,  and  in  the  Anglo-American  cities,  several  quarters  inhabited  by 
Ilispano-Mexicans,  still  retain  their  primitive  aspect.  In  a  social  and  ethnological 
sense,  Mexico  may,  in  fact,  be  said  to  extend  for  some  considerable  distance  beyond 
the  Rio  Grande  frontier.  The  French,  who  were  the  first  to  found  settlements  in 
Texas  under  La  Salle  in  the  year  1686,  are  no  longer  represented  in  this  state  in 
separate  communities.  On  the  other  hand,  a  few  towns  have  been  founded  by  the 
Germans,  who  have  recently  immigrated  in  considerable  numbers.  The  blacks 
originally  introduced  as  slaves  to  the  planters,  still  reside  in  the  same  districts,  and 
are  numerous,  especially  in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts.  But  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  country — Caddo,  Comanche,  Apache,  Navajo,  and  other  Indian 
tribes — havo  either  disappeared,  or  are  confined  to  the  hilly  regions  of  the  west, 
mainly  between  the  Pecos  and  Rio  Grande. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  8tat«,  the  oldest,  though  one  of  the  least  progressive 
towns,  bears  the  name  of  the  extinct  tribe  of  Nacogdoches  Indians.  It  lies  175 
miles  north  of  Galveston  on  the  old  trade  route  between  Louis'ana  aiid  Mexico. 


mmsi 


'iii|t^'»jv">^ ''  ^T't'ijiyii^ywi" 


mt 


TEXAS. 


347 


In  this  north-eastern  region  of  Texas  the  most  important  place  at  present  is  Mar- 
shall, a  converging  point  of  numerous  railways  above  the  lakes  traversed  by  the 
Red  River,  and  also  a  great  cattle  and  grain  market.  Marshall,  which  lies  30 
miles  west  of  Shreveport  and  16  miles  south  of  Jefferson,  is  the  seat  of  the  Wiley 
University  (Methodist  Episcopal),  founded  in  1837.      Texarkana,  at  the  north-east 


o 


O 

M 
K 


^ 


!» 

s 


progressive 

It  lies  175 

md  Mexico. 


corner  of  the  state,  lies  partly  in  Arkansas,  whence  its  whimsical  name,  which  has 
been  formed  from  those  of  the  two  conterminous  states,  Texas  and  Arkansas.  The 
valley  of  the  Trinity  River,  which  follows  west  of  the  Neches  and  Sabine  basins,  is 
one  of  the  most  thickly  peopled  districts  in  the  state.  Dallas  is  the  most  flourish- 
ing place  in  the  upper  Trinity  valley  and  is  the  most  populous  city  in  the  whole 


ni^'':{t^tp!i^titilSfit'fiijmii^'i^iii^>l^i^ 


848 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


of  Texas ;  it  lies  about  a  mile  below  the  West  Fork  confluence,  and  besides  its 
importance  as  an  agricultural  centro  has  already  developed  several  industries,  such 
as  foundries,  woollen  and  soap  factories.  Fort  Worth,  which  despite  its  name  is 
no  longer  a  military  station,  stands  30  miles  to  the  west  of  Dallas,  on  the  west 
fork  of  the  Trinity, 

Galveston,  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Trinity  River,  !290  miles  west  by 
south  of  New  Orleans,  was  at  one  time  the  most  populous  city  in  Texab ;  but  it 
has  already  been  outstripped  in  this  respect  by  Dallas  and  San  Antonio,  despite 
the  I  onvenient  position  of  its  spucioud  harbour  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     Galveston, 


Fig.  165.— Galtebtoit. 
Scale  1  :  2ao,nm. 


94"4e' 


OtolS 
Feet 


repths. 


V2  to  32 
Feet. 

•  Lightboaw. 


82  Feet 
and  upward*. 


a  MUea. 


SO  named  from  the  Mexican  planter,  Galvez,  stands  at  the  east  end  of  the  sandy 
inland  (formerly  called  Snake  Island)  which  has  been  built  up  by  the  surf  and 
marine  currents  as  a  sort  of  breakwater  at  the  entrance  of  Galveston  Bay,  an  inlet 
85  miles  long  by  12  to  15  broad,  with  about  14  feet  of  water  on  the  bar  at  ebb 
tide.  The  bar  or  submarine  bank  connects  the  low-lying  island  with  another 
strip  of  sands  closing  the  bay  on  the  east  side.  The  entrance  thus  formed  is 
further  narrowed  and  somewhat  endangered  by  a  few  islets  dotted  over  the  inter- 
vening space.  Nevertheless  the  harbour  is  by  far  the  best  on  the  Toxan  coast, 
and  Galveston  has  consequently  almost  monopolised  all  the  sea  borne  traffic  of  the 


jSiK-jTi'^ ;  fjy'lwl'liiftltei  '.^1 II I 


TEXAS.— AUSTIN. 


849 


besides  its 
istries,  such 
its  name  is 
on  the  west 

lee  west  by 

xas;    but  it 

jnio,  despite 

Galveston, 


^ 

^ 

29- 

of  the  sandy 
the  surf  and 
Bay,  an  inlet 
le  bar  at  ebb 
with  another 
us  formed  is 
ver  the  inter- 
Toxan  coast, 
traffic  of  the 


state.  Cotton  is  almost  the  only  article  of  export,  wliile  coffoo  and  fruits  are  the 
chief  imports.  A  viaduct  some  miles  long,  carried  over  the  shallow  channel  between 
Galveston  Island  and  the  mainland,  connects  this  seaport  with  the  continental 
system  and  with  the  lines  converging  on  the  flourishing  inland  city  of  Houston. 
This  place,  which  was  founded  in  the  same  year  (183K)  as  Galveston,  serves  as  its 
forwarding  depot  for  the  produce  of  the  Trinity  and  Brazos  River  valleys.  Houston 
is  distant  by  rail  50  miles  north-west  from  Galveston,  and  stands  on  the  Buffalo 
bayou,  which  is  navigable  to  this  point  by  steamers  of  light  draught.  During 
the  early  days  of  Texan  independence,  Houston  was  the  capital  of  the  republic ; 
hence  its  frequent  mention  in  the  records  of  those  turbulent  times. 

Although  the  Brazos  basin  is  the  largest  in  the  state,  and  although  it  yields  the 
best  and  most  abundant  crops  of  cotton,  it  has  scarcely  any  populous  towns  along  its 
river  banks.  Owing  to  the  want  of  a  harbour  at  its  mouth,  for  the  exposed  Velasro 
roadstead  scarcely  deserves  the  name,  the  stream  of  traffic  has  been  almost 
entirely  deflected  towards  Houston  and  Galveston.  Fort  Belknap,  on  the  upper 
course  of  the  river  1 05  miles  north-west  of  Fort  Worth,  lives  on  the  prospects  of 
its  vast  coalfields,  which  have  hitherto  been  scarcely  touched.  Meanwhile  the 
largest  place  in  the  Brazos  valley  is  Waco,  which  lies  on  the  west  or  right  bank 
of  the  river,  about  100  miles  north  by  east  of  Austin,  at  the  converging  point  of 
several  lines  of  railway.  The  neighbouring  artesian  wells  yield  good  water, 
sufficient  to  fill  some  large  fish-ponds  after  supplying  all  the  local  wants. 

Austin,  which  has  succeeded  Houston  as  the  capital  of  Texas,  lies  more  to  the 
south-west,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Colorado  River,  78  miles  north-east  of  San 
Antonio.  It  stands  on  a  terrace  overlooking  the  stream  from  the  north,  and 
commanding  an  extensive  prospect  of  the  surrounding  plains,  bounded  towards 
the  north-west  by  a  picturesque  hilly  district.  For  a  long  time  Austin  had  little 
importance,  except  as  the  seat  of  the  legislature,  but  in  recent  years  it  has 
become  a  busy  manufacturing  centre,  drawing  the  raw  materials  from  the 
neighbouring  cotton  plantations,  from  its  well-stocked  ranches  and  extensive 
mineral  stores,  including  iron,  copper,  manganese,  besides  granite  and  marble 
quarries,  and  deposits  of  gypsum  and  argillaceous  clays.  A  dam  constructed  at 
this  point  across  the  Colorado  supplies  the  Austin  workshops  with  a  motive 
power,  which,  during  the-  high-water  season,  exceeds  14,000  horse-power.  An 
inm  mine,  lying  to  the  north-west  of  Austin,  on  the  banks  of  the  Llano  affluent 
of  the  Colorado,  presents  the  curious  aspect  of  a  wall  rising  not  more  than  15  or 
16  feet  above  the  ground  for  a  distance  of  about  500  yards,  with  a  mean 
breadth  of  290  yards.  But  the  surveyors  have  not  yet  ascertained  to  what  depth 
descend  the  foundations  of  this  remarkable  rampart,  over  two-thirds  of  which  con- 
sist of  pure  metal.  Austin  is  accessible  during  high  water  to  small  steamers  from 
the  port  of  Matagorda,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado.  This  place  would  become 
the  natural  outlet  for  the  products  of  Austin  were  it  possible  to  improve  the 
approaches,  which  are  at  present  obstructed  by  shoals  and  sandbanks.  Vessels  of 
light  draught  are  alone  able  to  surmount  the  bar,  which  is  pro'>ably  the  same  that 
Cavelier  de  la  Salle  crossed  during  his  last  and  fatal  expedition  of  1686.     The 


ifcJt-m^Miwtftw^i 


,v.v., JA  u  'mr^4ift^9^W'^<i!0s-fii&X"kW^^^' 


850 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


il! 


fort  of  Saint  Louis,  erected  by  him  on  this  occasion,  could  scarcely  have  been  very 
fur  from  the  present  village  of  Indianola,  on  the  west  side  of  Matagorda  Bay. 

8an  Antonio  de  Bexar,  on  the  river  San  Antonio,  210  miles  directly  west  of  Gal- 
veston, is  one  of  the  oldest  places  in  North  America,  dating  from  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  has  preserved  its  old  Hispano- American  name, 
and  even  its  population,  which  gives  it  the  rank  of  second  city  in  the  state,  is 
still  partly  of  Spanish  origin  and  speech.  The  "  Dust  City,"  as  it  is  called,  . 
nevertheless  traversed  by  several  little  watercourses  dividing  it  into  a  number 

Fig.  156. — Austin. 

Scale  1 :  200,000. 


.  8  Miles. 


of  distinct  quarters.  Such  are,  in  the  centre,  the  "  old  town,"  or  San  Antonio 
properly  so  called,  chiefly  devoted  to  business  ;  the  Mexican  quarter  in  the  west, 
and  the  German  in  the  east.  The  latter  element,  however,  does  not  enjoy  the 
numerical  preponderance,  as  it  does  in  the  German  settlement  of  New  Bmunfels, 
on  the  Guadalupe  River,  30  miles  north-east  of  San  Antonio,  on  the  road  to 
Austin.  San  Antonio,  which  enjoys  the  advantage  of  extensive  water-power, 
has  become  a  considerable  industrial  centre,  with  several  breweries,  tanneries, 
flouring-mills,  and  other  factories ;  it  is  the  last  great  centre  of  population  in,  tha 


mttmmjm 


''|ia)))ii)<iw*'^';*>^'''»>w»ijiit  * 


TEXAS.— SAN  ANTONIO. 


361 


ive  been  very 
da  Bay. 
r  west  of  Gal- 
he  beginning 
lerican  name, 
I  tbe  state,  is 
is  called,  . 
to  a  number 


south-western  pan  of  the  state,  while  the  military  headquarters  are  stationed  at 
the  neighbouring  Fort  Sam  Houston.  The  city  itself  occupies  the  site  of  Fort 
Alamo,  famous  in  the  records  of  the  desultory  warfare  long  maintained  between 
the  rival  Anglo-Saxon  and  Ilispano- American  populations. 

Along  the  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  all  the  settlements  are  double,  an 
American  on  one  side  facing  a  3Iexican  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  stream. 
Such  are  the  two  El  Paaos,  the  two  El  Presidios,  Eagle  Pass  and  Picdras  Nvgms, 
the  two  Laredos,  Rio  Grande  City  and  Camargo,  Hidalgo  and  lieinosa,  Brownsville 
and  Matatnoras.  The  wooden  houses  of  the  Texan  correspond  to  the  adobe  or 
sun-dried  brick  structures  of  the  Mexican  side ;  thus  everything  contrasts  on 
either  bank  of  the  river.  Brownsvilk,  the  most  noted  of  all  these  places  in  the 
history  of  the  local  wars  and  revolutions,  forwarded  enormous  quantities  of 
cotton  to  England  by  the  Mexican  route  during  the  War  of  Secession.  It  lies 
about  35  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  site  of  Fort  Bromi, 
where  the  Mexicans  were  repulsed  in  May,  1846.  Rio  Grande  City,  about 
100  miles  higher  up,  stands  at .  the  head  of  the  steam  navigation  on  the  river 
from  which  it  takes  its  name.  The  Texan  Laredo,  opposite  the  Mexican  Nuevo 
Laredo,  lies  about  150  miles  to  the  south-west  of  San  Antonio.  In  general, 
the  American  are  smaller  than  the  Mexican  towns,  being  mostly  merely  outlying 
stations  guarding  the  frontiers  towards  the  conterminous  republic. 


mi 


San  Antonio 
in  the  west, 
ot  enjoy  the 
vo  BraunfeU, 
the  road  to 
water-power, 
!S,  tanneries, 
ilation  ic  tha 


■ir;-&iii»iii^^i'i\^i\itii^  -W 


i 

M 

Lii|i 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS  AND  THE  PACIEIC  SLOPE. 

I. — Reuef  of  the  Land. 

lEWED  as  a  whole  the  Rocky  Mountains  orographic  system  offers, 
in  its  United  States  section,  the  general  aspect  of  a  broad  pla- 
teau, describing  a  convex  curve  parallel  with  the  Pacific  coast- 
line, and  presenting  a  similar  convex  aspect  towards  the  plains 
of  the  Mississippi  slope.  It  has  thus  a  rough  elliptical  form, 
bulging  out  east  and  west  in  its  central  part,  and  narrowing  somewhat  rapidly 
north  and  south  towards  the  Canadian  and  Mexican  frontiers.  Under  the  49° 
latitude,  coinciding  with  the  northern  political  frontier,  the  Rockies  are  scarcely 
more  than  300  miles  wide  from  base  to  base,  whereas,  at  their  greatest  width, 
between  Cape  Mendocino  and  Denver,  the  space  enclosed  by  the  two  outer  scarps 
of  the  plateau  approaches  1,000  iniles  in  breadth.  Farther  south,  it  again 
gradually  contracts,  as  does  the  continent  itself,  which  forms  its  pedestal.  In  its 
general  trend,  the  plateau  also  follows  the  normal  direction  of  the  two  divisions 
of  the  New  World,  being  disposed  not  due  north  and  south,  but  with  an  inclination 
of  about  20  degrees  to  the  west  of  the  central  meridian.  Thus  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains system,  compared  with  that  of  the  Appalachians,  seems,  like  that  of  the 
South  American  Cordilleras,  to  constitute  the  true  backbone  of  the  northern  con- 
tinent. In  fact,  both  the  Andes  and  the  Rockies  were  formerly  regarded  as 
constituting  a  single  Olographic  system,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  the  very  word  "  Andes  "  was  one  of  the  names  most  frequently  applied 
by  geographers  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  These  uplands  cover  a  superficial  area 
vastly  greater  than  those  corresponding  to  them  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Union, 
the  space  occupied  by  the  Pacific  ranges  and  plateaux  being  estimated  at  about 
1,000,000  square  miles,  or  considerably  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole 
republic.  The  Rockies  have  also  a  far  greater  mean  elevation  than  the 
Appalachians.  The  plateau  itself,  which  bristles  with  their  innumerable  peaks, 
stands  some  5,r)00  feet  above  sea-lcvelj  which  alone  exceeds  the  average  altitude 
of  the  eistern  ridges.  The  two  main  border  ranges  of  the  western  system, 
that  is  to, say,  the  Ca?cade  Mountains,  forming  a  northern  continuation  of  the 
Sierra    Nevada    towards   the  Pacific,    and  on  the  Mississippi  side,   the   various 


Kt'-i'ii'iiV'iiiiiiiMM 


2a|IKi)BW(BKBHB 


THE  YELLOWSTONE  PARK. 


868 


item  offers, 
broad  pla- 
icific  coast- 
the  plains 
)tical  form, 
hat  rapidly 
der  the  49° 
ire  scarcely 
itest  width, 
luter  scarps 
h,  it  again 
stal.     In  its 
vo  divisions 
1  inclination 
ocky  Moun- 
that  of  the 
)rthem  con- 
regarded  as 
the  present 
ntly  applied 
)erficial  area 
f  the  Union, 
ted  at  about 
'   the   whole 
n   than   the 
rable  peaks, 
rage  altitude 
tern   system, 
latioii  of  the 
the   various 


crests  more  specially  bearing  the  name  of  the  "Rocky  Muuntaiiis,"  have 
numerous  eummits  ly.OOO  or  14,000  feet  high,  or  ubout  twice  the  altitude  of  the 
loftiest  Appaluchian  peaks.  The  axis  of  greatest  elevation  intersects  at  right 
angles  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  whole  system ;  it  runs  from  Mount  Lincoln 
to  Mount  Whitney,  passing  north  of  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  River. 

The  Niikth-eastern  Bokdeu  Ranges. — The  Yeli.owstoxe  Park. 

Within  the  limits  of  the  United  States  the  northern  section  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  properly  so  called,  continues  the  Canadian  range  with  no  breaks 
beyond  a  number  of  passes  with  a  mean  height  of  from  6,000  to  7,300  feet.  Here 
the  chief  peaks,  exceeding  7,400  feet,  are  disposed  along  an  extremely  sinuous 
axis  with  a  general  south-easterly  trend.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
Canadian  frontier  the  so-called  "Boundary  Pass"  stands  at  a  height  of  7,350 
feet.  Every  group  and  ridge  has  its  special  name,  one  of  the  best  known  being 
the  Big  Belt  Mountains,  applied  especially  to  the  range  rising  to  the  south  of  the 
Missouri  gorge.  Farther  on  in  the  same  direction  the  Yellowstone,  another 
copious  stream,  also  forces  its  way  through  the  outer  chain  of  the  Rockies. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  first  white  explorers,  guided  by  the  Indian 
trappers,  all  crossed  the  great  divide  in  the  northern  part  of  the  range,  and 
not  by  ascending  the  course  of  the  great  rivers,  which  would  have  led  them 
directly  to  the  wonderland  of  geysers  and  thermal  waters.  They  were  deterred 
from  following  the  more  southern  route  by  the  savage  defiles  piercing  the  ranges, 
and  the  long  tracks  wincmg  through  a  labyrinth  of  upland  valleys  and  inner 
cirques ;  hence  they  preferred  the  northern  routes,  where  the  chief  ridge  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  contracts  to  a  comparatively  slijjht  width  between  the  two 
continental  slopes.  Here  also  the  granite  domes,  the  Silurian  and  Devonian  escarp- 
ments, present  relatively  gentle  inclines,  without  the  rugged  aspect  characteristic 
of  the  steep  rocky  walls  between  which  the  Missouri  and  its  affluents  have 
forced  their  WHy  to  the  plains.  The  North  Pacific  trunk  line  crosses  at  Mullan's 
Pass  by  a  tunnel  3,850  feet  long  at  an  elevation  of  5,550  feet. 

South  of  the  Yellowstone  gorge  the  "  Montagnes  de  Roche,"  as  they  were 
originally  named  by  the  Franco-Canadian  voyageurs,  ramify  into  several  ranges  of 
varying  size  and  irregular  trend  with  a  breadth  f"om  east  to  west  of  altogether 
over  180  miles.  The  Big  Horn  Mountains,  as  the  eastern  ridge  is  called,  develop  a 
crescent  of  about  1:;^0  miles,  back  of  which  rise  all  the  great  Yellowstone  affluents 
of  the  Missouri ;  here  also  follow  the  successive  ramparts  of  the  Snow,  Shoshone 
and  Wind  River  Mountains,  the  Teton  and  Snake  River  Ranges,  all  resting  on  the 
vast  pedestal  of  a  common  plateau.  These  lofty  ranges,  composed  of  granites  or 
paleozoic  rocks  with  hufje  masses  of  basalts  and  trachytes  cropping  out  here  and 
there,  exceed  8,000  feet,  with  peaks  towering  3,000,  4,000,  or  even  6,000  feet 
above  the  normal  elevation.  Owing  to  its  hot  springs,  geysers,  lakes,  and  water- 
falls, this  region  of  the  American  Alps  has  become  so  famous  that  many  of  its 
dominant  summits  have  acquired  a  distinct  individuality  in  the  eyes  of  travellers. 
Such  is  Monument  Peak,  so  named  because  it  presents  the  aspect  of  an  imposing 
89 


tsvttmtmtiist^^k,: 


I™ 


iii 


864 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


edifice  with  colonnades  and  buttroHses  eroded  on  the  Uig  Horn  range;  such  also  is 
Cloud  Peak  (i;{,540  feet)  in  the  vicinity  of  which  the  surveyor,  Johnson,  lately 
discovered  a  glucier  five  miles  long,  discharging  its  terminal  crystal  blo'^ks  into  a 
little  lake  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  shore.  From  the  top  of  a  frontal 
wall  a  stone  may  be  dropped  1,000  feet  into  the  waters  of  the  basin  below. 


t' 


ill 


Fig.  107.-  Telix}wbtone  Lake  and  the  Oktbers. 
Soale  1  :  soo.nno. 


llO'SO- 


West   aP.  Greenwich 


IIOV 


Continental  Oiride. 
______  12Maes. 


Within  the  limits  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  there  stand  out  conspicu- 
ously several  towering  summits,  such  as  the  volcanic  cone  of  Mount  Wasbburne 
(11,620  feet),  close  to  the  Great  Falls;  Bell's  Peak  (10,360  feet),  and  Mount 
Holmes  (10,700  feet).  South-west  of  the  park,  amid  the  deep  troughs  where  flow 
the  headwaters  of  the  Columbia,  follows  in  a  line  the  rugged  serrated  range  of  the 
three  Tetons,  step  pyramids  of  nearly  like  form,  the  loftiest  of  which  (Hayden 


W.'- 


'XitUM^ 


»'♦ 


TUE  YKLLOWSIONE  PARK. 


886 


) ;  such  also  is 
hnson,  lately 
blo^^ks  into  a 
I  of  (I  frontal 
below. 


~m*^ 


.w>.J«,.-.<Mtl 


1  out  conspicu- 
nt  "Washburne 
t),  and  Mount 
^hs  where  flow 
d  range  of  the 
?hich  (Hayden 


Peak,  13,833  feet)  stands  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  rungo.  East  of  this 
imposing  rampart  Union  Peak,  somewhat  loss  elevated  than  its  neighbours,  stands 
on  the  continental  divide,  disciiurging  its  running  waters  on  one  side  through  the 
Wind  River  to  the  Missouri  and  tbo  Uulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  other  through  the 
Orosventro  Creek  to  the  Snake  or  Lewis  Fork  of  the  (/olumbiu  for  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Further  south,  Fremont  Peak  (1 3,i>70  feet),  another  giant  of  the  llocky 
Mountains,  towers  above  the  crest  of  the  Wind  River  range  ut  the  sources  of  the 
Green  River  affluent  of  the  Colorado.  But  beyond  tbis  puint  tbo  crest  fulls 
rapidly  and  brunches  into  divergent  ridges,  one  of  which  terminates  southward;! 
in  the  superb  pillar  of  Rock  Independence  on  the  northern  verge  of  the  elevated 
Laramie  plains,  thcm^elve8  7,500  feet  above  sea-level.  At  its  foot  winds  the  old 
track  followed  by  the  emigrants,  iiow  abandoned  for  the  transcontinental 
railwuys.  The  hieroglyphics  or  rude  pictures  painted  by  the  Indians  on  the  face 
of  this  rock  huve  long  been  obliteruted  by  the  names  of  whito  travellers  carved 
over  them.  The  Wind  River  Mountains,  which  are  swept  by  the  storms  and 
blizzards  of  both  slopes,  received  from  the  Franco-Cunudian  trappers  the  name  of 
"  Monts  Ouragon,"  a  designation  which,  under  a  slightly  modified  or  Anglicised 
form,  has  become  that  of  the  state  of  Oregon. 

Volcanic  ejections  have  strangely  modified  the  outlines  of  the  mountains  piled 
up  confusedly  in  the  National  Park  and  surrounding  district.  Cones  of  igneous 
matter  huve  sprung  up  in  the  very  centre  of  old  lacustrine  basin<«,  or  on  the  slopes 
of  the  encircling  hills.  Elsewhere  molten  masses  of  trachyte,  injected  into  the 
Assures  of  the  rocks,  have  resisted  the  weathering  process,  while  the  enclosing 
walls  have  since  disappeared,  eaten  away  by  erosive  action ;  and  now  the  harder 
masses  stand  out  in  the  form  of  isolated  pinnacles  or  buttresses,  rising  like  the 
ramparts  of  a  citadel  some  120  feet  high  al  ove  the  prairies  or  the  woodlands.  In 
one  place  the  lava-flelds  terminate  abruptly  in  rugged  cliffs;  in  another  they 
have  been  as  if  suddenly  congealed  while  flowing  like  running  waters,  and  are 
now  spread  out  over  a  broad  surfai-e  almost  as  smooth  as  that  of  a  tranquil  lake. 
Sheets  of  solidified  obsidian  are  very  common,  and  nowhere  else  present  more  the 
appearance  of  artificial  glass  in  their  delicacy  of  texture  and  transparency.  In 
order  to  cut  tracks  across  the  rougher  masses  of  obsidian  lb.rge  fires  are  kindled, 
and  when  expanded  by  the  heat  jets  of  cold  water  are  thrown  upon  the  blocks ; 
this  has  the  effect  of  instantly  shattering  them  into  innumerable  fragments,  which 
are  then  easily  brushed  aside.  An  obsidian  cliff  near  the  Gardiner  River,  a 
southern  affluent  of  the  Yellowstone,  is  over  160  feet  high,  and  assumes  the 
aspect  of  superb  colonnades  of  a  shining  black  colour  streaked  here  and  there 
in  red  and  yellow.  In  many  places  the  lavas  have  flooded  whole  forests,  which  are 
now  found  petrified  in  their  stony  encasements.  The  Amethyst  Mountain,  north- 
east of  the  lake,  is  full  of  such  fossil  trees,  amongst  which  have  been  recognised 
magnolias,  lindens,  elms,  and  the  ash,  but  no  conifers,  although  the  pine  and 
spruce  are  at  present  the  prevailing  species. 

The  volcitnic  plateau,  the  ceptre  of  which  is  ffooded  by  the  Yellowstone  Lake, 
is  a  mountainous  region  standing  at  a  mean  elevation  of  7,500  feet,  overgrown 


Iniii HI  Willi 


S66 


TIIK  UNITKP  STATES. 


with  vast  piiio  and  Bpruco  foroats  stretching  hnyonrl  the  hori/on,  and  doiniriutod 
hy  cones  which  rise  2,()()()  or  .'J.OOO  feet  above  the  normal  level,  and  which  are 
snow-ciuu  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  No  lavas  or  ashes  are  uny  longer 
ejected  from  the  craters  of  these  cones ;  but  the  underground  energies  are  still 
revealed  by  frequent  earthquakes  and  by  the  countless  jets  of  thermal  springe. 
On  the  shores  of  the  lake,  and  lower  down  in  the  Yellowstone  River  valley,  those 
springs  are  distributed  in  groups,  some  edged  with  sulphur  margins,  some  throwing 
up  streams  of  mud  from  their  orifice,  while  others  deposit  on  the  surface  their 
incrustations  of  silica  ;  hero  and  there  geysers  also  escape  from  the  bowels  of  the 
earth  with  a  hissing  sound.  In  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  there  have  been 
enumerated  altogether  over  2,000  large  springs  or  jots,  71  of  which  discharge 
intermittent  columns  of  vapour  and  water. 

MO'it  travellers  approach  the  National  Park  through  the  region  where  the 
Yellowstone  lliver  tumble?  over  magnificent  cascades  ;n  its  tumultuous  course 
through  the  grand  canon.  In  the  neighbouring  valley  of  the  Gardiner,  which 
descends  from  the  slopes  of  Mount  Wushburne,  the  hillsides  have  been  clothed 
with  duzzling  snow-whiie  incrustations  deposited  by  numerous  thermal  springs 
bubbling  up  amid  the  cones  of  extinct  geysers.  The  lime  with  which  the  water 
is  saturated  is  derived  from  the  layers  of  carboniferous  limestone  underlying  the 
more  recently  erupted  basalts.  The 'Mammoth  Springs,  as  the  chief  fountains  aro 
called  from  the  grandeur  of  their  phenomena,  flow  from  the  slope  of  a  mountain, 
but  in  such  a  way  as  to  form,  from  ca>cade  to  cascade,  a  series  of  lovely  little 
basins  disposed  in  semicircles,  and  girdling  the  cliff  for  a  space  of  about  1,000 
feet.  Each  basin  is  flooded  with  water  of  the  clearest  azure,  the  overflow  of  whici- 
fails  in  thin  sheets  over  the  spurkling  rim,  which  seems  wrought  in  waving 
patterns  of  the  most  delicate  lace  or  beadwork.  The  temperature  of  the  springs 
varies  greatly,  some  being  tepid,  others  scalding  hot ;  even  on  the  same  terrace 
some  boiling  jets  disappear  in  wreaths  of  vapour,  while  the  pure  crystal  flood  of 
other  basins  is  unclouded  by  a  single  puff  of  steam,  and  so  pellucid  as  to  reflect  the 
slightest  speck  floating  overhead.  Many-coloured  algjc,  red,  yellow,  or  green,  float 
on  the  surface  of  the  cooler  basins,  contrasting  with  the  blue  liquid  or  the  spotless 


wuite  margms. 


Even  in  the  very  middle  of  the  Yellowstone  Lake  the  underground  springs 
welling  up  in  the  lacustrine  bed  have  gradually  built  up  their  cones  of  calcareous 
or  silicious  deposits,  until  the  incrustations  have  reached  and  risen  above  the 
surface.  Thus  have  been  formed  little  terraced  "  atolls,"  where  the  angler  can 
take  his  seat  on  the  steps  of  the  rim,  and  transfer  his  captured  trout  from  the 
almost  icy  waters  of  the  lake  to  the  boiling  caldron  of  the  rocky  islet. 

But  the  most  curious  district  on  the  volcanic  plateau  is  that  traversed  by  the 
Firehole,  main  branch  of  the  Madison,  some  18  or  20  miles  west  of  Yellowstone 
Lake.  In  no  part  of  the  world,  not  even  in  Iceland,  where  are  found  the  types  of 
geyser  phenomena,  and  which  has  given  them  their  names,  is  seen  such  a  con- 
centration of  bubbling  or  spouting  springs,  remarkable  alike  for  their  volume  and 
amazing  variety  of   form.      From  one  of  the  heights  commanding  the  Firehole 


and  dominated 
und  which  ure 
uro  uuy  longer 
orgies  ure  still 
erniul  springe, 
jr  vulley,  these 
some  throwing 
le  surface  their 
5  bowels  of  tho 
lere  havo  been 
'hicb  diHchurgo 

ion  where  the 
lultuous  course 
urdiner,  which 
)  been  clothed 
lermal  springs 
hich  the  water 
inderlying  the 
if  fountains  are 
)f  a  mountain, 
^i  lovely  little 
}f  about  1,000 
3rflow  of  whicl' 
jht  in  waving 
of  the  springs 
e  same  terrace 
rystal  flood  of 
18  to  reflect  the 
,  or  green,  float 
or  the  spotless 

ground  springs 
?s  of  calcareous 
sen  above  the 
the  angler  can 
trout  from  the 

3t. 

aversed  by  the 
)f  Yellowstone 
ad  the  types  of 
en  such  a  con- 
Bir  volume  and 
f  the  Firehole 


{■Ill 


imiimmiSmmfmm 


tmmmmmmmmmamtmimm 


^^  .^^.jsmssimmm. 


THE  YELL0W8T0NK  I'AIIK. 


857 


vulloy  i\u)  olmiTvor  iiiuy  uinhnico  ut  a  itiiiglo  gluiiLMt  liaiidrrdH  of  ipringH,  goyHcrn, 
or  mud  volciinoiii  lining  t)u>  IiuiiKh  of  Iho  torruiitH.  Tho  AmcricutiH,  who  uru  fond 
of  hypurlM)l(),  huvo  buuti  pu/./lod  to  find  iidtujuutidy  dcNcriptivo  iortnH  for  tlicMU 
HtupondoiiN  Hpi'ctiick'H.  Ilcio  in  hcuii  tlic  "(Inmd  (it>yNor,"  who  uwuki-ns  from 
liin  HliimluTs  lit  intervals  of  thirty-two  hoiirH,  ciirli  eruption  being  prceeded  by 
pronionitory  underground  nimblingH  liku  the  rouring  of  an  ungry  sou.  Suddenly 
u  huge  column  of  water,  ubout  aeveu  feet  in  diuinuter,  ia  Heen  to  rise  and  rimi 
higlier  utid  higher,  not  cuutinuouHly,  but  fitfully  by  upurtH  and  Htarts,  tu  a  height 


Fig. 

148.— Ybixowotonh  Liki  -Fiaauia 

Aab  Uuoiujfu. 

lk^ 

.IPMI 

1 

liir\ 

■ 

v.l. 

^                       ^^^^^^^^H 

mfl'T^^MM*.' _ 

L 

Slfcr 

.~3 

.      :'-  ■"•1 

lijp^i--. 

^T^ 

^^"^^B^ 

'  ■•'3! 

of  at  leaiit  140  feet,  while  the  vapour  unfolding  itself  in  long  wreaths  ascends  over 
650  feet  into  the  air.  But,  however  imposing  it  may  be,  the  Grand  Geyser  still 
has  rivals  in  this  land  of  wonders.  It  is  flanked  north-west  and  south-east  by  the 
"  Giant "  and  "  Giantess,"  of  which  the  former  throws  its  jet  to  a  height  of  150 
feet,  and  maintains  it  for  nearly  three  hours.  Although  the  central  column  of  the 
"  Giantess  "  rises  only  about  40  feet,  its  lateral  jets  dart  up  like  rockets  to  the  tre- 
mendous height  of  250  feet.  The  "  Excelsior,"  which  till  the  year  1880  was 
regarded  merely  as  a  tranquil  thermal  spring,  has  suddenly  revealed  itself  as  the 


■...,-,„:.,,H-,,,!;S»,lyM 
■  lijiiliiilliWirlilrwiitii'iti'il 


m 


358 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Peale  I  :  240  000 


most  vigoroua  of  all  the  geysers.  Its  vertical  column,  200  feet  in  circumference, 
has  been  seen  to  rise  to  a  height  of  300  feet,  carrying  with  it  blocks  of  stone  and 
debris  mingled  with  clouds  of  vapour  ;  long  after  each  explosion  a  dense  fog  en- 
velops the  valley.  The  "  Monarch  "  is  also  one  of  the  most  potent  of  the  geysera, 
while  "  Old  Faithful,"  a  little  south  of  the  "  Giantess,"  deserves  its  name  by  the 
punctuality  with  which  its  explosions  with  their  warning  rautterings  regularly 

return    everv    hour.      The 

Fil{.   159. — FlBKHOLE   KiTEB  VaLLEV.  r.  ,    ■  ."f        1  1 

"Beehive  develops  its 
rounded  crest  in  a  superb 
oval,  while  the  "Fun," 
altogether  of  unique  form, 
consists  of  two  jets  dis- 
charged from  two  pipes 
obliquely  inclined  towards 
each  other,  so  that  the 
columns  of  water  collide  in 
the  air,  the  clash  causing 
them  to  merge  in  a  spacious 
dome  with  divergent  jets. 
Lastly,  the  "Blood  Gey- 
ser," charged  with  a  diluted 
red  clay  from  its  crater, 
covers  the  ground  with 
sanguineous  rills  which  in- 
termingle with  ihe  waters 
of  the  Firehole,  polluting 
its  current. 

At  the  same  time  the 
descriptions  given  by  the 
different  observers  of  these 
famous  spoufers  vary  from 
year  to  year,  and  from  sea- 
son to  season,  according  to 
the  abundance  of  water  and 
the  state  of  the  tempera- 
ture. Frequent  displace- 
ments even  occur,  and  while 
certain  springs  have  developed  into  geysers,  some  of  the  latter  have  been 
reduced  to  tranquil  pools  by  the  collapse  of  their  underground  galleries. 
Craters  which  formerly  ejected  great  columns  of  water  are  now  clothed  with 
verdure,  and  the  calcareous  or  silicious  incrustations  mixed  with  vegetable 
humus  become  fissured  by  the  expansion  of  the  roots  of  conifers  embedded  in 
the  soil.  Since  the  discovery  of  this  "  Wonderland,"  a  certain  diminution  of 
energy    seems   to   have   been   observed   in    its    manifestations  of    underground 


II0'55' 


West   aF  Greenv<ich 


II0"45' 


Bubbling  Spring!. 


Miles. 


■i.yy«ii|rn)iV>1. 


_.i^^ir'r^'im:m& 


lircuniference, 
I  of  stone  and 
dense  fog  en- 
)f  the  geysers, 
}  name  by  the 
Inga  regulurly 
hour.      The 
develops   its 
it  in  a  superb 
the  "Fun," 
unique  form, 
two    jets    dis- 
m    two    pipes 
clined  towards 
80  that  the 
mter  collide  in 
clash  causing 
^e  in  a  spacious 
divergent  jets. 
"Blood  Gey- 
1  with  a  diluted 
om    its    crater, 
ground   with 
rills  which  in- 
rith  the  waters 
hole,   polluting 

same  time  the 
given  by  the 
servers  of  these 
iters  vary  from 
",  and  from  sea- 
an,  according  to 
ice  of  water  and 
f  the  tempera- 
quent  displace- 
occur,  and  while 
tter  have  been 
round  galleries. 
\w  clothed  with 
with  vegetable 
ars  embedded  in 
n  diminution  of 
)£    underground 


» 

Cd 

O 

E- 

t/i 

is 

c 


O 

o 


■# 


■ii 


iilli 


pi.Tert 


;  I- 1 


II 


M 


i^W* 


THE  BAD  LANDS. 


860 


activity.  Certain  geysers,  such  as  the  "  Giantess,"  are  in  process  of  extinction, 
although  there  are  others  which  are  growing  more  vigorous  and  powerful.  All  the 
intermittent  springs  are  situated  near  the  banks  of  streams,  aftiuents  of  the 
Madison,  the  Yellowstone,  or  Shoshone  Luke.  Hence  it  is  surmised  that  their 
supply  of  water  is  derived,  not  from  underground  reservoirs,  but  from  the  infiltra- 
tions of  the  neighbouring  rivers,  which  becoming  heated  by  contact  with  volcanic 
rocks,  in  the  cavernous  recesses  of  the  ground,  escajje  in  the  form  of  condensed 
vapours.  "  Fireholes,"  that  is,  fissures  discharging  hot  steam,  occur  in  the  very 
bed  of  the  stream,  which  from  them  takes  the  name  of  the  Firehole  River. 
Certain  mounds  in  the  form  of  excrescences,  either  scattered  over  the  ground 
or  disposed  in  a  line,  also  discbarge  along  the  bank  of  the  torrents  streams  of 
many-coloured  mud,  red,  yellow,  or  blue ;  hence  their  Anglo-American  name, 
"Painters'  Pots.!'  Towards  the  north-east  extremity  of  the  National  Park  a 
source  of  fire-damp  has  also  been  discovered  on  the  bunks  of  the  Cache  Creek 
affluent  of  the  Yellowstone.  The  ground  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  deadly 
exhalations  is  strewn  with  the  remains  of  animals,  including  even  bears  and  elks. 

The  Bad  Lands. — The  Black  Hills. 
East  of  the  outer  ramparts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  foothills  develop 
distinct  ridges  or  isolated  massive  groups,  such  as  Highwood  Peak  (4,620  feet), 
which  commands  the  south  bank  of  the  Missouri  below  its  last  gorges.  Farther 
south,  the  Little  Belt  Mountains  are  disposed  parallel  with  the  chain  of  the 
Great  Belt  Mountains.  East  of  the  Big  Horn  Range,  a  labyrinth  of  heights 
occupies  a  space  of  some  thousand  square  miles,  which  bears  the  Franco-Canadian 
name  of  "  Mauvaises  Terres,"  or,  as  it  is  now  more  commonly  called,  the  "  Bad 
Lands."  These  rugged  heights  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  plateau,  which  the 
running  waters  and  atmospheric  agencies  have  scored  and  ravined  in  all  directions, 
leaving  the  surface  strewn  with  irregular  fragments  of  fantastic  form,  towers, 
steps,  superimposed  edifices,  storeyed  cathedrals  and  belfries.  The  upper  level 
strata,  where  they  have  remained  intact,  all  stand  at  the  same  elevation,  while  the 
exposed  layers  of  diversely-coloured  indurated  clays  and  ferruginous  sands  along 
their  escarpments  correspond  on  either  side  of  the  ravines.  From  a  distance  the 
Bad  Lands  resemble  a  ruined  city,  or  else  those  weird  pictures  raised  by  the 
mirage  above  the  horizon.  The  Indians  naturally  avoided  penetrating  into  this 
maze  of  gorges,  where  fear  or  fancy  conjured  up  a  whole  world  of  shapeless  or 
baneful  beings.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  plateau  of  the  Bad  Lands  was 
formerly  the  bed  of  a  vast  lake  which  stretched  along  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  action  of  water  is  revealed  in  the  nature  of  its  geological  con- 
stitution, its  sedimentary  strata,  and  the  remains  of  fossil  animals  here  found  in 
prodigious  quantities.  Owing  to  their  friable  texture,  these  strata  were  easily 
enough  eroded,  and  in  some  places  fire  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  agent  in 
producing  the  ravines.  The  underlying  layers  of  ligni-e  having  taken  fire, 
the  upper  beds  would  have  fallen  in,  the  collapse  resulting  in  a  chaos  of  ruins. 
The  fumeroles,  which  have  been  observed  hero  and  there  along  the  river  banks, 


^ 


j^^jjgl^^ggljffijgj 


i^'!^'-^ 


800 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Mil 


in  fact  indicate  the  presence  of  lignite  still  in  combustion,  und  in  such  places  rifts 
and  fissures  must  in  time  be  produced  in  the  upper  crust. 

The  mountain  range  known  by  the  name  of  the  Black  Hills,  which  extends 
north  and  south  between  the  forks  of  the  Cheyenne,  a  western  affluent  of  the 
Missouri,  forms  the  most  advanced  buttress  to  the  outer  escarpments  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  This  rango,  called  "  black  "  from  its  pine-clad  slopes,  is  free  from 
snow  in  summer ;  eveu  Ilurney's  Peak,  its  culminating  point,  does  not  exceed 
y,6o0  feet  above  sea-level.  But  in  their  geological  structure,  the  Black  Hills  are 
specially  interesting,  forming,  as  they  do,  a  sort  of  epitome  of  the  whole  Rocky 
Mountains  system.  In  both  alike,  the  core  consists  of  granite  and  other  crystalline 
rocks,  everj'where  underlying  sedimentary  formations  of  Silurian  and  Devonian 
epochs.  Then  follow  carboniferous  rocks,  and  farther  on  n  zone  of  red  secondary 
strata,  triassic  or  Jurassic,  developed  along  the  periphery  of  the  range,  which  is 
plunged  bodily  into  layers  of  tertiary  origin,  first  deposited  in  shallow,  inland 
seas,  and  then  scored  and  carved  by  running  waters  into  diverse  forms.  The 
Devil's  Tower,  one  of  these  fantastic  isolated  blocks,  rises  sheer  above  a  group  of 
trachytic  columns  to  the  inaccessible  height  of  over  660  feet. 

South  and  south-east  of  the  Black  Hills  stretch  other  "  Bud  Lands,"  similar 
in  character  to  those  of  the  north-west.  Still  farther  south,  between  the  Niobrara 
and  the  bed  of  the  north  Platte,  extend  vast  sandy  wastes  left  by  the  waters  of  the 
dried-up  inland  sea,  and  now  lashed  by  the  winds  into  parallel  ranges  of  billowy 
sandhills.  This  inland  sea  still  existed  in  the  miocene  epoch,  at  which  time  it 
flooded  the  whole  space  comprised  between  the  Black  Hills  and  the  face  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  for.  a  distance  of  over  200  miles  to  the  south.  In  the  pliocene 
epoch,  the  lake,  which  had  meanwhile  disappeared,  together  with  a  highly  chcr- 
acteristic  fauna,  was  re-formed  with  undiminished  limits,  as  shown  by  fresh 
deposits  of  fossil  anitiial  remains.  Certain  districts  of  the  Bad  Lands  are  so 
crowded  with  these  remains  that  they  have  been  compared  to  a  vast  cemetery. 
The  explorers,  Hayden  and  Cope,  have  here  discovered  no  less  than  seventy 
species  new  to  science,  ranging  from  the  size  of  a  mole  to  that  of  an  elephant, 
and  including  reptiles,  rodents,  carnivora,  animiils  intermediate  between  the  deer 
and  the  mammoth,  between  the  mastodon  and  the  rhinoceros.  It  was  in  the  same 
Bad  Lands,  south-cast  of  the  Black  Hills,  that  the  geologist  Marsh  and  his  com- 
panions, creeping  stealthily  between  the  bands  of  Sioux  and  other  hostile  Indians, 
made  that  wonderful  expedition  of  1874,  from  which  they  brought  back  those 
astonishing  fossil  remains  which  are  now  to  be  seea  in  the  Museum  of  Yale 
University,  New  Haven. 

From  the  old  lakes  to  the  plateau  between  the  eastern  and  western  border 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  incline  is  extremely  regular.  Following 
the  course  of  the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte  River,  the  traveller  ascends  imper- 
ceptibly to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  penetrating  beyond  them  into  a  broad 
depression,  which  leads  by  a  long  detour  to  the  uplands.  From  the  Platte  valley 
that  of  its  affluent,  the  Sweetwater,  is  reached,  beyond  which  the  track,  leaving  to 
the  right  and  left  some  parallel  mountain  ranges,  penetrates  through  the  South 


1  '  •u*-v-»4*ij;S'  ,>^i,»  l; 

^■l'«miiirnfii)»n»{V"J'*»VI|>*fyi 


THE  BLACK  MOUNTAINS. 


361 


1  places  rifts 

lich  extends 
luent  of  the 
E  the  Rocky 
is  free  from 
not  exceed 
ick  Hills  are 
vholo  Rocky 
ir  crystalline 
d  Devonian 
3d  secondary 
je,  which  is 
lUow,  inland 
forms.  The 
)  a  group  of 

ids,"  similar 
the  Niobrara 
waters  of  the 
a  of  billowy 
bich  time  it 
face  of  the 
the  pliocene 
lighly  chcr- 
vn  by  fresh 
iands  are  so 
st  cemetery, 
ban  seventy 
an  elephant, 
Ben  the  deer 
I  in  the  same 
ind  his  com- 
itile  Indians, 
1  back  those 
!um  of  Yale 

(stern  border 
Following 
cends  imper- 
into  a  broad 
Platte  valley 
k,  leaving  to 
h.  the  South, 


Pass  (7,500  feet),  a  gently  undulating  gap  about  20  miles  broad,  which  leads  to  the 
waterparting  between  the  Mississippi  and  Colorado  slopes.  Here  the  actual 
dividing-line  rises  scarcely  more  than  CO  or  70  feet  above  the  normal  level. 
Although  few  gaps  are  more  clearly  marked  between  the  different  sections  of 
the  same  range,  none  of  the  transcontinental  railways  have  followed  the  South 
Pass,  which  has  the  disadvantage  of  lying  too  far  north  of  the  direct  lino  from 
Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  westwards  to  San  Francisco.  On  the  other  hand,  Evans' 
Pass  (8,269  feet),  which  was  adopted  for  the  first  railway  constructed  through 
the  United  Stttes  from  ocean  to  ocean,  is  also  of  easy  access.  Evans*  Pass, 
however,  is  only  the  first  obstacle  overcome  ;  beyond  it  the  lino  has  still  to  ascend 
to  Sherman  Station  (8,350  feet),  then  turn  some  mountain  groups  and  traverse 
the  upper  Sweetwater  valley  before  reaching  the  parting  of  the  waters  between 
the  Mississippi  and  Colorado  basins.  And  farther  west,  many  other  passes  had 
to  be  surmounted  before  reaching  the  descent  to  the  Pacific  on  the  outer  slope  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada. 

The  Black  Mountains  and  Front  Range. — Pike's  Peak. 

South  of  the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte,  the  eastern  border-chain  of  the 
Rockies  is  continued  under  the  name  of  the  Black  Mountains,  a  designation  due, 
like  that  of  the  Black  Hills,  to  the  sombre  pine  forests,  which  present  such  a 
forcible  contrast  to  the  neutral  grey  tint  of  the  treeless  plains.  The  chain  mns 
first  west  and  east,  and  then  trends  north  and  south,  thus  developing;  a  vast 
semicircle  and  enclosing  on  two  sides  the  argillaceous  Laramie  Plains,  which, 
like  the  Bad  Lands,  also  at  one  time  formed  a  lacustrine  bfsin.  Laramie 
Peak,  about  10,000  feet  high,  forms  the  keystone  of  the  range  towards  the 
middle  of  its  convexity,  where  it  bends  sharply  round  to  the  south.  Along  this 
meridional  section  of  the  system  the  higher  crests  maintain  a  tolerably  uniform 
elevation.  Despite  the  gap  where  it  is  pierced  through  and  through  by  the 
Laramie  River,  and  the  breach  at  Evans'  Pass,  followed  by  the  transcontinental 
railway,  this  range  is  not  a  distinct  fragment,  but  evidently  forms  the  northern 
division  of  the  heights,  which,  after  joining  the  lateral  ridge  of  the  Medicine 
Bow  Mountains  at  an  acute  angle,  are  continued  still  southwards  under  the 
name  of  the  Colorado-  range.  Its  imposing  appearance  has  earned  for  this 
section  the  alternate  title  of  the  Front  Range.  It  presents  the  aspect  of  a 
Buperb  rampart  of  snowy  crests  extending  uninterruptedly  a  distance  of  nearly 
250  miles,  and  forming  a  perfectly  regular  border  range  to  the  chaos  of  moun- 
tains, valleys,  plateaux,  and  deserts  which  occupy  the  western  part  of  the  con- 
tinent for  a  space  of  600  or  700  miles  farther  west.  At  their  base  there 
stretches  a  parallel  chain  of  low  sandy  or  shingly  hills,  sandstones  and  conglo- 
merates in  former  times  washed  down  from  the  main  range  by  the  running  waters, 
and  afterwards  detached  from  it  by  other  torrents.  Seen  from  tliese  crssts,  the 
mountains  stand  out  in  bold  contrast  from  the  plains,  wbile  the  endless  variety 
of  their  craggy  heights,  pillars,  eroded  flats,  terraces  of  monumental  aspect, 
Btoreyed  towers,  tiers  of  semicircular  steps,  render  these  advanced  ramparts  of 


liii 


''  imm^m^:^mMmm^f^';p^m^i'$s^^f«^^ 


302 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


the  Racky  Mountains  one  of  tlic  most  romantic  regions  in  the  United  Siates. 
Two  of  the  chief  peaks  in  the  Front  llungo,  Chirko  (UJ, lOG  feet)  and  Long 
(I'l,27l  foet),  have  been  so  named  from  the  American  explorers,  who  were 
amongst  the  first  to  traverse  the  llocky  Mountains.  LoJig  Peak  presents  on  one 
side  an  inaccessible  wall  composed  of  vortical  slabs,  which  break  away  by  cleavage 
from  top  to  bottom,  leaving  the  rocky  surface  smooth,  straight  and  forbidding. 

Fig.  160.— Larame  Plaik. 

Scale  I  :  880,000. 


West    or   breenwich 


1^  Mliu 


Wh\ 


li 


From  a  distance  it  seems  to  terminate  in  two  little  peaks,  the  Deux  Oreilles  ("Two 
Ears  ")  of  the  old  Canadian  voyageurs. 

Farther  south  Mount  Lincoln  attains  a  height  of  14,296  feet ;  but  at  this 
point  the  system  is  already  masked  on  the  east  side  by  a  chain  of  foothills  and 
by  a  spur  of  the  main  range,  which  terminates  northwards  in  Pike's  Peak  (14,147 
feet),  the  famous  landmark  to  the  pioneers  of  "  *59."  This  summit  is  named 
from  Major  Pike,  who  in  181)4  made  a  daring  effort  to  reach  the  top.  The 
summit  was  first  ascended  by  the  naturalist  James  about  the  year  1820,  and  it  has 
since  been  more  frequently  scaled  perhaps  than  any  of  the  other  lofty  heights  in 


\i(f-w 


;ii:,rii.tfiM»iiM(pig?iJM  V'"- 


ited  Slates, 
und  Long 
,  who  were 
ents  on  one 
by  cleavage 

forbidding. 


riKE'S  PRAK.— THE  PARKS. 


303 


the  Fur  "West.  Rising  raujesticully  above  the  plains  of  the  Platte  und  Arkansas 
Rivers,  this  "  Monte  Vise"  of  North  America  till  recently  gave  its  name  to  tho 
whole  rogion,  and  emigrants  bound  for  the  Rockies  wore  popularly  siioken  of  us 
"  Pike's  Pcnkcrs."  Even  at  this  day  settlers  arriving  in  California  from  the  foot 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  kdown  by  this  numc.  Tho  observatory  founded  by 
the  astronomer  Pickering  on  the  natural  platform  with  which  the  peak  terminates 
at  an  altitude  of  over  14,000  feet,  is  the  highest  in  the  world,  exceeding  that  of  Leh, 
in  Ladak,  on  tho  frontier  of  British  India  towards  West  Tibet,  by  iJ,900  feet.* 

Fig.  161.— Pike's  Piux. 
Boale  1  :  3SU,000. 


.  6  MUea. 


The  Parks — The  Sangke  de  Cristo,  Ei.k,  and  Sa watch  Ranges. 

West  of  the  outer  rampart  formed  by  the  Front  Range,  the  spacious  upland 
valleys  encircled  on  all  sides  by  lofty  mountains  have  received  the  name  of 
"parks";  in  reality  they  are  rather  elevated  coombs  or  depressions,  whence 
radiftte  numerous  lateral  river  vallevs  at  a  mean  altitude  of  from  7,500  to  10,000 
feet,  and  dominated  by  crests  some  3,000  or  4,000  feet  higher.  The  three 
principal  basins — North  Park,  Middle  Park,    and  South  Park — follow  in  suc- 

•  Atmosphetio  presBure  on  Pikn's  Pfak,  0-451,  or  0'6  of  the  bnrnmetrio  ooltimn  at  Rea-Ievel. 
M<>nn  Rummer  temperature  (July),  40°  Fahr.  Mean  winter  temperature  (January),  2"  Fahr.  Estrtmes, 
63°  or  64°  Fahr.  and  —39°  Fahr. 


,,a-— '*'W'#^- 


;  ?'■  -'■  .ki:''frfir:mfr^'^}  liliy^f^lW^i^i 


M 


8M 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


cession  from  north  to  south,  with  somowhut  uuifurm  areas,  from  700  or  800  to 
over  1,000  square  miles. 

North  Purk,  wliit-h  is  limited  o:ist  and  west  by  two  parallel  chains,  is  the  most 
regular  of  these  elevated  amphitheatres.  Its  torrents,  issuing  from  valleys  which 
ramify  like  the  ribs  of  u  fan,  have  forced  themselves  a  common  outlet  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  old  lacustrine  basin.  The  united  streams  form  tlie 
North  Fork  of  the  Platte,  which  trends  round  to  the  cast  after  its  junction  with 
the  Sweetwater  from   tlio  west.       This  depression  is  fertile    and  well  grassed, 

Fig.  102. — NoBTH  Pauk. 

Ben]e  1  ;  7V1.ono. 


!il>.- 


■••61 


affording  good  pasturage  to  numerous  herds  of  cattle,  and  in  the  spring  and  fall 
to  countless  bands  of  antelope  (Hayden).  Middle  Park,  which  is  separated  from 
the  northern  basin  by  a  simple  ridge  of  volcanic  rocks,  belongs  not  to  the  Missis- 
sippi, but  to  the  Pacific  slope,  having  a  westward  dip  and  sending  the  overflow  of 
its  rain  and  snow  waters  to  the  Grand  River,  a  Colorado  affluent.  Unlike  North 
Park,  this  basin  forms  a  group  of  narrow  valleys,  separated  one  from  the  other 
by  high  spurs  ramifying  from  the  outer  walls  of  the  depression.  Lastly,  South 
Park,  comprised  between  the  crests  culminating  in  Lincoln  and  Pike's  Peak, 
drains,  as  if  to  redress  the  balance,  north-east  through  the  South  Fork  of  the 


.da. 


THE  PARKS— PARK  RANGE. 


30C 


I  or  800  to 

iH  tho  most 
loys  whicli 
tiet  at  tho 
form  tlie 
iction  with 

II  grassed, 


401 
45 


ig  and  fall 
■ated  from 
!:he  Missis- 
•verflow  of 
[ike  North 
the  other 
tly,  South 
ke's  Peak, 
trk  of  the 


Platte  to  the  Mi8si8^^iI)I)i.  It  forms  an  elliptical  tableland  of  somewhat  uniform 
surface,  broken  by  a  lew  lesser  ridges,  and  towards  tho  south  by  numerous  buttcs 
of  volcanic  origin.  The  surface,  about  1,000  square  miles  in  extent,  ia  mostly 
covered  with  rich  bunch-grass,  which  yields  excellent  fodder  for  cattle. 

Another  great  valley,  that  of  San  Luis,  which  was  formerly  a  lacustrine 
depression,  's  also  at  times  improperly  spoken  of  as  a  "park."  In  reality  it  is  a 
vast  plain  of  sands  or  clays  levelled  by  tho  waters,  stretching  for  a  distance  of 

Fig.  163.— South  Pabx. 

Sosl*  1  :  800,000. 


—391 
,10 


39- 


I06- 


West    oF  breenwich 


I05'30' 


lii  Milea. 


140  miles  southwards,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  35  or  40  miles,  and  traversed 
during  the  rainy  season  by  an  affluent  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Smaller  basins,  which 
would  elsewh'  e  be  called  cirques,  coombs,  or  glens,  all  take  the  name  of  "  parks  " 
in  this  region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  while  the  lesser  depressions  are  jocularly 
called  "holes."  The  general  term,  "Park  Range,"  is  applied  to  the  irregular 
heights  which  constitute,  west  of  the  parks,  a  sort  of  chain,  or  rather  the  escarp- 
ment of  the  western  plateau.  Here  are,  nevertheless,  some  lofty  summits,  such  as 
Quandary  Peak  (14,269  feet),  and  several  others  of  nearly  equal  altitude.     Farther 


n-.  it  I  *l   '   ^'in  .1 


1  V 


T     %i 

IS 


1^1! 


Im 


300 


THE  UNITED  8TATES. 


on  the  systt'in  (Iwiiidlos  to  u  few  hills  of  moderate  elevation.  Westwards  extend 
a  Bcrios  (tf  torruced  pliiteiiux,  fulling  Bucccssivoly  down  to  the  level  of  the  Grand 
and  Green  llivor  basiiia,  whoso  junction  forms  the  Colorado. 

Exjiosed  to  the  parching  atmosphere  of  the  great  plains  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  receiving  hut  little  moisture  from  any  (juarter,  on  an  average  less  than  twenty 
inches  a  your,  the  Front  Hungo  wears  its  snowy  mantle  only  for  about  six  months 
during  the  cold  season.  In  the  heart  of  summer  little  is  seen  except  some  slight 
whitish  streaks,  formed  by  the  frozen  snows  heaped  up  in  the  lissures  of  the  rocks. 
Nevertheless,  a  few  small  glaciers  occur  here  and  there  in  places  less  exposed  to 
the  solar  iiys.  The  largest  of  these  crystal  streams  extends  along  the  gentle 
slope  of  Mummy  Mountuin,  north  of  Long's  Peak,  where  it  is  dominated  by  a  crest 
of  blackish  rocks.  On  one  occasion,  during  p  '^ight  of  locusts,  myriads  of  these 
winged  pests  fell  on  the  snows  between  Ututt  and  Colorado,  and  the  bears, 
leaving  the  lower  valleys,  swarmed  up  to  tho  higher  grounds  to  enjoy  the 
windfall.  It  was  then  that  a  sportsman  in  pursuit  of  large  game  discovered  the  vast 
"  snowfield,"  which  was  afterwards  ascertained  to  bo  a  true  glacier,  with  all  the 
accessory  crevasses,  serucs,  and  moraines.  It  has  received  the  name  of  Huller's 
Glacier,  from  one  of  its  explorers. 

But  if  glaciers  are  now  rare  and  of  small  size,  traces  are  still  visible  of  vast 
icecaps,  which  formerly  covered  the  whole  surface  of  the  parks  above  10,000  feet, 
and  which  scored  and  polished  the  mountuin  slopes  at  a  somewhat  uniform 
elevation.  p]rratic  boulders,  formerly  brought  down  by"  the  crystalline  masses, 
are  strewn  over  the  hillsides,  above  the  yawning  chasms  excavated  by  the 
torrents  in  the  accumulated  debris  of  the  moraines. 

One  of  the  most  frequented  spots  in  this  region,  thanks  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
Colorado  Springs  watering-place,  has  been  named  the  "Garden  of  the  Gods,"  so 
powerfully  has  the  imagination  of  the  visitors  been  struck  by  its  sandstone  obelisks, 
eroded  by  tho  running  waters,  and  weathered  by  the  winds,  sands,  frosts  and 
thaws,  and  then  left  standing  in  the  mid.'^t  of  the  grassy  slopes  and  woodlands. 
On  one  side  stretches  the  plain,  merging  in  the  distance  with  the  bluish  horizon, 
on  the  other  rises  this  charming  amphitheatre  of  verdant  heights. 

South  of  the  narrow  gorge,  through  which  the  Arkansas  River  escapes,  the 
Front  Range  is  continued  under  the  Spanish  and,  to  English  ears,  somewhat 
profane  name  of  "  Sangre  de  Cristo."  Here  the  student  enters  another  historic 
zone,  where  discovery  and  settlement  have  been  made,  not  by  Franco-Canadian 
or  Anglo-American  pioneers,  as  in  the  northern  section  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
but  by  Mexicans  of  Spanish  speech.  The  culminating  point  of  the  Sangre  de 
Cristo,  often  snow-clnd,  despite  its  southerly  situation  between  ^5^  and  38°  north 
latitude,  takes  the  name  of  the  Sierra  Blanca,  and  has  an  altitude  of  14,4G4  feet. 
It  thus  overtops  by  some  feet  the  rival  peaks  of  the  Rockies  properly  so  culled. 
The  point,  however,  is  not  yet  quite  settled,  for  there  are  over  fifty  summits,  all 
having  much  the  same  elevation.  Farther  south,  along  the  section  of  the  chain 
called  the  Spanish  Range,  follow  other  peaks,  such  as  La  Culebra  (14,100  feet), 
and  Baldy  Peak  (12,500  ftet).    These  are  continued  southwards  by  isolated  crests, 


•^ftimtmmf  «i|u»iii  — — ~. 


TUK  ME3AS-rYRAMID  MOUNTAIN. 


807 


irils  extend 
the  Grand 

Mississippi, 

hun  twenty 

six  months 

some  slight 

f  the  rocks. 

exposed  to 

the  gentle 

d  by  u  crest 

ids  of  these 

the  bears, 

enjoy  the 

red  the  vast 

with  all  the 

of  Haller's 

ible  of  vast 
10,000  feet, 
lat  uniform 
ine  masses, 
ted   by   the 

inify  of  the 
e  Gods,"  so 
tne  obelisks, 
frostij  and 
woodlands, 
ish  horizon, 

escapes,  the 
I,  somewhat 
her  historic 
3o-Canadian 
Mountains, 
I  Sangre  de 
d  38°  north 
14,404  feet, 
y  so  culled, 
lumuiits,  all 
f  the  chain 
i,100  feet), 
lated  crests, 


including  the  Ocate  Volcuno  (8,f)00  feet),  and  Turkey  Mountain  (O.-IOO  feel), 
flunked  on  the  oust  side  by  two  superimpwed  luvu  phiteiiux,  whieh  have  L  on 
curved  by  eronion  '•ito  huge  mesas  or  "  tabh's."  Hero  the  fb  ,Mj«its  of  anlhracifo 
embedded  in  the  underlying  strata  have  bwrn  trunsformed  to  u  coke  of  cxcellont 
qualify  by  the  heat  of  the  molten  lavus.  East  of  the  main  range,  wliioh  skirts 
the  Sun  iiuis  valley  throughout  its  entire  length,  rise  the  two  isolated  truchytio 
cones,  the  Spanish  Peaks,  towering  high  above  the  surrounding  heights. 

Here  ceases  the  range  properly  so  called,  although  spurs  still  bronch  off  info 
the  neighbouring  plains.  Hugo  isolated  groups  also  rise  farther  south,  as  if  in 
continuation  of  the   Itocky  Mountain-*,   which,  however,  really  termiiiuto  in  this 

Fig.   101.     -OCATR   AND  ITS  LAVA-riF.I.DII. 
SraU  1  ;  H70  000. 


|35l 

4! 


^dk^f'-^j  f 


IU5" 


VVen    or    Greenwich 


IC4-f5 


li  Miles. 


district.  The  ranges  which  are  visible  away  to  the  south,  and  which  penetrate 
from  New  Mexico  and  Texas  into  Mexico,  belong  to  another  system.  Their 
geological  structure  also  differs.  The  masses  of  granite  prevailing  in  the  Front 
Pange  and  neighbouring  crests  disappear  south  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  under  the 
strata  of  secondary  origin,  which  are  continued  to  a  great  distance  by  the  Jurassic 
plateau  of  the  Staked  Plain.  The  Pyramid  Mountain,  an  eminence  ravined  with 
perfect  regularity  on  all  sides,  resembles  a  geological  model,  showing  the  succes- 
sion of  horizontal  strata,  all  differing  .u  colour  and  texture.  Numerous  igneous 
cones  are  grouped  above  the  dreary  wastes,  which  were  formerly  flooded  by  marine 
waters;  the  reddish  lava  streams  ejected  from  these  now- extinct  cones  still  glow 
in  the  fierce  sunshine,  as  if  they  had  scarcely  yet  cooled  down. 


mmmm' 


^df^^^ik. 


I    I  ■;!    1 1      ■»» 


966 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


H"  f* 


Wt'Nt  of  llic  outtT  cbaiiiM  bordi-riiig  tho  pliitoau,  other  niouiituin  ruii((cm,  riMJiij^ 
nb«)vo  iho  fomiiion  pcduHtul,  uro  (liHpor<od  iu  various  diroetiuus.  Tlio  Suwatch  or 
Sugiiucho  MoiititaiiiH,  one  of  thoao  ridgeit,  is  connected  by  spurn  with  tli«  Turk 
llan^^o,  whilo  itm'lf  forming  a  nctrtlicrn  continuation  of  tho  Sierra  San  Juan,  wliiuh 
■kiria  the  went  side  of  the  San  iluan  Valley.  Mounts  Harvard  (li,;{7.">)  and 
Yalo  (14,187),  so  nunied  in  lionour  of  the  grout  Now  England  Universities,  rise 
above  tho  crest  of  the  sierra  in  u  Hue  with  several  others,  such  us  Holy  Cross 
(14, 17(5  feet),   which  takes  its  nanjo   from  the   figure  of   a    cross  formed   on    it* 

V'g.   16ft.— U.tCOVrAROM  PUTBAU  AWO  StNDRAI)   VaI.LBT. 
0ealo  I  ;  4M,nnn. 


'WK'TSTf.  v.AiW  ■" 


109" 


West    or    GreenwicVi 


I08'40' 


a  Miles. 


eastern  face  by  the  snow  filling  two  fissures  disposed  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  glittering  in  the  morning  sunshine.  The  long  shaft  of  the  cross  scores  tho 
almost  vertical  flunk  of  the  mountain  for  a  length  of  about  1,000  feet  from  end  to 
end.  Farther  south-west,  tho  Uncompahgre  group  of  lavas  rises  in  majestic  isolation 
to  a  height  of  14,250  feet.  Of  igneous  origin  are  also  the  detached  masses 
collectively  known  as  the  Elk  ^lountains,  which  have  a  general  trend  from  east  to 
west,  and  which  culminate  in  Castle  Peak,  an  extinct  cone  over  14,000  feet  high. 
But  the  disposition  of  these  ridges,  half  lost  in  the  mass  of   the  plateau,  is  not 


fJ  :'; 


J^am 


-■mw   .i»-  — 


10  Suwutch  or 
''itti  tlie   I'urk 

11  Jtmii,  wliich 
(H.aT'))  und 

livorHities,  riHO 
18  Holy  Cross 
brniod  on   iU 


■*  >4/ 


ftj 


to  each  other, 
ross  scores  the 
t  from  end  to 
jestic  isolation 
tached  masses 
d  from  east  to 
)00  feet  high, 
plateau,  is  not 


'V 


"(!,«»' 


■h 


VJK/ 


•if?  MMf^! 


-■-,4..^4.J«mj{i.i.'i3;Ji.. 


rT*>ST 


,•.'14 


I 


THE  CONTINENTAL  DIVIDE. 


860 


easily  determined.  The  most  sharply  defined  features  of  the  relief  are  not  the 
higher  crests  of  the  mountains,  but  the  abrupt  scarps  of  the  plateaux,  in  which 
the  affluents  of  the  Grand  River  and  oiher  watercourses  have  excavated  their 
channels.  What  more  remarkable  instance  of  erosion  than,  for  instance,  the 
strange  chasms  of  the  so-called  Sindbad  Valley,  excavated  like  the  flooded  arena 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre  in  the  very  crust  of  the  rock  ?  The  saline  water  of 
this  curious  upland  basin  escapes  through  the  Rio  Salado,  emissary  to  the  Rio 
Dolores,  a  headstream  of  the  Grand  River  fork  of  the  Colorado,  Amongst  the 
crests  that  here  stand  out  sharply  from  the  confused  mass  of  the  plateau,  distin- 
guished either  by  their  form  or  their  elevation,  Emmons  mentions  the  Buffalo 
Peaks,  which  culminate  in  a  summit  13,541  feet  high,  that  is,  from  1.000  to  1,500 
feet  higher  than  the  surrounding  crests.  They  form  two  regular  pyramids, 
separated  by  a  breach  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  ruined  colonnade. 

The  Continental  Divide — The  Uinta  anp  Wasatch  Ranges. 

The  Continental  Divide,  that  is,  the  waterparting  between  the  two  basins  of 
the  Atlantic  (Gulf  of  Mexico)  and  Pacific  Oceans,  follows  an  extremely  sinuous 
line,  which  coincides  in  no  waj'  with  the  crest  of  any  regular  mountain  range, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  meanders  lawlessly  from  one  to  another.  The  summits 
have  but  a  slight  elevation  above  their  pedestt*  1,  while  the  passes  at  which  it  is 
crossed  scarcely  full  below  the  mean  altitude  of  the  plateau.  The  Cochetopa 
Pass,  one  of  the  least  elevated,  which  crosses  the  Sawatch  Runge,  and  which  the 
Indian  hunters  were  formerly  acquainted  with  as  the  chief  track  followed  by  the 
mountain  bisons  in  their  great  annual  migrations,  has  an  altitude  of  about  10,000 
feet.  The  railway,  leading  from  Denver  to  Salt  Lake  City,  is  the  most  elevated 
in  the  United  States,  and  crosses  at  Fremont  Pass,  that  is,  at  an  altitude  of  12,820 
feet,  not  more  than  1,300  feet  below  the  loftiest  i^ummit  in  the  whole  region. 
Farther  south,  another  line,  with  numerous  ramifications,  utilises  Marshall  Pass, 
10,950  feet  high.  The  towns  and  villages,  which  have  sprung  up  in  this  region 
in  connection  with  the  mining  industries,  all  stand  over  10,000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Leadville,  the  largest  of  these  places,  has  an  altitude  of  10,200  feet,  that 
is,  3,610  higher  than  Saint-V^ran,  the  highest  Tillage  in  France.  Yet  some 
smaller  groups  of  habitations  stand  1,000  feet  above  Leadville. 

South  of  the  upland  plains  traversed  by  the  "rst  transcontinental  railway 
constructed  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  a  mountain  range  runs  east  and 
west  a  distance  of  about  150  miles  with  a  mean  breadth  of  from  30  to  40  miles. 
This  range,  which  lies  athwart  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  orographic  system,  has 
preserved  its  Indian  name  of  the  Uinta  Mountains.  It  connects  the  Rockies, 
properly  so  called,  with  the  Wasatch  Range,  eastern  limit  of  the  "Great  Basin  " 
of  Utah.  The  Uintus  may  be  regarded  as  a  typical  specimen  of  mountains  with 
folded  strata.  The  layers  belonging  to  various  formations,  ranging'  from  the 
arcfasean  and  Cambrian  epochs  to  the  horizons  of  the  chalk  and  tertiary  periods, 
are  disposed  in  perfectly  regular  anticlinal  lines.  The  range  attains  a  total  thick- 
00 


mant 


— lit><L   .U  »» 


r^aflilPf^:-'. 


vi'y 


370 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ness  of  at  least  26,000  feet,  judging  at  least  from  the  actual  profile  of  the  curva- 
ture. But  the  ruined  peaks  which  still  rise  above  the  axis  of  the  chain,  Mouata 
Agassiz  and  Emmons  and  Gilbert's  Peak  (13,700  feet),  do  not  exceed  the  average 
elevation  of  the  eminences  on  the  plateau.  The  folding  of  the  strata  must  have 
been  a  gradual  process  without  any  abrupt  convulsions,  for  the  rivers  descending 
from  the  slopes  have  never  shifted  their  beds.  During  the  course  of  ages  they 
have  excavaitjd  these  beds  to  a  tremendous  depth,  thus  forming  profound  canons 
like  those  of  the  Green  River,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Colorado. 

The  Wasatch  Mountains,  like  the  Front  Bange,  are  scarcely  more  than  the 
scarp  of  the  great  plateau.  Nevertheless,  on  the  west  side,  above  the  old 
lacustrine  plains  of  Utah,  they  present  the  aspect  of  an  imposing  rampart, 
rising  from  5,000  to  6,000  or  7,000  feet  above  their  elevated  pedestal.  They 
form  the  southern  extension  of  the  groups  belonging  to  the  Yellowstone  National 
Park,  where  occurs  the  parting  of  the  waters  flowing  to  the  Missouri,  the 
Columbia,  and  the  Colorado  basins.  But  the  Wasatch  system,  which  in  the 
Wyoming  Peak  attains  an  altitude  of  about  11,600  feet,  does  not  form  a  distinct 
range.  It  is  carved  into  a  labyrinth  of  unequal  fragments  by  the  winding 
fluvial  valleys  on  either  slope.  The  chain  presents  no  clear  outlines  except  on 
the  south  side  of  the  Bear  Hiver,  which,  after  piercing  the  whole  mountainous 
region,  discharges  its  waters  in  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  Farther  south,  the  range 
is  again  pierced  by  the  Weber,  another  watercourse,  whose  narrow  gorge  is 
followed  by  the  Central  Pacific  Railway  in  order  to  penetrate  from  the  Laramie 
and  Bridger  plains  westwards  to  the  "  Great  Basin "  of  Ftah.  Another  line 
utilises  the  valley  of  the  Bear  River,  gaining  access  through  its  lower  gorges  to 
the  Snake  River  valley. 

South  of  the  Weber  gorge  begins  the  range,  properly  so  called,  of  the 
Wasatch  Mountains,  which  extends  north  and  south  a  distance  of  about  260 
miles.  It  increases  in  altitude  in  the  direction  of  the  south,  where  it  develops 
the  Mount  Nebo,  from  whose  summit  the  Mormons  first  beheld  the  "  promised 
land."  Farther  on  the  Wasatch  Range  begins  to  merge  in  the  thickness  of  the 
rugged  masses  constituting  the  deserts  of  Colorado  with  their  lines  of  lofty  cliffs 
disposed  in  various  directions.  Here  stand  Mounts  Terrill  (11,600  feet)  and 
Belknap  (12,200  feet),  btisides  several  other  less  elevated  summits.  The  ex- 
pression, "  Paradise  of  Geologists,"  has  been  given  to  these  plateaux,  mountains, 
and  treeless  cliffs,  where  igneous  cones  have  discharged  their  rugged  lava  streams, 
where  the  granites  and  archsean  rocks  still  crop  out  here  and  there  under  the 
overlying  secondary  formaticfns  and  the  tertiary  strata.  Thanks  to  the  cuttings  and 
erosions,  the  observer  is  enabled  easily  to  study  the  series  of  superimposed  strata 
and  to  determine  without  difficulty  their  respective  thickness,  their  inclination, 
and  a  thousand  other  details.  Here  may  be  read  the  geological  record  of  the 
world,  which  is  elsewhere  so  difficult  to  decipher,  especially  in  West  Europe,  where 
the  stratified  rocks  have  been  dislocated,  at  times  even  completely  reversed  and 
covered  with  vegetable  humus,  forests,  and  plantations.  In  the  short  space  of  fifteen 
years,  the  American  naturalists  have  been  able  to  interpret  the  phenomena  of 


■i  .mill 


-■;■  fcT?fU,^'»  •■^>rfg;  pilf.  ■-%fi  JL 


THE  WASATCH  MOUNTAINS 


371 


of  the  curva- 
hain,  Mouata 
d  the  average 
ta  must  have 
rs  descending 

of  agea  they 
)found  canons 
)rado. 

nore  than  the 
bove  the  old 
sing  rampart, 
idestal.  They 
stone  National 
Missouri,  the 
which  in  the 
orm  a  distinct 

the  winding 
nes  except  on 

mountainous 
ith,  the  range 
row  gorge  is 
I  the  Laramie 
Another  line 
wer  gorges  to 

called,  of  the 

of  about  260 
re  it  develops 
;he  "  promised 
lickness  of  the 
I  of  lofty  cliffs 
600  feet)  and 
lits.  The  ex- 
ux,  mountains, 
d  lava  streams, 
ere  under  the 
le  cuttings  and 
imposed  strata 
nr  inclination, 

record  of  the 
Europe,  where 

reversed  and 
space  of  fifteen 
phenomena  of 


erosion  more  clearly  and  more  conclusively  than  their  European  colleagues  hud 
succeeded  in  doing  since  the  beginning  of  geology. 

The  extent  of  denudation  produced  in  the  course  of  time  on  these  elevated 
tablelands  muy  now  be  estimated  with  some  approach  to  accuracy,  so  distinctly 
are  seen  the  successive  horizontal  layers  of  the  Permian,  triassic,  Jurassic,  and 
eocene  systems,  often  in  vivid  colours,  and  carved  by  the  wear  and  tear  of  ages 
into  storeyed  monuments  of  past  geological  events.  By  a  comparative  study  of  the 
various  plateaux,  the  observer  is  able  to  supply  the  missing  links  in  each  of  the 


Fig.  166.— Grand  Mesa. 

Soale  1 :  600,00u. 

M 

^^H 

^H 

He*^      ■'fSto'Km 

iifii  l^wrnf" 

^^^^EHp^pH 

mn^^ 

^^^^m 

^I^WraM 

^^^^^^^j^j^^m^^^^r^i,^^^^^^ 

^^1^ 

jj^^W 

t^^^^p)a|^p|p-v  °>x!|^^^^ 

^SSuHvjft!  Jh|^9 

'..^^^^H|^ 

yyBii '  '^ 

mBBKS^^a^S^KgHf^-'  !v<^"c>v^^ JSd^v^HbI 

IH9^icMJ{B?el 

^^H 

E\;i°? 

W^^^^''-'^-^^tMiMVm^ 

^fPi^ 

39' 

^iT'jijflar^r 

^B^^L   '  ^ ' 

^I^SHh 

^  W^Sii^ 

""LJllSSid 

J^^^^Bto'        ^^^B^^^KBSKim^mSUr^ 

W^'^^SSs^ 

T*1|R 

iMI-°:'°.  ^HffiBilW^iia 

"nifa  it^mT  1 

nJHL-"**..'  p^^^^lHlt «lE^HflkwnlpllJHBnH»/^. iwsH 

roBBbk 

Sj^.  °'.^^^HPSnH^||3»J|j|HVipnJ^^ 

^$^^m 

p£iSHjtt 

'-'*' -'4IIPPiP^ni^M^rlPimm 

^^m 

aH 

^  •-•  ° ;.  jB^imIbIBI^Pf  y^^ 

S^HH^^ffrlM 

W^Eji 

.^8- 

Ml 

hI^^^^'^S 

&toN 

38' 

50 

i^Mr? 

m^a 

B^R^^^A^^V^ 

^Bp 

bO- 

fei^g 

^fSSm 

IM^Oi^^K 

IHk 

^Hw 

^^§ 

HK 

I08"i5 

108-       .        West 

or    ureenwicVi 

__ 

6  Miles. 


stratified  systems.  A  thickness  of  about  5,000  feet  has  been  removed  over  a  space 
exceeding  200,000  square  miles  in  superficial  area.  Such  a  mass  would  represent 
a  cube  of  over  56  miles  in  all  directions.  Nowhere  is  it  possible  to  realise 
the  extent  to  which  erosion  has  been  carried  more  clearly  than  in  this  fragment 
of  a  perfectly  level  "  table,"  with  its  ravined  escarpments,  which,  under  the  name 
of  Grand  Mesa,  stretches  between  the  Grand  and  Gunnison  affluents  of  the 
upper  Colorado.  The  whole  group  of  plateaux  is  decomposed  into  a  number 
of  distinct  sections,  of  which  the  most  elevated  is  the  Kaibab,  standing  at  a  mean 
altitude  of  7,300  feet. 


""i  / 


f  ,      ' ' 


iiasfliwwiawnffis 


^^fSKSf^^f^as^':^^^'''«f3smefmf^''?'. 


r*sd.T3i^lB^-  '---«7saan;Ti««jp.!--v?rfl«?r-nfr.v 


*r,Tfr  -r'»*r;^¥r?trii5r-   ^t^P"*^  ' 


.#) 


I«t«l 


■1  :i 


M\ 


■I  III  I  lfiiiii.,1  a'^lif|iiif1<ii  W  iSm^ti-fllilrt  n'  i»l>li1fiii  II  il^ili|iny>i,T..i|,.,iw.„  , 


872 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


Volcanic  Aokhciks — The  Great  Basin. 
South  of  the  canons,  or  gorges,  through  which  the  Colorado  and  its  varioua 
affluents  have  carved  their  way  seawards,  the  mass  of  highlands  is  decomposed 
ill  seivirate  groups  and  secondary  ridges,  which  have  a  normal  trend  from  north- 
west to  south-east,  and  which  merge  ultimately  in  the  Sierra  Madre  of  Mexico. 
A  large  number  of  igneous  vents  occurs  in  this  southern  region  of  the  Kocky 
Mountains,  where  the  eruptive  matter  has  been  heaped  up  in  huge  cones,  whence 

Fig.  167.— San  Fbanoisco  Peak. 
SooU  1 :  fiou,ooo. 


West  or  breenwic^i 


lll°45- 


lll°50' 


V    V 
Pnolc  and  Sprinfrs. 


9  Miles. 


the  molten  lavas  diverge  in  various  directions  to  great  distances.  The  San 
Francisco  peak,  one  of  these  cones  or  rather  groups  of  formerly  active  volcanoes, 
rises  to  a  height  of  12,800  feet,  and  is  pierced  by  a  crater,  the  mouth  of  which  is 
still  visible  on  its  east  fl:ink.  This  igneous  crest  rises  in  solitary  grandeur, 
girdled  round  its  lower  slopes  with  gloomy  forests  of  pines  and  cedars,  which  con- 
trast sharply  with  the  grey  or  reddish  tints  of  the  surrounding  rocks.  Even  in 
summer  the  higher  escarpments  of  the  cone  facing  northwards  are  still  draped  in 


IV'V 


iiW',iiiCjtf'i^''^''i«''"''*'«it'*i'"'''''i"i'V'  ■'    '« 


THE  GREAT  BASIN. 


373 


ind  its  vurioua 
is  decomposed 
nd  from  north- 
Ire  of  Mexico, 
of  the  Rocky 
cones,  whence 


15' 


a  snowy  mantle.  Tha  uplands  inhabited  by  the  Zufii  Indians,  east  of  the  mi(idle 
course  of  the  Rio  Graude,  have  also  their  volcanoes,  amongst  others  Mount 
Taylor,  or  San  Mateo  (11, "180  feet),  whose  lava  streams  have  overflowed  into  all  the 
surrounding  valleys.  Un  the  opposite  slope  of  the  valley  extensive  hilly  districts 
are  also  overlaid  with  eruptive  matter.  This  region  of  New  Mexico  has  also  its 
malpais,  or  "  bjd  lands,"  like  the  igneous  districts  of  the  Anahuac  plateau.  North 
of  Paso  del  Norte  a  mountain  glen  is  filled  with  a  thick  lava  bed,  which  has  pio- 


Fig.  168  — BMnrr  on  Tnie  (Irkhn  Ritbb  at  vwsb.  knb  or  thh  Gbavd  CaNon. 


es.  The  San 
;ive  volcanoes, 
th  of  which  is 
ary  grandeur, 
irs,  which  con- 
cks.  Even  in 
Jtill  draped  in 


bably  welled  up  from  some  hidden  fissure  in  the  rocks ;   at  least,  no  crater  is  now 
visible  from  which  it  might  have  been  discharged. 

Between  the  eastern  ranges  which  constitute  the  Rocky  Mountains,  properly  so 
called,  and  those  of  the  west  which  form  the  western  escarpment  of  the  uplands 
facing  the  Pacific  Ocean,  there  stretches  a  vast  intermediate  space  traversed  here 
and  there  by  distinct  mountain  chains,  but  in  general  presenting  rather  the  aspect 
of  a  plateau  that  has  been  gradually  built  up  of  sands,  clays,  and  deposits  of 
calcareous  origin.   The  northern  sections  between  the  border  ranges  are  nearly  half 


,   ^ 


liuitiliiinttl'lit 


Ill      hii»"m<  itiiiiaiinilii  fiV'iii.fi  ...■■I 


374 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


filled  with  lavas  from  the  western  volcanoes  in  California  and  Oregon,  and  uftor- 
wurds  sproud  over  a  closed  hasin  within  the  circle  of  northern  and  eastern  heights. 
Here  the  lavu- field  ramifying  to  the  luterul  valleys  right  and  loft  covers  a 
space  estimated  at  over  200,000  square  miles.  The  entire  plain  comprised  between 
the  course  of  the  Spokane,  the  Columbia  and  Snake  Ilivers  is  covered  with  an 
unbroken  mu?8  of  luva  24,000  square  miles  in  extent.  In  many  places  the  thickness 
of  these  prodigious  eruptive  masses  is  revealed  to  the  eye  by  the  channels  cut  by 
torrents  and  streams  deep  into  the  rock.     From  the  bed  of  these  streams  the 

Fi)?.  169.— Great  Lava-btbicajc  of  thk  Mai.pais. 

Bcnle  1  :  flOO.OOO. 


.  12  HUes. 


observer  perceives  that  the  sides  of  the  gorges  and,  higher  up,  the  escarpments  as 
far  as  the  edge  of  the  plateau,  consist  entirely  of  lavas  irregularly  eroded  by 
meteoric  agencies.  These  vertical  cliffs  discharged  in  the  fluid  state  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  have  an  average  height  of  from  1,500  to  2,400  feet.  In  the 
great  canon  of  the  Columbia  the  river  flows  for  a  distance  of  about  two  miles  on 
the  primitive  granite  rock,  which  enables  the  geologist  to  measure  the  exact  thick- 
ness of  the  overlying  lava  bed.  At  this  point  it  has  accumulated  to  a  height  of 
about  3,700  feet,  and  has  been  formed  by  a  great  number  of  successive  discharges. 
In  the  Deschuttes  River  basin  the  geologist  Lcconte  recorded  the  presence  of  thirty 


''  rriW 


THE  OREAT  BASIN. 


876 


on,  and  after- 
istorn  heights, 
left  covers  a 
)riHed  between 
vered  with  an 
8  the  thickness 
nannels  cut  by 
streams  the 


,"5^ 


ISS* 
MS- 


iscarpments  as 
rly  eroded  by 
ate  from  the 
feet.  In  the 
two  miles  on 
:e  exact  thick- 
3  a  height  of 
ve  discharges, 
lence  of  thirty 


Buch  supoTimposcd  layors.  Rifts  and  vi'nts  in  the  form  of  craler  mouths  seem  to 
bo  the  orifices  whence  issued  these  enormous  quantities  of  molten  matter,  which  has 
been  diffused  horizontally  over  such  a  large  section  of  the  continent.  The  upper 
layers  of  lava  are  generally  found  to  be  more  porous  or  less  compact  lluin  the 
deeper  strata,  which  have  acquired  a  closer  texture  through  pressure  from  iho 
superincumbent  masses.  Whenever  the  streams  have  cut  their  way  right  down, 
the 'columns  seen  in  the  thickness  of  the  rock  are  always  larger  and  more  sharply 
chiselled  at  the  base  of  the  vertical  cliffs.  These  recurrent  inundations  of  liquid 
rock  probably  took  place  during  the  tertiary  epoch,  or  even  at  some  more  recent 
period,  for  the  stems  of  trees  that  have  been  found  embedded  in  the  erupted  lavas 
belong  to  spocies  of  conifers  analogous  to  those  at  present  prevailing  in  the  sur- 

Fig.  170.— Paballei.  Aanobs  of  the  Utah  Plateau. 

Scale  1  :  3,4no,00O. 


40" 


.  62  Miles. 


rounding  forests.  But  even  since  that  comparatively  recent  epoch  the  general 
aspect  of  the  land  has  undergone  a  great  change.  The  lakes  formed  by  the  lavas 
dammed  up  at  the  issues  of  the  valleys  have  again  been  discharged ;  the  streams 
have  carved  themselves  fresh  channels  ;  then  the  glaciers  spreading  their  crystal- 
line masses  over  the  plains  have  strewn  them  with  boulders  and  driit,  which  have 
in  their  turn  modified  the  local  hydrographic  systems,  by  compelling  the  running 
waters  to  shift  their  courses. 

The  vast  lava-fields  of  the  Columbia  basin  are  limited  southwardb  by  a  rampart 
of  mountains,  the  chief  range  in  which  bears  the  name  of  the  Blue  Mountains. 
South  of  them  stretch  the  plains  of  the  "  Great  Basin  "  at  a  mean  altitude  of  6,000 
feet.  This  basin  has  its  greatest  (^levation  in  the  centre,  thus  forming  a  sort  of 
Burbased  or  flattened  vault  falling  eastwards  in  the  direction    of  the  Waeatch 


^itrnmummmm 


THii'T  ii^ii'ijiJiTTiir  tag3.wfe:<i3B 


s-'jjwwauauaiwiSiirt^^  iinii.nwmmi 


,ifi:SiM' 


376 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Mountains,  westwards  towards  the  Sierru  Nevada.  On  the  south  side  the  incUno 
is  very  rapid  down  to  the  verge  of  the  suudy  Mohave  Desert  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia, where  tlio  platcuu  develojjs  the  long  depresHion  of  Death  Valley  parallel 
with  the  axis  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Although  its  rugosities  have  heen  largely 
obliterated  by  the  deposits  of  successive  ages  in  secondary  and  tertiary  times,  the 
Great  Basin  is  by  no  means  destitute  of  mountains.  Numerous  ridges  are  disposed 
with  remarkable  regularity  in  piirallol  lines  from  north  to  south  at  various  eleva- 
tions above  the  intervening  depressions.  A  traveller  wishing  to  make  his  way  in 
a  straight  lino  from  Lake  Tahoo,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  to  the -base  of  the  Wasatch 
Mountains  would  have  to  cross  some  twenty  of  these  stoop  bare  rocky  crests.  The 
east  Humboldt  Range,  loftiest  and  one  of  the  longest  of  these  ridges,  forms  u 
western  border  to  the  arid  plains  skirting  the  shores  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  It 
terminates  northwards  in  the  Bonpland  Peak  (11,300  feet),  which  is  the  highest 
point  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Basin.  As  a  rule  all  these  ctiains  and  buttes 
stretching  across  the  plateau  rise  abruptly  from  the  ground,  flanked  by  no  buttress 
or  gently  inclined  slope  merging  gradually  in  the  declivities  of  the  surrounding 
lands.  They  are,  in  fact,  mere  crests,  whose  base  has  been  overlaid  by  later 
alluvial  deposits.  So  obvious  even  to  the  ordinary  observer  is  this  geological 
phenomenon  that  pioneers  and  immigrants  have  given  the  name  of  "  Lost  Moun- 
tains" to  the  ridges  thus  rising  abruptly  above  the  more  recent  argillaceous 
clays.     Thrir  Utah  Indian  name,  Oquirrh,  has  the  same  meaning. 

Amongst  these  heights  of  the  Groat  Basin  hundreds  affect  the  form  cf  domes, 
either  isolated  or  grouped  in  parallel  lines.  They  are  huge  excrescences  of  car- 
boniferous rocks,  or  of  subsequent  formations  down  to  tertiary  deposits,  which  have 
been  upheaved  by  the  protrusion  of  lava  from  below,  which  spread  laterally 
between  the  strata,  forming  immense  buried  cakes  of  lava,  to  which  Gilbert  has 
given  the  name  of  "  leccolites."  Such  buttes  or  knolls  may  in  fact  be  regarded  as 
unfinished  volcanoes.  The  Henry  Mountains  in  south  Utah  are  a  typical  example 
of  these  domes  thrust  up  by  a  central  force,  and  many  other  eminences  have  been 
discovered,  all  formed  in  the  same  way.  Such  are  the  Sierras  de  la  Sal,  de  Abajo, 
de  Carriso,  de  Navajo  farther  south,  and  in  the  east  the  Elk  Mountains  of  Colorado. 
North  of  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Virgen  affluent  of  the  Colorado,  the  plateau  termi- 
nates in  the  three  superb  pyramids  which  bear  the  name  of  the  "  Three  Tetons"  in 
common  with  some  other  groups  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  system. 

The  Wksteun  Border  Ranges — Thk  Cascades — Mount  Shasta. 
Of  all  thr  North  American  mountains  the  border  ranges  skirting  the  west  side 
of  the  plateau  are  the  most  regular,  if  not  in  the  character  of  the  rocks,  at  least 
in  their  general  trend  and  relief.  In  this  respect  they  are  superior  even  to  the 
Appalachian  system  taken  in  its  entirety  from  Maine  to  Alabama.  Nevertheless 
these  western  highlands  have  no  common  collective  name,  the  northern  section 
being  known  as  the  Cascade  Range,  as  in  British  Columbia,  while  the  section 
south  of  Blount  Shasta  retains  its  Spanish  designation  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  or 
''  Snowy  Range." 


idH 


m^r 


■rff^mf 


I  m-'ff  '  «<»t\ 


•i6*' 


TUE  CASCADES  KANOB. 


877 


ido  (he  incHno 
southern  Culi- 
Vulley  puruUel 
been   largely 
iury  times,  the 
es  ure  disposed 
vurious  elova- 
ake  his  way  in 
f  the  Wasatch 
y  crests.     The 
idges,  forms  u 
Salt  Luko.     it 
is  the  highest 
ins  and  buttes 
by  no  buttress 
e  surrounding' 
rlaid  by  later 
his  geological 
"  Lost  Moun- 
)  argillaceous 

orm  of  domes, 
icences  of  car- 
ts, which  have 
iread  laterally 
:h  Gilbert  has 
)e  regarded  as 
'pical  example 
ices  have  been 
Sul,  de  Abajo, 
IS  of  Colorado, 
plateau  termi- 
ce  Tetons  "  in 


HASTA. 

the  west  side 
ocks,  at  least 
[■  even  to  the 
Nevertheless 
ihern  section 
3  the  section 
I  Nevada,  or 


The  Cuocades,  so  named  from  the  fulls  of  the  Columbia  and  otlier  rivers  tra» 
versing  them,  or  rising  on  thoir  tdopes,  form  the  simplest  part  of  the  system.  The 
volcanoes  rising  to  about  double  the  height  of  the  crest,  which  lias  u  mean  eleva- 
tion of  from  6,000  to  6  000  feet,  do  not  all  spring  from  the  main  axis,  and  their 
lava  streams  have  been  8])reud  in  long  promontories  over  the  surrounding  plaiim. 


■^'.i* .' 


Mount  Baker,  which  stands  in  immedinte  proximity  to  the  Canadian  frontier,  and 
whose  crest  (10,760  feet)  is  often  visible  to  the  inhabitants  of  Vancouver  Island, 
appears  to  be  the  most  active  of  all  the  burning  mountains  in  this  region.  In 
1843  and  again  three  times  since  tl  at  date,  it  ejected  ashes  in  sufHcient  quantity 
to  dam   up  the  current  of  the  Skagit  Kiver ;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  any 


"T^^ 


itmiil 


378 


TllK  UNl'iLl)  STATES. 


InviiH  wcro  (1i«c1targn(l  on  tliono  ornwionn.  Mount  Rninior  i»  tho  ciilinitiuiinj^ 
point  of  tho  Cuscuck'N,  toworiug  to  a  height  of  14,  U)  ftot.  Althoiifi^h  it  huH 
not  boon  tho  thoiitru  of  nny  distuibun'T"  •'  Dtvinporury  tiinos,  its  vimt  crutor, 
now  piirtly  filled  with  snow  und  vnolofr  ■  ■,:'it}'M>  a  still  more  ancient  orifice, 
emits  ubuudunt  vupours  which  atiord  som.  ^in.ih  to  Alpino  climborH  in  those 
liighor  atmospheric  regions.  The  prosonco  of  glucior",  one  of  which  is  ten  mites 
long  by  five  niilos  broud,  wus  duturmined  some  thirty  yenrn  ago  by  Lioutcuunt 
A.  von  Kanz,  who  when  trying  to  reach  tho  summit  found  his  way  barred  by 
these  obstacles.  Mount  Haint  Helens  (O.T'iO  feet),  which  stands  athwart  the  course 
of  the  ('Olumbiu,  deflecting  it  southwards  and  obliging  it  to  describe  a  vast  semi- 
circle round  its  base,  appears  to  have  been  in  eruption  in  1843,  the  same  year  as 
Mount  Baker.  Clouds  of  dust  from  volcanic  eruptions  are  frequently  wafted 
hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  miles.  Mount  Adams,  its  eastern  neighbour, 
und  also  nearly  10,000  feet  high,  seems  to  have  been  long  extinct.  IJut  while 
still  active  it  must  have  displayed  prodigious  energy.  This  lofty  cone,  now 
covered  with  snow  to  the  very  summit,  and  clothed  in  verdure  on  its  lower  slopes, 
is  tho  source  whence  flowed  the  lavas  which  formerly  dammed  up  the  Columbia 
with  a  huge  barrier  3,600  feet  thick.  Like  its  neighbours.  Mount  Adams  has 
also  its  glaciers,  and  all  the  streams  crossed  by  the  coast  railway  have  that  milky 
colour  which  is  so  characteristic  of  ioo-born  torrents. 

South  of  the  Columbia  the  long  line  of  igneous  cones,  all  connected  by  a 
continuous  xone  of  lavas  and  scoriao,  follows  parallel  with  the  coust  along  the 
escarpment  of  the  plateau  at  a  distance  of  about  380  miles  from  the  sea.  The 
imposing  mass  of  Mount  Hood  (11,700  feet),  commanding  the  river  gorge,  has 
often  been  described  as  a  still-active  volcano  ;  but  the  columns  of  smoke  supposed 
to  issue  from  its  crest  are  nothing  more  than  wreaths  of  aqueous  vapour  condensed 
by  the  cooling  of  the  atmosphere.  Hood  was  first  asconded  in  August,  1866, 
by  the  Hev.  Mr.  Atkinson  and  Alphonso  Wood,  who  estimated  its  height  at 
17,430  feet.  But  this  was  reduced  to  11,225  feet  by  Colonel  Williamson,  who 
scaled  it  in  August,  1867,  under  more  favourable  atmospheric  conditions.  In 
the  same  year  Professor  Whitney,  while  engaged  in  a  survey  of  Oregon,  calcu- 
lated its  elevation  at  11,700  feet,  which  seems  to  approach  nearest  to  the  truth. 
Similar  discrepancies  prevail  respecting  the  height  of  many  other  crests  in  this 
region,  as,  for  instance.  Mount  Baker,  which  has  been  variously  estimated  at 
10,760,  10,650,  and  10,500  feet.  The  other  volcanoes  which  follow  southwards 
appear  to  be  all  extinct  or  long  quiescent.  Such  are  Mount  Jefferson  or  Hu-ah- 
hum  (11,250  feet),  which  may  be  distinguished  at  a  distance  by  the  fragment  of 
a  breached  crater  supported  by  a  sort  of  pillar  known  as  the  "  Black  Butte  ;  "  and 
the  Three  Sisters,  with  their  snowy  three-peaked  summit  (8,960  feet),  encircled  by 
other  smaller  "  Sisters,"  which  fail  to  reach  the  region  of  snow.  The  igneous 
basin  of  Crater  Lake  (6,250  feet)  contains  within  the  sharp  rim  of  its  lofty  walls 
a  lake  no  less  than  2,000  feet  de<-p.  Like  similar  wonders  iu  other  parts  of  the 
United  States  this  lake  and  the  encircling  rocks  have  been  declared  a  "  Na- 
tional Park,"  the  common  property  of  tho  nation.     South  of  Mount  Scott  and 


^ 


(■tiliiiitiuting 
M\n*h  it  huH 
8  vimt  crutor, 
ipiciit  orifico, 
l)orH  ill  thoso 
I  in  ten  inilun 
y  Li«!utcnunt 
iiy  barred  by 
irt  tho  course 

a  vast  semi- 
satno  year  aa 
3ntly  waftod 
ii  neighbour, 
liut  while 
r  cono,  now 
lower  slopes, 
the  Columbia 
;  Adams  has 
3  that  milky 

meoted  by  a 
b\  along  the 
le  seu.  The 
ir  gorge,  has 
oke  supposed 
ur  condensed 
.ugust,  18G6, 
its  height  at 
liamson,  who 
nditions.  In 
regon,  calcu- 
0  the  truth, 
crests  in  this 
estimated  at 
'  southwards 
n  or  Hu-ah- 

fragmeut  of 
Butte  ;  "  and 

encircled  by 
The  igneous 
ts  lofty  walls 
parts  of  the 
red  a  "  Na- 
it  Scott  and 


;,"•■'■  ■'■■''.  ^' '-' . ""' 

'iif 

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f  ■"■"'■■'■"■    '■ 

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o 


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mini 


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4 


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f 


IvT) 


i    'I 


ill 


p'!'] 


1 


*.!»'     < 


■WtMn 


-■'Sw^.^Hjaap'' 


..'2;'  i:    •  ,. 


^— tM9« 


MOUNT  SHASTA. 


879 


Mount  Pitt,  also  extinct  volcanoes,  the  chai  of  the  Cascades  is  interrupted  by  a 
broad  gup  giving  passage  to  tbe  Klamath  Eiver,  on  its  course  to  the  Pacific. 
But  the  system  at  the  same  time  broadens  out  with  spurs  and  lateral  ridges,  in- 
ckiding  the  transverse  range  of  the  Siskiyu  Mountains,  which  extend  right  to  the 
coast.  The  natural  frontier  between  Oregon  and  California  is  here  formed  by  a 
labyrinth  of  heights  occupying  a  breadth  of  at  least  90  or  100  miles. 

Mount  Shasta,  the  dominant  volcano  of  the  dividing-line,  towers  to  a  height 
of  14,440  feet  above  the  sea,  and  about  11,000  above  the  surrounding  plain  of 
lavas,  which  serves  as  its  pedestal,  and  which  has  a  mean  elevation  of  some 
3,500   feet.      Its   flanks  are   girdled  with   a  dark-green   belt,    formed  by   the 


Fig.  172.— Mount  Shasta. 
Soale  1  :  376,000. 


Ig2*?0 


West  oF  Greenwich 


;  -1 


.^  ■ ',' 


'': 


6  Miles. 


wooded  slopes  of  the  ravines  scored  round  its  base.  But  Shasta,  the  most  majestic 
summit  in  the  United  States,  derives  its  incomparable  beauty  from  its  absolute 
isolation,  the  exquisite  grace  of  its  contour-lines,  the  dazzling  whiteness  of  its 
snow-capped  crest,  and  the  pale  grey  or  rosy  tints  of  its  lava-fields  enamelled  in 
ice.  This  giant  of  the  Cascades,  as  regular  in  outlines  as  it  is  lovely  of  aspect 
seen  either  in  the  morning  mist  or  aglow  with  the  purple  rays  of  the  setting  etin, 
is  by  no  means  difficult  to  climb.  Without  the  aid  of  ropes  or  other  Alpine 
gear,  any  practised  climber  may  reach  the  rim  of  the  vast  crater,  which,  within 
a  circuit  of  three  miles,  contains  a  deep  basin  half  filled  with  snow.  From  the  eharp 
ledges  of  ice  fringing  the  periphery  the  eye  sweeps  northwards  ov«r  half  of 
Oregon  with  its  numerous  volcanoes,  and  eastwards  over  the  rugged  plateaux  of 


iygfe?Mahifriiitftriiii«Sii»>i^^ 


riMwh 


■^iilyi 


isHim 


fr- 


380 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ill! 


the  Great  Basin  with  their  grey  expanses  stretching  away  in  the  hazy  distance. 
Towards  the  south  is  developed  the  long  perspective  of  the  Californian  plains 
flanked  on  either  side  by  the  parallel  Nevada  and  Coast  Ranges. 

Like  Mounts  Hood,  Jefferson  and  the  Three  Sisters,  Shasta  has  its  frozen 
streams,  some  open,  sparkling  in  the  solar  rays,  some  strewn  with  detritus  and  even 
with  lava  blocks.  In  several  places  the  crevasses,  piercing  the  glaciers  to  a  great 
depth,  are  scarcely  visible  under  the  masses  of  debris  covering  the  crystal  surface 
and  protecting  it  from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Some  of  these  glaciers  are  several 
miles  long,  but  they  are  now  little  more  than  threads  of  ice  compared  to  the 
copious  frozen  rivers  which  formerly  overflowed  through  divergent  gorges  down 
to  the  surrounding  plains.  The  course  of  these  old  crystal  streams  may  still  be 
traced  by  their  lateral  and  frontal  moraines,  and  the  channels  formerly  scooped 
out  by  them  are  still  followed  by  the  avalanche  and  the  mountain  torrent. 

Beneath  the  glacial  record  of  the  huge  mountain  is  reveal  i  the  history  of  its 
eruptions.  Ash  Creek  Butte,  a  fine  parasitic  cone,  rises  conspicuously  to  the 
north-east.  Other  eruptive  centres  occur  in  hundreds  about  the  roots  of  the 
mountain,  eitlier  scattered  in  disorder  over  the  plain,  or  disposed  along  the  lines 
of  fissures.  The  very  lava  streams  themselves  bristle  with  countless  Uttle  crater- 
like excrescences  formed  probably  by  the  lakes,  the  streams  or  snows  overtaken 
by  the  molten  rocks  and  suddenly  transformed  to  steam.  In  this  v  ay  the  sheets 
of  ejected  matter  while  still  in  fusion  may  have  been  pierced  in  various  places 
by  little  local  eruptions  due  to  the  vapours  struggling  to  reach  the  surface. 

Standing  in  a  line  with  the  main  axis  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  Shasta  has  often 
been  regarded  as  belonging  to  this  range.  On  the  other  hand  certain  geo- 
graphers have  made  it  the  southern  limit  of  the  Oregon  mountain  system.  The 
fact  is  it  forms  part  of  the  orographic  system  constituting  the  western  escarpment 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  of  which  it  must  be  considered  a  detached  fragment. 

Farther  on,  the  main  axis  is  indicated  by  a  few  volcanic  eminences,  and  beyond 
them  by  the  huge  mass  of  Lassen's  Peak,  a  truncated  cone  whose  base  has  a 
periphery  of  about  100  miles.  L^nlike  Shasta,  this  old  volcano  does  not  appear 
to  be  yet  quite  extinct.  At  least,  it  gives  birth  to  numerous  hot  springs,  and  to  two 
jets  of  vapour,  which  contribute  to  feed  the  little  tarns  flooding  the  cavities 
scattered  over  its  eastern  slopes.  Its  present  elevation  is  10,450  feet,  but  accord- 
ing to  Richthofen  and  other  geologists  it  was  formerly  far  more  lofty.  To  judge 
from  what  remains  of  its  crater,  the  summit  appears  to  have  been  blown  away 
during  some  tremendous  oxplosion ;  its  crest,  thus  decapitated,  lost  some  6,000  or 
7,000  feet  of  its  original  height. 


The  Sierra  Nevada — The  Yosemite  Valley. 

At  Thompson's  Peak,  near  the  village  of  Susanville,  the  Sierra  Nevada 
acquires  its  distinct  individuality,  stretching  from  this  point  as  an  unbroken 
rampart  for  some  450  miles  along  the  east  side  of  the  deep  Californian  plains. 
Viewed  us  a  whole,  this  range  of  mountains  is  the  most  regular,  as  well  as  the  most 


■riMMh 


■'(grWiMiai 


THE  SIERRA  NEVADA. 


881 


azy  distance. 
)rnian  plains 

IS  its  frozen 
tus  and  even 
jrs  to  a  great 
ystal  surf'ice 
are  several 
jared  to  the 
gorges  down 
may  still  be 
eriy  scooped 
rent. 

listory  of  its 
ously  to  the 
roots  of  the 
ng  the  lines 
little  crater- 
ws  overtaken 
ly  the  sheets 
arious  places 
rface. 

sta  has  often 

certain  geo- 

jrstem.      The 

n  escarpment 

agment. 

1,  and  beyond 

B  base  has  a 

!S  not  appear 

js,  and  to  two 

the  cavities 

;,  but  accord- 

y.     To  judge 

blown  away 

ome  6,000  or 


erra  Nevada 
an  unbroken 
)rnian  plains. 
[1  as  the  most 


imposing,  in  the  United  States ;  in  this  respect  it  even  surpasses  the  Front  Range, 
inasmuch  as  it  skirts  the  margin  of  a  more  fertile  and  far  morr  diversified  region. 
Disposed  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south,  wirh  an  incline  of  about  30 
degrees  to  the  east,  the  Sierra  Nevada  coincides  almost  exactly  with  the  trend  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  from  which  it  is  distant  some  160  miles.  Its  western  slopes 
inclined  towards  California  are  far  more  gentle  than  the  eastern  escarpments, 
falling  rapidly  down  to  the  plains  of  the  Great  Basin.  The  chain  gradually 
increases  in  altitude  from  6,000  or  7,000  to  over  14,000  feet  in  the  direction  of 
the  south,  the  mean  height  of  the  passes  rising  in  the  same  proportion.  These 
passes  are  narrow  breaches  serving  to  connect  both  slopes  without  reaching  the 
level  of  the  eastern  plateau.  Hence,  except  at  two  or  three  points,  steep  inclines 
have  to  be  surmounted  on  both  sides,  in  order  to  cross  from  slope  to  slope.  Thus 
the  Sierra  Nevada  is  a  true  mountain  range,  and  not  merely  the  simple  scarp  of 
a  plateau,  presenting  the  aspect  of  a  range  from  one  side  only.  It  is  crossed  by 
the  Central  Pacific  Railway  at  Truckee  Pass  at  a  height  of  6,935  feet  above  San 
Francisco  Bay.  One  of  the  chief  groups  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  sti^nds  exactly 
under  the  same  latitude  as  the  bay.  Here  Mount  Lyell  towers  to  a  height  of 
13,240  feet,  flanked  by  several  other  less  elevated  peaks,  but  of  extremely  difficult 
access.  These  lofty  crests,  nearly  always  streaked  with  snow,  present  one  of  the 
grandest  pictures  in  the  Californian  Alps,  showing  even  a  few  small  glaciers,  the 
last  which  occur  in  the  direction  of  the  south.  Yet,  despite  its  romantic  charms, 
this  rugged  region  attracts  few  visitors,  most  travellers  penetrating  no  farther  than 
the  gorge  of  the  Merced  River,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 

But  this  gorge  is  the  far-famed  Yosemite  Valley  ("  Great  Grizzly  Bear,"  in 
one  of  the  extinct  local  dialects),  one  of  those  remarkable  sites  which,  like 
Niagara,  the  Bosphorus  or  Vesuvius,  are  held  in  universal  admiration.  The 
nearly  level  bed  of  the  glen,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  from  half  a  mile  to  little 
over  a  mile,  winds  along  between  nearly  vertical  rocky  walls,  which  rise  4,000 
and  even  5,000  feet  sheer  above  the  stream,  terminating  in  stupendous  granite 
domes,  while  superb  cliffs  spring  abruptly  right  up  from  the  lateral  ravines. 
Although  clothed  with  verdure,  these  huge  crags  present  scarcely  any  talus  or 
accumulated  ddbris  at  their  base.  The  head  of  the  glen  is  overgrown  with 
spruce  or  cedar  forests,'  their  dark  foliage  presenting  here  and  there  charming 
"  opes  "  or  vistas,  which  vary  with  every  turn  of  the  winding  stream.  Stupendous 
waterfalls  tumble  over  the  granite  ledges  from  a  height  of  several  hundred  yards. 
One  of  these,  the  Yosemite  Fall,  is  formed  by  the  Yosemite  affluent  of  the 
Merced,  which  descends  1,500  feet  in  a  clear  leap  from  the  brink  of  the 
precipice,  and  then  dashing  against  a  projecting  crag,  escapes  through  a  fissure 
in  the  rock,  tumbling  another  1,100  fett  down  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Merced, 
between  the  North  Dome  and  the  "  Three  Brothers."  A  little  lower  down,  on 
the  opposite  side,  follows  the  lovely  Bridal  Veil  Fall,  forming  a  column  of  water 
630  feet  high,  which  sways  to  and  fro  in  the  breeze,  and  almost  dissolves  into 
white  spray  before  reaching  the  lower  bed.  A  wise  decision  of  Congress  has 
withdrawn  from  the  sale  of  public  lands,  and  reserved  to  the  nation  for  ever,  this 


■} 


:| 


-: 


mmc-^p^-'''!^'^''' 


-.ifeiiif^iiiteiif^iiiriiiim^ 


M^i&m' 


382 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


marvellous  Yosemite  Valley,  with  the  neighbouring    iplands,  to  form    another 
National  Park,  about  1,000,000  acres  in  extent. 

South  of  the  group  dominated  by  Mount  Lyell,  the  Sierra  Nevada  culminates 
towards  its  southern  extremity  in  the  majestic  dome  of  Mount  Whitney,  loftiest 
summit  in  the  United  States,  the  giants  of  Alaska  alone  excepted.  It  rises  to  an 
altitude  of  14,898  feet,  which  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Monte  Rosa,  ai.. ''  higher 
than  Mont  Cervin.  But  lying  between  3b°  and  37°  north  latitude,  some  600 
miles  nearer  to  the  equator  than  its  Swiss  rivals,  Whitney  has  a  far  less  extensive 
display  of  snows  and  ice.  It  also  lacks  the  charming  contrasts  produced  by 
grassy  or  wooded    slopes  below   the  upper   snowfields,  and  viewed  as  a  whole, 

Fig.  173. — YosEioTB  Valley. 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


Wftterfills. 


.  6  Milea. 


the  huge  mountain  presents  little  to  attract  the  eye  beyond  the  grey  or  pink 
mass  of  its  domes  and  granite  peaks.  But  from  both  slopes  the  giant  reveals 
himself  in  all  his  stern  maje-ty.  On  one  side  stretch  the  low-lying  Lake  Tulare 
plains,  scarcely  400  feet  above  sea-level ;  on  the  other,  the  deep  depression  of 
Death  Valley  opens  beyond  Owen's  Lake,  the  dreary  wastes  and  chains  of  hills 
towards  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Mohave  Desert.  One  of  the  affluents  of 
King's  River,  fed  by  the  snows  of  Mounts  Whitney  and  Tyndall,  traver&es  the 
Tehipitee  River  vallej',  which  presents  features  analogous  to  those  of  Yosemite. 
The  torrent  descends  from  a  height  of  1,770  feet  into  a  narrow,  wooded  glen, 
flanked  by  nearly  vertical  walls,  ranging  from  2,500  to  4,000  feet  in  height. 
Near  Mount  Whitney,  last  lofty  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  range  trends 


jttj/(i-Ug{iiiaifti>>»Ji<way'ira»i)i-', 


THE  CALIFORNIAN  GOLDFIELDS. 


383 


'orm    another 

da  culminates 
itnev,  loftiest 
It  rises  to  an 
a,  ai.. :''  higher 
,de,  some  600 
less  extensive 
produced  by 
,  as  a  whole, 


57° 
50- 

^^^^ 

n^B^'i 

nK'Am 

H^ 

57° 

40' 

KhImiiPu 

^fM 

w\%| 

3'' 

grey  or  pink 
giant  reveals 

Lake  Tulare 
depression  of 
hains  of  hills 
3  affluents  of 
traverses  the 
of  Yosemite. 
wooded  glen, 
et  in  height. 

j'ange  trends 


round  to  the  south  and  south-west,  where  it  joins  the  Coast  Kunge  somo'distance 
north  of  Los  Angeles.  At  the  Tahuehapi  Pass,  where  it  is  crossed  by  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railway,  it  falls  to  a  height  of  3,980  feet  above  sea-level. 

s" 

The  Goi.dfields. — The  Coast  Range. 

Thanks  to  the  Sierra  Nevada,  pre-eminently  the  auriferous  chain  of  North 
America,  California  was  rapidly  peopled  after  its  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
The  gold-bearing  reefs,  all  disposed  in  a  line  with  the  main  axis,  occur  in  the 
syenite  formations,  especially  where  they  are  associated  with  diorites  and  ser- 
pentines. But  most  of  the  miners  seek  these  treasures  in  the  huge  masses  of 
quartz  or  in  debris  formed  from  blocks  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  which  have  accu- 
mulated in  the  quaternary  gravels  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  This  auriferous 
drift  has  been  carried  down  to  a  level  of  1,500  or  1,600  feet  above  the  sea  by  the 
glaciers,  which  formerly  scored  the  flanks  of  the  Sierra,  and  which  had  a  thick- 
ness in  some  places  of  over  1,500  feet.  At  a  later  period  all  this  detritus  was 
again  attacked  by  the  running  waters  and  redistributed  in  thick  sandy  or  gravelly 
layers,  which  have  been  carved  into  distinct  masses  by  still  more  recent  erosive 
action.  The  particles  of  gold  extracted  from  the  primitive  quartz  were  first 
deposited  in  the  accumulated  heaps  of  detritus,  and  again  distributed  here  and 
there  along  the  riverine  tracts  during  the  successive  erosions  of  the  streams. 
In  the  northern  districts  of  California,  where  glacial  action  persisted  for  a  much 
longer  period,  the  auriferous  drift  has  in  many  places  a  thickness  of  over  600 
feet.  But  in  the  southern  region,  where  glaciation  ceased  at  an  earlier  epoch, 
and  where  the  torrents  have  continued  for  a  longer  period  their  work  of  dis- 
tribution, the  old  alluvia  are  much  thinner.  Hence  the  auriferous  debris,  left 
behind  by  the  running  waters  in  consequence  of  their  greater  weight,  are  here 
found  on  the  rock  at  a  relatively  slight  depth  below  the  vegetable  humus. 

Beyond  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  rich  Californian  plains  are  still  separated  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean  by  another  chain  appropriately  named  the  Coast  Range.  This 
orographic  system  begins  in  the  extreme  north-west  corner  of  the  Union  oppo- 
site to  Vancouver  Island,  which  might  be  regarded  geologically  as  a  marine 
frpgrnect  of  the  chain.  In  the  peninsular  region  formed  by  the  ocean,  Juan  de 
Fuca  Strait  and  the  labyrinthine  waters  of  Puget  Sound,  Mount  Olympus  rises 
in  almost  isolated  majesty  to  a  height  of  8,138  feet.  The  group  so  named  con- 
sists in  reality  of  three  wooded  ridges  disposed  in  the  direction  from  north-west  to 
south-east,  and  is  continued  southwards  through  Oregon  by  a  single  dividing 
chain,  which,  however,  is  pierced  both  by  the  Chehnlis  and  the  Columbia 
Rivers.  Beyond  the  Columbia  estuary  the  Coast  Range  acquires  greater  regularity, 
but  is  still  far  inferior  in  altitude  to  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  of  which  it  might  be  regarded  as  little  more  than  an  advanced  rampart, 
with  a  mean  elevation  scarcely  exceeding  3,000  feet.  Here  the  Umpqua,  the 
Calapooya,  the  Rogue  River  and  Siskiyu  Hills  follow  from  north  to  south,  but 
in  strange  disorder,  their  crests  intermingling  at  several  points,  while  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mount  Shasta  some  of  the  lateral  ridges  within  the  Californian 


'i 


.1 


■■I 


,.'! 


■A 


hlBiT''hlH^"l"i  ■-■"■  ■'"  •■■-■^'"'''-■•'•'^-■'■'■-■'^"■•'•'-  -VV I '■- -ill'  - 


•  -..A,'. 


:^W 


,_    .: -l^B^i. 


384 


TUB  UNITED  STATES. 


frontier  merge  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  Coast  Range  does  not  again  assume 
distinct  shape  until  it  reaches  the  latitude  of  Cape  Mendocino,  wcs'ernmost 
headland  of  California.  In  this  region  of  California  the  two  orographic  systems 
arc  sharply  divided  by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Sacramento  River.  The  western 
range,  ramifying  into  several  ridges,  falls  gradually  southwards,  and  terminates 
at  San  Francisco  Bay  in  sharp  headlands,  spurs  of  Mount  Saint  Helena  (4,350 
feet)  and  of  the  Tamalpais  Peak  (2,600  feet). 

So  far  the  Coast  Range  is  characterised  chiefly  by  eozoic  and  cretaceous 
formations,  here  and  there  underlying  rooks  of  more  recent  origin,  and  elsewhere 
covered  by  much  erupted  matter,  while  the  original  granite  core  also  crops  out 
in  numerous  jagged  crests.  In  the  river  valley,  near  San  Francisco  Bay,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  vicinity  of  Napa,  copious  thermal  springs,  sulphurous  or  saline,  well 
up  from  the  igneous  rocks,  and  masses  of  mud  still  simmer  in  the  vaporous  "  fire- 
hnles."  But  there  is  nothing  to  justify  the  name  of  geysev  that  has  been  applied 
to  these  jets  of  vapour  and  water.  The  springs,  which  shoot  up  with  a  hissing 
sound  to  a  height  of  15  or  20  feet,  are  not  intermittent,  while  their  mean  tempera- 
ture scarcely  exceeds  100°  Fahr.  The  fumeroles,  also,  do  not  act  spontaneously,  but 
only  when  disturbed  by  breaking  in  ihe  upper  crust  of  the  ground.  Altogether 
the  underground  energies  have  here  been  redur»ed  to  a  few  insignificant  displays. 

Beyond  the  break  at  San  Francipco  Bay,  the  Coast  Range  system  is  continued 
south-eastwards  to  its  junction  with  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  Monte  Diablo 
(3,860  feet),  a  fir-t  ridge  of  metamorphic  rocks,  rises  above  all  rivals  at  the  angle 
of  the  peninsula  comprised,  hetween  the  two  secondary  inlets  of  the  bay,  and 
gives  birth  to  the  Contra  Costa  chain,  which  follows  the  south-easterly  trend  of  the 
shore-line.  Mount  Hamilton  (4,450  feet),  one  ot  its  prominent  crests,  has  become 
famous  as  the  site  of  the  Lick  Astronomic  Observatory.  Rising  into  the  higher 
atmospiieric  regions  far  above  the  hazy  plains,  this  summit  affords  a  grand 
panoramic  view  stretching  from  the  blue  Pacific  across  the  sunny  landscapes 
of  the  Californian  valleys  to  the  snowy  crests  of  the  Sierra.  Nevertheless, 
Hamilton  is  not  the  highest  summit,  being  exceeded  by  the  culminating  mass 
of  San  Carlos  (5,470  feet),  which  lies  farther  south,  and  which  takes  the  form  of 
a  somewhat  arid  ter'.ace  furrowed  by  divergent  gorges.  Other  ridges  are  disposed 
in  parallel  lines  along  tlia  coasts  or  in  the  vicinity.  Although  separated  by  long 
intervening  valleys,  these  form  collectively  a  broad  upland  border  to  the  southern 
plain  of  California  traversed  by  the  San  Joaquin  River. 

"Last  o'  Point  Conception,  where  the  coast  abruptly  trends  round  to  the  east 
to  form  Santa  Barb^^a  Bay,  the  coast  range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  converge  in 
the  crests  of  Mount  i'lios  (6,500  to  8,000  feet),  which  are  crossed  by  numerous 
passes.  The  two  systems  are  here  merged  in  one  range,  presenting  common 
features  and  contrasts  from  which  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  determine  the  exact 
point  where  the  transition  is  effected.  But  the  crest,  which  is  continued  south- 
eastwards  beyond  the  point  of  convergence,  must  be  regarded  as  on  the  whole  a 
prolongation  rather  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  than  of  the  Coast  Range.  The  chalk 
formations  prevailing  in  the  latter  here  give  place  to  granites  which   have  the 


m':f?' 


,.  Vtiiifcii;;?A«".'ti<i.Hriii,iiiitinciiw 


THE  PUGET  SOUND  BASIN. 


886 


t  again  assume 
wcs'ernmost 

ritphic  systems 
The  western 

nd  terminates 

Helena  (4,350 

md  cretaceous 

and  elsewhere 
ilso  crops  out 
Bay,  and  espe- 
or  saline,  well 

aporous  "  fire- 
is  been  applied 
vith  a  hissing 
mean  terapera- 
itaneously,  but 
Altogether 

ant  displays, 
m  is  continued 
Monte    Diablo 
is  at  the  angle 

the  bay,  and 
rly  trend  of  the 
its,  has  become 
nto  the  higher 
lords  a  grand 
iny  landscapes 

Nevertheless, 
minating  mass 
:es  the  form  of 
es  are  disposed 
arated  by  long 
to  the  southern 

md  to  the  east 
la  converge  in 
I  by  numerous 
mting  common 
nine  the  exact 
mtinued  south- 
in  the  whole  a 
fe.  The  chalk 
hich   have  the 


same  origin  as  those  of  the  Sierra.  Moreover,  the  mountains  themselves  increase 
in  elevation,  as  if  to  rival  the  crests  of  the  inner  range.  The  Sun  Bernardino, 
which  is  the  Grizzly  Peak  of  the  Anglo-Americans,  attains  a  height  of  11,620 
fc3t ;  like  Whitney,  it  is  visible  nearly  from  base  to  sutjimit,  from  the  Mohave 
Desert  on  the  east,  and  on  the  south  from  the  Coahuila  Valley,  which  falls  below 
the  level  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  San  Bernardino  ridge  is  continued  in  the 
direction  of  the  Mexican  platei^'.  under  the  name  of  the  Chocolate  Mountains, 
which  are  skirtel  towards  the  south-east  extremity  by  the  Colorado  above  its 
mouth  at  the  bead  of  the  Gulf  of  California.  Farther  west  the  San  Jacinto  and 
other  ridges  follow  in  parallel  lines  as  far  as  the  coast.  The  islands  which 
stud  the  neighbouring  waters  are  themselves  disposed  in  chains  parallel  with 
those  of  the  mainland.  Thus  the  islands  enclosing  the  Santa  Barbara  Channel 
on  the  south  have  the  same  trend  as  the  Sierra  de  Santa  Inez  facing  them  on  the 
adjacent  coast.  Farther  south  the  elongated  islets  of  Santa  Barbara,  San 
Nicolas,  San  Clemente,  and  Santa  Catalina  also  run  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
Sierra  de  Santa  Ana  on  the  neighbouring  seaboard.  The  line  of  500  fathoms 
roughly  skirts  the  submerged  bank  on  which  stand  these  rocky  archipelagoes. 

A  few  springs  of  mineral  oil  bubble  up  to  the  surface  of  the  sea  some  distance 
from  the  Californian  coast ;  one  has  been  discovered  west  of  Santa  Barbara,  within 
a  mile  or  so  of  the  shore.  Several  others  occur  north  of  Cape  Mendocino  at 
distances  of  from  three  to  five  miles  o£E  the  mainland.  Along  the  whole  coast 
from  Monterey  Bay  to  San  Diego,  the  old  marine  levels  rise  in  a  succession  of 
terraced  beaches  to  over  300  feet  above  the  present  shore-line. 

II. — Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Closed  Basins. 
Of  the  region  draining  towards  the  Pacific  Ocean  the  best  watered  section  is 
the  little  basin  which  is  disposed  in  semicircular  form  round  about  the  inlet 
known  as  Puget  Sound,  between  the  Cascades  and  Coast  Ranges.  Here,  however, 
there  are  no  great  rivers ;  but  every  little  upland  valley  sends  down  its  noisy 
torrent,  while  every  watercourse  on  reaching  the  marine  plain  assumes  the 
aspect  of  a  broad  stream  or  estuary.  The  Skagit,  largest  of  these  coast  streams, 
has  its  source  in  British  territory,  and  after  a  course  of  140  miles  enters  the 
sea  through  two  navigable  mouths.  When  the  white  &'  itlers  first  reached  this 
district,  the  Skagit,  which  forces  its  passage  in  a  deep  cation  20  miles  long 
right  through  the  Cascades  range,  was  found  to  be  completely  obstructed  for  a 
distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half  by  a  masp  of  snags  carried  down  with  the  current. 
Most  of  the  other  rivers  also  enter  the  sound  through  broad  estuaries,  which  are 
all  accessible  to  shipping,  and  which  thus  increase  the  vast  network  of  deep 
navigable  waters  presented  by  the  labyrinth  of  passages,  channels,  straits, 
creeks,  and  inlets  of  every  description,  diverging  in  all  directions  round  the 
Puget  basin.  Surveyors  have  estimated  at  no  less  than  2,000  miles  the  collective 
length  of  all  the  waterways  open  to  large  vessels  in  this  land-locked  sea,  with 
its  innumerable  ramifications  penetrating  in  a  straight  line  for  a  distance  of 
about  80  miles  into  the  interior  of  the  continent.  In  many  places  the  face  of  the 
91 


••i 


; 


■'■<'*  "I  f«v 


M 


88B 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


encircling  clifTs  is  washed  by  deep  water,  so  thut.  the  largest  ships  are  able  to  ride 
at  anchor  close  to  the  shore.  The  main  channel  itself  has  in  some  parts  a  depth 
of  no  less  than  200  fathoms.  Numerous  wooded  islands  mask  its  creeks  or  are 
dotted  over  the  surface,  while  a  large  peninsula  with  a  narrow  neck  a  little  over 

Fig.  174.— PuoET  Sound. 
PohIp  1  :  I  um.mo 


I23"i0 


West   op    Greenwich 


I22*I0- 


Depths- 


0  to  SB  26  Fat homa 

Fathoma.  aod  upwarda. 

O  Lighthouse. 
_^.^^— ^^-^^—  25  Miles. 


a  mile  broad  occupies  about  one-half  of  the  sound,  leaving  between  its  shores  and 
those  of  the  mainland  an  intricate  system  of  winding  passages.  This  peninsula, 
which  projects  in  the  direction  from  south  to  north,  is  continued  still  northwards 
by  the  large  island  of  Whidbey,  lying  at  the  entrance  of  the  sound.  Whidbey  is 
itself  separated  by  other  passages  from  the  archipelago  of  San  Juan. 


TUE  COLTTMBIA  HASINT. 


887 


re  ahlo  to  ride 

parts  a  depth 

creeks  or  ant 

k  a  little  over 


Junction 


47 


I22*IQ- 


1  its  shores  and 
This  peninsula, 
still  northwards 
i.     Whidbey  is 


But  while  the  inlet  is  studded  with  islands,  the  surrounding  lumls  are  by  way 
of  compensation  strewn  with  lakes.  A  slight  change  of  level  in  either  direction 
would  be  attended  l)y  great  changes  in  tbe  contours  of  tho  shore-lines.  Such 
sh  if  tings  have  already  taken  place,  and  geologists  huvo  shown  tliat  tho  channels 
Were  ut  one  time  filled  with  glaciers  carrying  in  their  onward  niiiich  the  musses 
of  detritus  now  strewn  over  the  surrounding  plains  and  slopes.  It  has  also  been 
ascertained  that  round  about  tho  shores  ot'  the  sound  the  waters  have  formed 
successive  terraced  beaches  fur  above  tho  present  marine  level.  Hut  subsidence 
is  supposed  to  be  now  followed  by  tho  reverse  process  of  upheaval. 

Between  Pujjet  Sound  and  the  course  of  the  Columbia,  the  Chehalls  is  the  only 
stream  reaching  the  Pacific,  Its  headwaters  are  intermingled  with  those  draining 
to  tho  sound,  and  many  old  lacustrine  deprest-ions  now  traversed  by  the  Chehalis 
and  other  rivers  belonj^ing  to  both  slopes  have  been  transformed  to  natural 
park-lands  dotted  over  with  thickets,  clumps  of  pines  and  oaks.  The  natives 
were  themselves  already  quite  aware  of  tho  fact  that  these  basins  hud  been 
recently  upheaved,  and  they  show  the  beaches  and  regular  waier  marks  along  the 
margin.  But  s^hat  they  could  not  explain,  and  what  long  remaiued  a  puzzle  to 
the  white  settlers,  are  the  round  knolls,  about  150  feet  wide,  and  six  or  eight  feet 
high,  which  are  dotted  in  multitudes  over  the  prairie.  They  are  certainly  not 
burrows  or  graves,  for  none  of  them  contain  any  human  remains ;  nor  are  they 
the  warrens  of  burrowing  animals,  for  no  trace  of  gaileries  has  anywhere  been 
discovered ;  nor  again  can  they  be  regarded  as  mounds  deposited  by  mineral 
springs,  for  they  consist  neither  of  mud  nor  incrustutions.  All  these  knobs  are 
composed  of  sand  and  gravel,  showing  no  eign  of  stratification  or  of  human  labour. 
Alexander  Agassiz  supposes  them  to  be  sub-lacustrine  buttes  raised  during  a 
long  series  of  years  by  a  certain  species  of  fish  which*  heve  deposited  their 
spawn.     Formations  of  tl  is  kind  may  ttill  bo  seen  in  the  lakes  of  New  England. 

The  CoM'MniA  Basin. 
On  the  Pacific  slope  the  most  copious  watercourse,  thanks  to  the  extent  of  its 
basin  and  to  the  abundant  rairiiail,  is  the  Columbia,  which,  however,  is  not 
entirely  comprised  within  the  United  States  frontier.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the 
northern  section  of  its  basin  lies,  in  fact,  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  where  it  is 
formed  by  the  isolated  group  of  the  Selkirk  Mountains.  Both  the  upper 
Columbia  in  the  north  and  the  Kootenay  fork  in  the  south  have  their  sources  in 
the  same  lacustrine  and  marshy  depression,  where  they  are  connected  by  a 
navigable  canal.  Then,  alter  a  curiously  winding  course  of  430  miles,  they 
complete  the  circuit  of  the  Selkirk  range,  uniting  their  waters  in  a  common 
stream  a  little  north  of  Fort  Shepherd  on  the  United  States  border.  At  Fort 
Shepherd  itself,  the  main  stream  is  joined  by  Clarke's  Fork,  a  very  copious 
affluent,  which  has  sometimes  been  regarded  as  the  main  upper  branch  of  the 
Columbia.  Clarke's  Fork,  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  considerable  streanis, 
Hell  gate  and  Flathead,  both  rising  not  far  from  the  upper  sources  of  the  Missouri, 
traverses  the  romantic  Lake  Pend  d'Oreilles  (Eulluspelm),  and  then  flows  north 


::4 


V 


^'^^m^^-A.-^'.i^tM  -,.^t^ 


*<:, 


<'^' 


in 


ii«*n»T 


886 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


through  an  avenue  of  mountains  to  the  IcI"!  bank  of  the  Coliiinbiii.  Below  the 
confluence  the  nurrowH  of  Little  I)ulie.s,  not  more  thuii  160  or  170  feet  wide,  are 
followed  by  a  few  rupids,  beyond  which  the  Columbia  plunges  over  a  cascade  24 
feet  high,  which,  from  its  seething  waters,  has  been  named  the  Kettle  Falls. 

Lower  down  the  Columbia  is  joined  at  the  Great  liend  by  the  Spokane,  a  con- 
siderable tributary  from  the  east,  which,  after  its  issue  from  Lake  Cueur  d'Aleue, 
tumbles  over  some  beautiful  cascades.     Uelow  this  confluence,  the  main  stream 

Fig.  170. --Mia8(jimi-''?i.>LnHBiA  Ditidk. 

RciUa  I  :  T.OOO.UOO. 


Vi*  UUm. 


has  still  to  force  its  way  in  narrow  gorges  through  the  various  ranges  which, 
being  disposed  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian,  obstruct  its  course  to  the  sea. 
Several  breaches  were  thus  opened  in  the  different  ridges  comprised  between  the 
two  border  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Cascades.  But  the  latter 
chain  presented  a  more  formidable  barrier,  which  long  retained  the  inner  waters 
of  the  plateau,  where  they  accumulated  in  vast  lacustrine  basins.  One  of  these 
basins  formerly  occupied  a  opace  of  about  16,000  square  miles  to  the  east  of  the 


'  III ' ' 


TUB  COLUMBIA  BASIN. 


880 


Bolow  the 

foot  wido,  are 

a  cascade  24 

Me  Fulls. 

)okane,  a  con- 

Cujur  d'Alt'iie, 

main  struuu 


ranges  which, 
•se  to  the  sea. 
5d  between  the 
But  the  latter 
le  inner  waters 
One  of  these 
the  east  of  the 


o 


o 

o 


(M 


i 


> 


I 


northern  Cacioudea  under  the  name  latitude  as  Puget  Sound.  The  lake,  fed  by 
the  Columbia  or  Spokane,  has  hnig  b<>eu  discharged,  its  dry  bod  now  forming  a 
vast  laTa*ficld,  which  has  to  a  great  extent  lH.>en  levelled  by  the  wati^rs,  though  its 


■i 


central  cavity  is  still  flooded  by  Moses  Lake,  a  closed  ba>in  fed  by  a  few  small 
affluents.  In  the  thickness  of  the  lava  plateau  have  been  excavated  several 
winding  gorges,  forming  so  many  river-beds,  or  coulees,  as  they  are  still 
called,  though  the  channels  are  now  dry  and  saline.     Such  is  the  Grand  Coulde, 


J 


-'t'-l 


...•^ 


Lujaill^'^'lyn'-'^'"''''^''''^''"'' 


■:&;■':■&. 


[  > 

I 


mu 


800 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ti  glen  with  un  avorngo  broudlh  of  thr.  ,  milos,  fliuiktd  with  biiRult  walls  about 
800  fcot  high,  und  utl'ording  uhuiulu      pa^turugo  for  miigiiiticont  herds  of  cuttlo. 

Above  the  brouch  where  it  issue  from  the  pliiin,  the  Colunibiu  is  joined  by 
i(s  grtiit  uflluont  from  tlie  tiouth-ouHt,  the  licwis  or  Snuke  llivor,  the  Hahaptin  of 
the  nativcH,  uIho  called  tlie  South  (/oluiiibiu.  Like  the  Columbia,  the  upper  Snake 
basin  is  to  a  largt!  extent  the  bod  of  an  old  lake,  which  Htretched  for  a  distance  of 
over  ''}"()  iniloH  i';i8t  and  woHt,  ucrosB  the  wliole  of  the  state  of  Idaho  and  nearly  to  the 
middle  of  ( )regou.  This  plain,  levelled  by  the  waters,  has  an  average  breadth  of  over 
00  n)iles  from  north  to  south.  Nowheie  are  seen  any  lofty  summits,  the  surfuce  of 
the  driod-up  basin  being  broken  only  by  some  low  eminences  of  archican  formation, 
with  here  and  there  u  few  oruptivo  cones,  which  probably  at  one  time  appeared 
as  urcliipolagoes  above  the  .v.iiors.  The  history  of  this  lacustrine  biisiu  i;  ;  ited 
in  broad  outline  by  the  sands,  clayx,  and  the  silicious  incrustations  on  sonic  .  ts 
beaches,  all  showing  that  it  was  a  freshwater  lr«ke,  rich  iu  animal  life  und 
especially  in  molluscs.  Fishes  of  the  cyprinoid  or  carp-like  family  abounded,  as 
did  also  the  ganoids,  analogous  to  the  "armed  li»he8"  still  surviving  in  the  Missis- 
sippi. Trees  of  a  semi-tropical  flora  shaded  the  shores  of  the  lake,  whoso  waters 
were  drunk  by  elephants,  camels,  and  equidu).  The  desiccation  ol'  ihe  lake  was 
the  result  of  the  changed  rlitnatio  c<mdition8,  which  transformed  thn  old  lacustrine 
depression  into  a  grey  arid  plain,  where  the  sands  alternated  with  patchoj  -f  worm- 
wood. While  these  moditications  of  climate  were  in  progress,  the  frin;;;ti  of 
volcanoes  on  the  eastern  margin  of  the  lake  ejected  those  lav  <  streams  whii  U  over 
such  a  vu>  v  space  in  the  Columbia  basin. 

The  headwaters  of  the  Snake  River,  which  intermingle  in  the  upland  depres- 
•lions  of  tue  L'^^  :ky  Mountains  with  the  main  branches  of  the  Missouri,  Yellow- 
stone >'.  '  Co!'  1  iO  Rivers,  converge  from  the  north,  east,  and  south-east  towards 
the  cei  ■  of  c:  vast  amphitheatre,  developed  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  Yellow- 
8toi-.»  i  ^ ;  .tional  Park.  Here  they  all  merge  in  a  single  channel,  which  forms  a 
copivuc  torrent  when  swollen  by  the  melting  snows,  especially  in  the  months  of 
June  and  July.  One  of  these  upland  streams  takes  the  name  of  the  Snake 
River  from  its  very  source  in  the  heart  of  the  Wind  River  Mountains.  Here  it 
rises  on  the  slopes  of  Union  Peak,  and,  after  winding  round  the  group  of  the 
Tetons,  escapes  through  deep  gorges  to  the  lower  reaches.  At  the  Upper  Cailon 
above  Teton  Pass  (8,404  feet)  it  is  joined  on  its  right  bank  by  the  Grosventre 
Creek,  which  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  torrents  flowing  from  Fremont 
Peak  (13,570  feet)  and  Union  Peak,  on  the  crest  of  the  Wind  River  Mountains, 
which  here  form  the  Continental  Divide. 

Henry's  Fork,  another  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Snake  River,  issues  from  a 
marshy  lake,  whence  the  traveller  may  reach  the  sources  of  the  Madison,  afiluent 
of  the  Missouri,  through  Taghee  Pass  (7,003  feet),  which  rises  not  more  than  590 
feet  above  the  torrent.  North-west  of  Luke  Henry,  a  long  fissure,  flanked  by 
volcanic  walls  600  feet  high,  is  flooded  with  the  waters  of  Cliff  Lake,  another 
basin  with  numerous  branches  ramifying  like  the  arms  of  a  starfish.  This  lake 
has  no  visible  outlet,  nor  is  it  known  in  which  direction  its  overflow  escapes, 


ult  walls  about 
icrdH  of  cuttlo. 
iu  in  joined  by 
bo  Sabiiptin  of 
III)  uppor  Snako 
or  a  distance  of 
id  nearly  to  tbe 
breadth  of  over 
i,  the  Biirfaco  of 
lOian  foninitioii, 
time  appeared 
biiBiu  1;  I  vivted 
8  on  some  .  its 
nimul  life  uud 
ly  abounded,  aa 
g  in  the  Missis- 
e,  whoso  waters 
)1'  \he  lake  was 
v>  old  lacustrine 
>atcboj  ■>!  worm- 
I,  the  flit)!;;*:)  of 
uiis  whii  li  Lover 

I  upland  depreg- 
[issouri,  Yellow- 
uth-east  towards 
e  of  the  Yellow- 
,  which  forms  a 
1  the  mouths  of 
e  of  the  Snake 
itains.  Here  it 
)e  group  of  the 
le  Upper  Cafion 
{  tbe  Grosventre 
y  from  Fremont 
iiver  Mountaius, 


r,  issues  from  a 
Madison,  affluent 
)t  more  than  690 
ssure,  flanked  by 
ff  Lake,  another 
rfisb.  This  luke 
averflow  escapes, 


;iiiss6liiMiti- 


'^, 


^f^:t 


^^< 


^«.   ^     \^\?*'^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


'»iiiifci»^(W>llnVilHA,(iiii   .(^,ii=, 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


m 


J^t&S^^!&. 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiquas 


THE  COLUMBIA  BASIN. 


891 


whether  under  the  basalts  towards  the  Madison  or  to  the  Snake  River.  In 
the  plain  to  the  south-west  the  Godin  or  Lost  River,  another  of  these  mysterious 
watercourses,  disappears  in  a  fissure  in  the  lava-field,  and  the  waters  thus  engulfed 
seem  to  reappear  about  36  miles  farther  down,  where  copious  springs  well  up  in 
the  very  bed  of  the  Snake  River.  Other  galleries  formed  in  the  layers  of  hard 
scoria)  by  the  discharge  of  lavas  at  a  high  temperature,  serve  as  underground 
channels  for  the  Camas  River  and  Medicine  Lodge  River. 

Below  the  junction  of  its  numerous  headstreams,  the  Snake  River  first  trends 
southwards,  then  lo  the  south-west,  through  the  old  lacustrine  basin  now  filled 
wi'h  basaltic  lavas.  Farther  west  it  continues  to  describe  the  complete  semi- 
circle by  which  a  junction  is  at  last  effected  with  the  Columbia.  During  its 
descent  from  the  upper  cirque  the  current  cuts  its  bed  deeper  and  deeper  into  the 
basalt  layers,  and  towards  Rock  Creek,  where  it  bends  farthest  to  the  south,  the 
lava  walls  between  which  it  has  carved  itself  a  passage  rise  to  a  height  of  over 
650  feet.  But  the  river  has  not. yet  cut  deep  enough  to  acquire  a  uniform  flow. 
The  upper  course  had  already  been  interrupted  by  several  falls,  and  at  this  point, 
the  level  of  the  fluvial  channel  is  suddenly  lowered  150  feet  by  another  cataract, 
the  grandest  occurring  along  its  whole  course.  Up  to  the  very  brink  of  the 
precipice  the  plain  maintains  a  perfectly  horizontal  position,  and  beyond  the 
chasm  it  is  seen  still  to  continue  at  a  dead  level.  After  breaking  against  some 
rocky  ledges  and  winding  between  trachyte  islets,  the  current  plunges  bodily  into 
the  abyss  over  a  horse-shoe  dyke  like  that  of  Niagara.  Such  are  the  famous 
Shoshone  Falls,  which  are  scarcely  anywhere  surpassed  for  gloomy  grandeur, 
heightened  by  the  utter  desolation  of  the  surrounding  igneous  region. 

Ravines,  niostly  waterless  like  the  Arabian  wadies,  reach  the  deep  canon  of  the 
Snake  River  at  intervals.  Here  the  chief  affluent  is  the  Owyhee,  which  joins 
the  left  bank  of  the  main  stream  at  the  point  where,  bending  round  to  the  north, 
it  leaves  the  old  lacustrine  basin  and  enters  the  hilly  region  dominated  westwards 
by  the  chain  of  the  Blue  Mountains.  The  Snake  River  then  flows  in  a  longitu- 
dinal fissure  for  a  distance  of  about  200  miles,  receiving  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains the  two  large  affluents  known  as  the  Salmon  River  and  Clearwater.  Farther 
on  it  enters  the  lower  plain,  where  it  is  deflected  westwards  to  its  confluence  with 
the  Columbia  descending  from  the  north.  But  before  the  junction  the  Snake 
is  joined  by  the  Palouze,  the  "  Riviere  aux  Pelouses  "  of  the  Canadian  trappers, 
which  is  noted  for  a  superb  cascade  nearly  100  yards  high.  A  few  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Snake  the  Columbia  receives  the  Yakima,  descending  from  the 
slopes  of  Mount  Ruinier. 

Nearly  all  the  running  waters  of  the  Columbia  catchment  basin  are  collected 
in  the  common  channel,  which  below  the  Snake  confluence  takes  its  final  westerly 
course  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  But  although  here  over  1,060  yards  wide  and  not 
more  than  400  feet  above  sea-level,  the  Columbia  has  not  yet  acquired  the  normal 
tranquil  motion  of  a  river  which  has  reached  its  lower  course.  There  are  still  obstruc- 
tions to  overcome  even  before  the  Cascades  Range  is  reached.  The  first  abrupt 
descent  to  a  lower  level  occurs  at  the  Chuttes  or  Deschuttes  cailon,  where  the 


■  ii^H  lygjywpijrinr'g— l)ff 


892 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Columbia,  confined  between  narrow  basalt  walls,  dashes  against  a  natural  causeway 
of  huge  boulders.  The  affluent  which  here  joins  the  main  stream  from  the  south 
after  skirting  the  east  foot  of  the  Cascades,  and  tumbling  over  several  cataracts, 
has  received  from  the  Franco-Canadians  this  name  of  Chuttes  (properly  Chutes,  or 
"  Falls ")  from  the  swirling  waters  of  the  Columbia  at  the  confluence.  In  the 
same  way  the  Cascades  Range  itself  takes  its  name  from  the  series  of  rapid 
inclines  by  which  the  Columbia  fulls  to  a  lower  level  during  its  passage  through 
this  rocky  barrier.  It  penetrates  first  into  a  gloomy  gorge  whose  huge  blackish 
basalt  walls  have  been  slowly  sawn  through  by  the  current  in  the  course  of  ages. 
At  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Dalles,  as  this  gully  is  called,  the  distance  from 

Kg.  177. — Mouth  oy  the  Colitiibia. 
Scale  1 : 1,000,000. 


0to3t 
Futhoms. 


SitolO 
FsUiomi. 


lieptiia. 


lOtnZS 
Fathoms. 


2.1  FathoiDd 
and  upward*. 


18  Miles. 


bank  to  bank  is  not  much  more  than  60  yards  ;  but  during  the  freshets  the  stream 
gains  in  height  what  it  loses  in  breadth,  ribing  at  times  as  much  as  60  feet. 

About  yO  miles  lower  down  the  Columbia  rushes  tumultuously  down  the 
Cascades  properly  so  called,  a  series  of  dangerous  rapids  flanked  by  the  steep 
escarpments  of  lava  cliffs  ejected  by  the  neighbouring  volcanoes.  The  upper  fall, 
over  16  feet  high,  is  continued  for  a  ppace  of  three  or  four  miles  by  a  succession 
of  cataracts  where  the  angry  waters  rush  with  a  deafening  roar  over  their  rocky 
bed.  The  natives  assert  that  the  lower  falls  of  the  Columbia  are  of  recent  forma- 
tion. Formerly  the  stream  would  appear  to  have  flowed  tranquilly  beneath  an 
enormous  basalt  archway  spanning  the  gorge  like  the  Natural  Bridge  of  Virginia. 
Then  this  gateway  is  reported  to  have  collapsed  during  an  eruption  of  Mount 
Adams,  its  fragments  building  up  a  rocky  island  athwart  the  current,  and  thus  com- 
pelling the  river  to  raise  its  level  and  to  broaden  out  higher  up.     This  traditional 


...iJt.,...-    ^..^^  ..^..^~    ^,.^   j..'-!.^...'..    . 


'  '''■=•    - 


^^ttM, 


.1^ ..,..■»  .X^f...^.,   ■ r.^:ilaa.'-...'.-.^j-'^^^->-a.-J'^- 


.MIXMi  t.'.. 


THE  COLUMBIA  BASIN. 


893 


origin  of  the  cascade  is  rendered  plausible  by  the  fact  that  above  the  fall  the  observer 
may  detect  beneath  the  waters  of  the  Columbia  the  remains  of  a  spruce  forest 
[ubiea  Douglasm),  whose  stems  are  still  firmly  rooted  in  the  ground.  At  present 
the  falls  ore  turned  on  the  south  side  by  a  ship  canal,  constructed  along  the  base 
of  an  elevated  talus,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  Travelling  Mountain," 
and  which  in  fact  does  "  travel,"  owing  to  the  sands  of  its  lower  strata  moistened 
and  carried  along  by  the  underwash. 

Below  the  cascades  and  the  isolated  basalt  headland  of  Cape  Iloorn,  the 
Columbia  enters  its  lower  unobstructed  course  about  100  miles  from  the  Pacific. 
From  the  south  the  Willamette  (formerly  Wah  la  math),  also  navigable  in  its 
lower  reaches,  descends  from  fall  to  fall,  bringing  the  contributions  of  the  longitu- 
dinal valley  comprised  between  the  Cascades  and  Coast  Ilanges.  At  the  Willa- 
mette confluence  the  main  stream,  here  some  miles  broad,  is  already  a  tidal  estuary. 
After  another  bend  round  to  the  north  in  search  of  an  opening  through  the  Coast 
Range  it  enters  the  sea  through  a  broad  mouth  obstructed  by  sandbanks.  But 
the  bar  may  now  be  crossed  at  high  water  by  large  vessels  keeping  to  channels 
which  were  extremely  dangerous  until  they  were  carefully  buoyed.  Such  is  the 
labyrinth  of  banks  and  shoals  in  the  inner  bay  of  the  Columbia,  that  in  1788  the 
English  navigator,  Meares,  after  successfully  crossing  the  outer  bar,  failed  to 
discover  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  even  ventured  to  deny  its  existence.* 

Two  streams  of  small  size,  the  Urapqua  and  the  Rogue  River,  the  latter  so 
named  from  the  Klamath  Indians  of  evil  repute  who  formerly  dwelt  along  its 
banks,  take  their  rise  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cascade  Range,  and  have  to 
pierce  the  Coast  Range  in  order  to  reach  the  Pacific.  The  Klamath,  a  much 
larger  watercourse,  has  its  source  at  a  far  greater  distance  from  the  sea  on  the 
plateaux  stretching  east  of  the  Cascades.  It  issues,  under  the  name  of  the  Sprague, 
from  one  of  those  lakes  which  still  flood  the  depressions  of  the  plateau,  and  after 
traversing  the  chain  of  the  upper  and  lower  Klamath  lakes  extending  along  the 
east  slope  of  the  hills,  escapes  seawaids  through  a  break  in  the  range  south  of  the 
transverse  ridge  of  the  Siskiyu  Mountuius. 


The  Sacramento  and  Colorado  Basins. 

The  deep  channel  known  as  the  "  Golden  Crate,"  which  gives  access  from  the 
ocean  to  the  bay  and  harbour  of  San  Francisco,  also  serves  as  the  common  estuary 
for  all  the  running  waters  of  the  great  hill-encircled  plain  of  California.  Hence 
the  innumerable  mountain  torrents,  streams  and  rivulets  descending  from  the 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Range  are  collected  by  the  two  main 
arteries  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  which  flow  one  from  the  north,  the 
other  from  tho  south,  and  merge  in  a  single  channel  near  the  head  of  the  bay. 
The  Sacramento  rises  in  the  neighbourhood   of   Mount  Shasta   at  the  northern 


•  Hydrology  of  the  Colnmbia  River  : — 

Approximate  length 

Area  of  the  catchment  basin  according  to  Gannett 

Approximate  discharge 

Navigpable  oourae  (without  the  aflSuents) 


1,300  miles. 

214,000  sq.  miles. 

21 2,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

670  miles. 


394 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I 


Fig.    178. — SOUHCES   OF  the   COLOBiDO. 
Snala  1  1  H60,noO. 


extremity  of  the  depression  which  forms  the  axis  of  the  valley.  But  the  Pitt 
River,  its  lurgest  afHuent,  longer  than  the  main  branch  itself,  has  its  sources  fur 
to  the  north-east,  where  it  issues  from  the  lakes  lying  cast  of  the  Klamath  basins 
and  south  of  the  sage-plains  of  Oregon.  Goose  Lake,  farthest  reservoir  of  the  basin, 
is  intersected  by  the  conventional  line  forming  the  common  frontier  of  Oregon 

and  California.  After 
leaving  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  this  lake  the 
Pitt  flows  south-west 
across  the  vast  lava  fields 
and  scorisD,  between 
Mount  Shasta  and  Lassen 
Peak,  to  its  junction  with 
the  (Sacramento,  which 
is  here  already  a  copious 
stream.  Lower  down 
every  upland  valley  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
the  Coast  Bange  sei^s 
down  its  auriferous  tor- 
rents, such  as  the  Plumas, 
or  Feather,  the  Yuba  and 
the  American,  all  famous 
for  their  gold  washings, 
far  more  productive  than 
the  auriferous  sands  of 
Pactolus.  In  its  lower 
course  the  Sacramento 
wanders  almost  aimlessly 
over  the  nearly  level 
plain,  leaving  to  the  right 
and  left  a  network  of 
annular  lakes  and  bayous, 
and  with  every  freshet 
shifting  its  channel. 

The  San  Joaquin,  which 
flows  through  a  less  rainy 
region  than  North  Cali- 
fornia, rolls  down  a  correspondingly  smaller  volume  and  has  a  considerably  shorter 
course  than  the  Sacramento.  The  section  of  its  valley  where  it  forms  a  perennial 
stream  begins  south  of  Mount  Lyell  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  beyond  which  the 
torrent  makes  a  long  bend  towards  the  central  valley,  and  thus  reaches  the 
common  outlet.  The  San  Joaquin  basin  varies  in  extent  with  the  seasons.  After  a 
period  of  heavy  rains  it  receives  an  aflluent  from  Tulare  Lake,  and  from  several 


6MUei. 


ii.li  1^1.' .till  i.1iiri.in^(i»ii-iiii-      ifc.il  ..iiLiTitf;; 


.imlttfltut. . 


M 


THE  CALIFOENIAN  RIVERS. 


805 


other  lacustrine  basins  within  the  circuit   of  tho  South  Culifornian  mountains. 
But  during  long  droughts  the  emissary  dries  up,  und  Tulare  itself,  us  well  as 
the  other  neighbouring  depressions,  becomes  u  closed  basin,  in  which  the  water 
\  Fig.  179. — The  Mabble  CaNon,  Colorado  Rivbb. 


gradually  evaporates,  decomposing  the  lake  into  several  secondary  pools.  The 
geological  survey  of  the  whole  region  shows  that  a  general  process  of  desiccation 
is  in  progress.     Formerly  Tulare  sent  a  permanent  emissary  to  the  San  Joaquiu 


'  '     iliMimlMBMlLliI'li^'"" 


898 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


basin ;  now  it  is  intermittent,  and  the  time  is  approaching  when  it  will  cease 
altogether,  and  Tulure  become  a  closed  basin. 

South  of  San  Francisco  Buy  the  coast  streams  are  mere  wadles  with  very  little 
water  in  their  beds.  In  the  south-western  region  of  the  United  States  the  chief  water- 
way is  the  Colorado,  which  discharges,  not  directly  into  the  Pacific,  but  to  the  head 
of  the  "  Vermillion  Sea,"  or  "  Californian  Sea,"  now  called  the  Gulf  of  California. 
This  great  artery — great,  at  least,  for  the  length  of  its  valley — does  not  take  ito 
Spanish  name  of  Colorado,  that  is,  the  "  Ruddy  "  or  "  Red  River,"  except  in  its 
middle  and  lower  course,  whither  the  Spaniards  had  penetrated  at  an  early  period  ; 
its  upper  forks,  not  having  been  explored  till  recent  times,  have  received  other 
names.  The  Green  River,  northernmost  of  the  main  branches,  rises  in  the  Wind 
River  Mountains  on  the  flank  of  Union  Peak,  that  is,  at  the  Continental  Divide. 
At  first  a  simple  mountain  torrent,  the  Green  River,  swollen  in  its  upper  valleys 
by  the  melting  snows,  descends  from  an  altitude  of  over  6,000  feet,  and  for  a 
groat  distance  flows  at  a  mean  elevation  of  5,000  feet  on  the  plateaux,  wiiich  were 
formerly  flooded  by  an  inland  sea.  From  this  basin  it  escapes  through  deep 
gorges,  successively  piercing  the  Uinta  Mountains  and  the  Roan  Cliffs.  Lower 
down  its  volume  is  nearly  doubled  at  the  head  of  a  rocky  cunon  by  the  Grand 
River,  the  other  great  headstream  of  the  Colorado,  which  descends  from  the 
metalliferous  uplands  of  Middle  Park  in  Colorado. 

At  the  confluence  of  the  two  forks,  the  united  waters,  henceforth  known  as  the 
Colorado,  continue  to  excavate  deeper  and  deeper  the  famous  Grand  Canon,  the 
type  in  a  pre-eminent  sense  of  these  rocky  river  gorges.  The  Spanish  term, 
caiion,  introduced  by  the  Anglo-Americans  into  the  nomenclature  of  physical 
geography,  is  at  times  indifferently  applied  to  gorges  which  differ  greatly  in  their 
origin  and  general  aspect.  But  stiictly  speaking,  it  should  be  applied  only  to 
those  defiles  which  have  been  gradually  scooped  out  by  the  current  alone  without 
the  aid  of  rain  or  other  meteoric  agencies.  The  canons  properly  so  called  scarcely 
occur  anywhere  except  in  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  very  slight.  This  class 
of  gullies  is  normal  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  on  the  plateaux  comprised 
between  the  eastern  and  western  border  regions  of  that  system,  whereas  in  other 
regions,  notably  in  the  calcareous  mountains  of  the  Jura,  such  formations  are 
due  to  local  causes.  The  typical  canon  is  always  formed  by  copious  upland 
torrents,  which  are  fed  by  the  melting  of  heavy  snows,  and  whose  currents,  des- 
cending from  considerable  heights,  impinge  with  great  force  against  the  rocky 
barriers,  through  which  they  slowly  cut  a  regular  channel.  The  region  traversed 
by  these  rivers  being  but  slightly  eroded  by  the  rains,  the  action  of  the  water 
takes  place  only  in  a  vertical  direction,  eating  its  way  through  its  own  bed,  and 
working,  as  with  a  pickaxe,  downwards  until  it  has  reached  its  proper  incline. 
At  the  same  time  upheavals  of  the  ground  may  have  also  played  their  part  in  the 
production  of  these  phenomenal  excavations,  the  land  rising  and  the  river  to 
the  same  extent  falling  to  preserve  its  level.  Capt.  Clarence  E.  Button  com- 
pares the  process  to  the  see-saw  action  of  a  saw  cutting  through  a  log  which  is 
raised  by  the  platform  of  the  drag.     This  is  what  appears  to  have  taken  place  in 


^,-:^>ie  •:/>■' 


L 


■;'?ir''..--,.'^- 


'ii;tiitiilitt.\i.\i«»m 


rnrlill'i  riwKiiltiri  fll»h'ifcw*WMMBMiiAw 


f'v'i  -j--  •i''-'-^-'i'^''f-tx 


''•"^BSffmimp^mr 


THE  COLOBADO  BASIN. 


807 


the  Colo  do  vuUoy,  where  the  river  is  older  than  the  hills  through  which  it  has 
sawn  its  way. 

Geographers  have  divided  the  great  chasm  into  several  socondnry  gorges, 
which  have  been  named  in  descending  order  Cataract,  Narrow,  Glen,  Marble, 
and  Grand  Canon,  this  last  the  longest  of  all  (about  2!i0  miles).  The  northern 
section,  south  of  the  Kaibub  plateau,  is  altogether  unrivalled  for  the  strange 
grandeur  and  wildness  of  its  scenery.  The  bed  of  the  current  stands  5,000  and 
even  6,000  feet  below  the  edge  of  its  rocky  walls,  which,  however,  have  not  retained 
their  vertical  position.  They  have  been  eaten  away  to  great  deptlfs  in  such  a 
way  as  to  form  vast  lateral  cirques  separated  by  bluffs  or  headlands,  which  rise 
like  pillars  or  huge  towers,  girdled  round  with  stratified  rocks,  all  varying  in  size, 
slope,  and  colour.  In  this  region  of  the  river  valley  the  eafion  broadens  out 
upwards,  the  distance  from  brink  to  brink  varying  from  5  to  12  miles.  The 
enormous  mass  of  rock  now  missing  between  the  opposite  escarpments  has  been 
completely  swept  away  by  the  action  of  the  stream.  Nowhere  else  in  the  whole 
world  can  there  be  seen  a  river  valley  exhibiting  the  phenomena  of  erosion  on  a 
grander  scale.  The  prodigious  dimensions  of  the  eroded  chasms,  the  architectural 
arrangement  of  the  stratified  rocks,  "  Babels  piled  on  Babels,"  the  sharp  sky-line 
of  the  cliffs  standing  out  against  the  azure  vault  above,  the  brilliant  tints  of  the 
rocks  hidden  by  no  patch  of  verdure,  the  fantastic  forms  affected  by  the  colossal 
sculptures  which  adorn  the  imposing  sandstone,  marble,  granite  or  lava  fa9ade3 — 
all  combine  to  make  up  a  picture  varying  with  every  hour  of  the  day,  with  every 
turn  of  the  stream,  a  picture  of  unrivalled  grandeur  and  diversity  of  strange 
outlines.  On  reading  their  descriptions  we  begin  to  understand  the  expressions 
of  wonder  mingled  with  awe  employed  by  the  geologists  engaged  in  the  study  of 
the  Grand  Canon,  those  especially  who  have  descended  to  the  river  bed,  lost,  as 
it  were,  in  the  bottomless  pit  while  gazing  on  the  gloomy  current  here  and  there 
still  ruffled  by  reefs  and  rapids.  So  early  as  1867  the  miner  White,  pursued  by 
Indians,  had  embarked  with  a  companion  on  a  raft,  and  committed  himself  to  the 
unknown  stream.  His  comrade  perished  in  a  whirlpool,  but  White  succeeded  in 
saving  his  life.  Two  years  later  Powell  ventured  also  to  embark  on  the  perilous 
journey,  drifting  with  the  stream  from  the  head  to  the  outlet  of  the  gorge. 
Twenty  years  afterwards  some  engineers  repeated  the  exploit  with  a  view  to  the 
construction  of  a  railway  along  the  bottom  of  the  caiion.  But  the  first  attempt 
was  unsuccessful.  After  losing  their  chief  and  two  boatmen  the  exploring  party 
had  to  make  their  way  back  across  the  plateau  under  great  hardships  to  the  point 
whence  they  had  started.  A  few  months  after  their  return  they  again  set  out, 
with  a  fresh  equipment  of  boats  especially  constructed  for  this  strange  voyage, 
and  this  time  Stanton  successfully  navigated  the  river  from  Grand  Junction,  that 
is,  from  the  confluence  of  the  Grand  and  Gunnison  Rivers,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Colorado,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California. 

In  the  stretch  of  500  miles  in  the  region  of  the  canons  properly  so  called  the 
river  bed  has  not  a  single  vertical  break  like  that  of  Niagara.  The  total  descent 
of  4,200  feet  is  decomposed  into  520  cataracts,  falls  or  rapids,  like  those  of  the 


308 


TIIR  UNlTKn  STATES. 


Nile,  inci'Hsiintly  varyiiijj;  in  form,  diroction  ntul  HwiftriesH  according  to  tho  lovol 
of  tho  curront  from  H«'uson  to  season.  It  would  bo  iinpoHsil)l(!  for  uny  IxMit  to  shoot 
all  thoNO  diflicult  rnpids ;  in  sotno  jdaces  ovorythii>g  Iuih  to  ho  liindcd  and  convoyed 
uiToas  tho  rugged  portigCH  with  tho  boats  thomsolvos,  unloss  those  uro  allowed  to 
drift  down,  to  be  fished  up  at  tho  foot  of  tho  ciitaracts  and  all  damages  repaired. 
At  present  tho  boats  und  eauoes  have  boi-n  mostly  replaced  by  little  sto.im  launeho"* 
that  can  bo  taken  to  pioccfl.  During  its  course  through  tho  cafions,  tho  Colorado 
is  joined  by  some  lateral  streams,  which  also  flow  in  deep  channels  across  the 
pla'e:iu,  and  which  at  tho  coiiflaoncos  are  dominated  by  angular  or  oven  pyramidal 

Fig.  ISO.-Oium)  CaNoh. 

Sciile  1  :  l,AO  1,000. 


Ir 


»t.irj»'-./^#f»»»ti»at.h,,i,i!,i\. ■  «"l\i>>',u-,.  " 


W«8t    oF   Greenwich 


II?"J0 


SO  Mile*. 


bastions  completely  detached  from  the  neighbouring  terraces  The  rocky  plains 
have  been  carved  into  almost  inaccessible  isolated  blocks  of  great  size  by  the 
abrupt  windings  of  these  watercourses.  The  Little  Colorado,  one  of  the  cLi 
affluents  in  this  section  of  the  main  stream,  comes  from  the  south-east,  and  after 
skirting  the  San  Francisco  volcano  joins  the  Colorado  between  the  Marble  and  the 
Grand  Caiions.  Lower  down  the  Kanab  Wash  issues  from  caverns  with  imposing 
entrances  below  the  Utah  plateau,  and  plunges  from  chasm  to  chasm  on  its 
impetuous  course  to  the  deepest  part  of  the  Grand  Canon. 

The  Virgin  River  (Rio  Virgen),  which  heads  on  the  same  plateau,  is  a  more 
copious  affluent.     This  watercourse,  flowing  in  a  fissure  2,300  feet  deep,  joins  the 


'»w9«p-"'gssRS'»^~ 


y^^^r^  <»'^.- 


SOURCE  OP  THE  KANAB  WASH. 


■%',  "■'■^.■■Sl 


teiU^-Sf^js  ^ 


THE  COLORADO  BASIN. 


899 


Fig.  181. 


Section  of  thb  Rro 

VlBUEN. 


Colorado  not  far  from  the  bend  where  the  river,  leaving  the  normal  direction  of 
the  canon  from  east  to  west,  begins  to  flow  southwards  in  the  direction  of  the 
Gulf  of  California.     A  short  distance  below  the  Virgin  confluence  the  Colorado 
at  last  esciipes  from  its  rocky  entanglements  and  becomes  navigable  for  steamers. 
It  still  glides  between  rocky  walls  and  hills  which  here  and  there  encircle  green 
valleys,  and  farther  on  it  rolls  away  across  the  argillaceous  plateaux  of  the  desert. 
Here  the  banks  of  the  Colorado  are  skirted  by  semicircular  depressions,  lakes,  and 
meres  and  saline  flats,  old  beds  of  the  river  abandoned  during  the  dry  season,  and 
occasionally  reoccupied  during  the  freshets.     Recently  one  of  these  shallow  basins 
was  seen  suddenly  to  rise  and  overflow  its  margin  far  and  wide.     It  had  been 
converted  into  a  reservoir  for  the  overflow  of  the 
main  stream  during  the  floods,  by  which  an   ob- 
struction in  the  river  bed  had  be?n  swept  away. 
The  New  River,  a  branch  of  the  Colorado  which 
is  usually  dry  and  indicated  only  by  the  shifting 
sands,  skirts  the  southern  spurs  of  the  Chocolate 
Mountains,  beyond  which  it  trends  westwards  in 
the  direction  of  the  Coahuila  Valley.      This  de- 
pression was  an  old  marine  bed  which  was  deprived 
of  its  waters  by  evaporation,  and  descends  lu  some 
places  200  feet  below  sea-level.      On  several  occa- 
sions the  Colorado  has  sent  an  effluent  towards  this 
lateral  depression,  which  has  thus  been  flooded  by 
the   overflow  during   the  freshets.      Such    is   the 
Indian  tradition,  repeatedly  confirmed  by  the  re- 
ports of  explorers,  and  these  periodical  visits  of  the 
Colorado  are  further  proved  by  the  calcareous  in- 
crustations interspersed  with  fluviatile  shells  that 
have  been  deposited  by  the   flood  waters.     Were 
the  current  to  continue  flowing  in  the  direction  of 
the  old  Coahuila  depression,  an  inland  sea  would 
be  created  about  100  miles  long  and  25  miles  broad. 
This  lacustrine  basin,  nearly  ten.  times  larger  than 
the  Lake  of   Geneva,  would  soon  become  a  saltwater  reservoir,  as  there  would 
be  no  outlet  to  carry  off  the  excess  of  saline  substances.     Human  labour,  however, 
could  easily  regulate  the  discharge  of  the  river  by  controlling  the   fertilising 
waters  of  the  periodical  inundations.     Then  the  arid  slopes  of  the  old  marine 
inlet  would  be  transformed  by  irrigation  to  a  zone  of  magnificent  vegetation. 

The  Gila,  the  only  large  affluent  of  the  lower  Colorado,  rises  in  New  Mexico 
at  a  distance  of  over  380  miles  in  a  bee  line  from  its  confluence.  It  receives  a 
great  number  of  affluents,  but  many  of  these  watercourses,  traversing  a  desert 
region  where  the  rainfall  is  very  slight,  either  flow  intermittently,  or  else  the 
current,  when  not  actually  exhausted,  continues  its  course  beneath  the  sands.  Such 
is  the  Rio  Santa  Cruz,  which  takes  its  rice  in  the  Mexican  state  of  Snnora,  and 


ff" 


.  (iBL'\iiiit|iiii<iir|ii'j;i 


400 


Til  13  UNITED  STATES. 


then  flows  mainly  north-west  by  Tucson,  in  Arizona.  This  river  disappears 
several  times  under  its  sandy  bed,  reappearing  when  passing  over  rocky  ground, 
and  at  last  dying  out  altogether.  The  Gila  itself  loses  much  of  its  volume  through 
evaporation,  and  as  it  receives  no  fresh  contributions  in  its  lower  course,  it  reaches 
the  Colorado  in  a  very  impoverished  state ;  at  the  confluence  it  is  only  50  yards 
wide,  while  the  Colorado  varies  from  220  to  800  from  bank  to  bank. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  its  lower  course  the  Colorado  flows  entirely  on  a  bed 

Fig.  182.— New  Lake  in  the  Coahuila  Valley.  • 

Scale  1  :  2,600,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich  116' 


,  62  Milea. 


of  shifting  mudbanks,  where  the  steamers  plying  up  and  down  are  constantly 
running  aground.  During  the  dry  season  the  current  scarcely  exceeds  a  mean 
velocity  of  2|  miles  an  hour  ;  but  it  rises  to  five  or  six  miles  during  the  freshets, 
which  begin  in  May  or  June,  and  which  are  at  times  most  destructive.  The 
Colorado  has  developed  no  delta.  The  estuary  broadens  out  gradually  towards 
the  gulf  in  the  shape  of  a  regular  funnel  where  the  sandbanks  are  flooded  to  a 
depth  of  not  more  than  10  feet.     The  flow,  which  crosses  thia  bar  and  which 


iii>iii<iiii«iiiiiMiHriiittliirfeif«Mwiiiii^^ 


>'l«il|||iiiii%il  rLWi.iwiUiui.iwiiw...    - 


i  '!■  mnmMmiimiiliriiiMMmlMglggfgg^^ 


-„»-«  „ — ^ — ,m4^'mimiii 


ifiwytynft^intl"  mty  iil'wa>i 


rt»!?»- 


w»nww«»t"jiw"'jui'''^"'*''' 


1 1  mr»Mii^i[&*ii 


Hii^lJji  I  V 


CLOSED  BASINS. 


401 


raises  the  level  of  the  stream  from  10  to  16  feet,  and  during  the  spring  tides  even 
to  20  or  30  feet,  rushes  up  the  channel  in  the  form  of  a  bore,  the  rollers,  from 
4  to  6  or  7  feet  high,  dashing  furiously  against  the  river  banks. 

It  is  spraewhat  surprising  to  find  this  lower  section  of  the  Colorado  comprised 
within  the  limits  of  the  Mexican  republic,  as  if  the  Americans,  when  dictating  the 
treaty  of  Guadelupe,  were  unaware  of  its  importance.  Yet  it  was  already  well  known 
to  the  Spaniards,  being  the  Rio  de  Bueua  Guia  discovered  by  Alarcon  in  1540. 

Closed  Basins. 
Extensive  tracts  in  the  region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  have  at  present  no 
outlet  towards  the  sea ;  they  form  so  many  closed  basins,  nearly  all,  if  not  all,  of 

Fig.  183.— BivnB  Basins  of  thb  West. 

SoiOe  1 :  87,000,000 


CloiedBMin. 


620lliles. 


which  belonged  formerly  to  one  or  other  of  the  river  systems  which  drain  to  the 
surrounding  oceans.  In  the  north,  that  ie,  in  the  state  of  Oregon,  these  depres- 
sions are  still  in  the  transitional  stage  between  isolation  and  fluvial  outflow,  so 
that  a  slight  modification  of  climate  in  the  direction  of  increased  moisture  would 
suflBce  to  change  the  whole  character  of  the  hydrographic  system.  Numerous 
lakes  still  belonging  to  the  Klamath,  Sacramento,  and  Columbia  basins  would  be 
transformed  by  a  subsidence  of  a  few  yards  to  isolated  saline  reservoirs,  like  the 
Alkali  Lakes  and  Abert  Lake,  this  last  named  from  one  of  the  pioneer  explorers 
of  the  plateau.  Farther  south  the  whole  group  of  depressions  where  the  evapora- 
tion is  in  excess  of  the  supply  has  received  from  the  explorer  Fremont  the  name  of 
the  "Great  Basin,"  although  the  general  depression  really  consists  of  a  multi- 
plicity of  smaller  depressions  in  juxtaposition.  This  tract,  absolutely  destitute  of 
02 


[■<^|iiW-|«W,iiTi.fm 


402 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


■1; 


outlets,  ii3  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  triangle  between  the  Snake  River  valley  of 
the  Columbia  basin  in  the  north,  that  of  the  Colorado  in  the  east  and  south-east, 
and  those  of  the  various  Californian  coast  streams  in  the  west  and  south-west. 
Most  of  the  distinct  basins  are  separated  by  intervening  mountain  ridges  which 
follow  in  echelon  order  on  the  plateau,  and  which  give  this  region  its  characteristic 
aspect.  The  intermediate  depressions  are  so  many  valleys  communicating  at 
intervals,  or  even  coalescing  in  broad  plains  in  the  places  destitute  of  mountain 
ranges.  The  altitude  of  the  difEerent  sections  varies  greatly.  Those  of  the  north 
have  a  mean  elevation  of  5,000  feet,  rising  in  the  form  of  a  saddleback  between 
Pyramid  Lake  and  Great  Salt  Lake,  whereas  the  pedestal  falls  gradually  south- 
wards as  far  as  the  Coahuila  Valley  in  Southern  California,  where  the  depressions 
stand  at  a  loner  level  than  the  sta. 

In  a  series  of  terraced  tablelands  it  is  often  diflBcult  to  recognise  the  protuber- 
ances of  the  intermediate  segments.  Such  is  also  the  case  in  the  Great  Basin, 
which,  viewed  as  a  whole,  presents  very  indistinct  outlines.  The  western  limit  is 
clearly  marked  by  the  crest  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  the  east  also  it  is  suffi- 
ciently indicated  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  its  extent  by  the  parallel  ridges 
of  the  Wasatch  Mountains.  But  towards  the  north  and  south  there  are  numerous 
spaces  where  the  waterparting  is  so  uncertain  and  so  indistinguishable  by  sight 
that  it  could  be  determined  only  by  systematic  levelling  operations.  In  several 
plains  this  dividing-lin^  of  the  waters  still  remains  purely  ideal,  while  elsewhere  a 
single  oscillation  of  the  ground  in  either  direction  suffices  to  modify  the  contour- 
lines  of  the  region  of  closed  basins.  From  north  to  south  the  zone  of  internal 
drainage  has  an  extreme  length  of  no  less  than  830  miles,  while  from  east  to 
west  the  extreme  breadth  exceeds  500  miles.  Gilbert  estimates  the  total  area 
at  about  208,000  square  miles,  or  rather  more  than  that  of  France. 

Amongst  these  contiguous  depressions  the  largest  occupies  the  north-east  angle 
of  the  tableland,  and  its  bed  is  still  flooded  with  the  shallow  sheet  of  water  I'nown 
as  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  But  the  basin  of  glacial  waters  which  has  received  in  a 
retrospective  sense  the  name  of  Lake  Bonneville,  from  one  of  the  chief  explorers 
of  the  plateau,  was  at  least  nine  times  larger  than  the  Salt  Lake  of  the  present 
epoch.  At  one  time  it  also  included  Lake  Utah  with  the  whole  of  the  Jordan 
Valley,  as  well  as  Lake  Sevier.  The  highest  cliffs  formerly  washed  by  its  waters 
stand  nearly  660  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  The  sands  of 
the  beds  are  mingled  with  salts,  and  during  the  summer  are  covered  with  whitish 
efflorescences.  The  salinity  of  the  water,  at  present  eo  intense  in  the  Great  Salt 
Lake,  has  evidently  gone  on  increasing  during  past  geological  ages  from  the  time 
when  Lake  Bonneville,  fed  by  the  glacial  waters  of  the  encircling  hills,  was  com- 
prised within  the  Columbia  catchment  basin,  and  discharged  its  overflow  through 
an  affluent  of  the  Snake  River.  Traces  of  this  oatflow  may  still  be  seen  in  the 
Red  Rock  ravine  of  the  Cache  Valley  at  the  north-east  corner  of  the  old  lake. 
Gilbert  estimates  the  total  surface  of  the  bed  formerly  covered  by  a  continuous 
sheet  of  water  at  about  19,760  square  miles. 

It  has  not  yet  been  possible  to  determine  tie  number  of  secondary  depressions 


IHMVi 


THE  OLD  BONNEVILLE  LAKE. 


403 


which  compose  the  "  Great  Basin,"  so  slight  is  the  elevation  of  some  of  the  water- 
partings,  but  they  probably  number  about  a  hundred.  Each  of  these  distinct 
depressions  had  its  separate  lake,  or  even  still  possesses  it,  though  now  reduced  to 
a  mere  playa,  a  Spanish  term  retainer'  by  Anglo- American  geographers,  meaning 
a  saline  sheet,  flooded  or  dry,  alternating  in  size  with  the  seasons. 

Fig.  184.— Old  Bonnxtille  Lakb. 
Scale  1 :  4,000,000. 


62Uilea. 


When  the  original  lake  was  broken  up  into  several  separate  basins,  some, 
standing  at  different  levels,  communicated  with  each  other  through  temporary 
channels,  which  gradually  dried  up  with  the  subsidence  of  their  reservoirs. 
Thus,  when  Lake  Bonneville  was  decomposed  into  a  northern  and  a  southern 
basin,  which  are  now  represented  by  the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  Lake  Sevier,  a 
copious  stream  flowed  from  the  latter  to  the  former.  The  bed  of  this  river  is  still 
seen  in  the  gorge  winding  between  the  Simpson  Mountains  on  the  east  and  the 
MaoDowell  range  on  the  west ;  it  is  in  some  places  1,000  feet  broad,  and  here  and 


■»*!!fT 


404 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


i 


there  its  banks  are  5,000  feet  apart.     The  channel  is  cut  to  a  depth  of  100  feet, 
yet  not  a  single  drop  of  water  now  remains  in  this  ancient  lacustrine  affluent. 

The  whole  of  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  old  Lake  Bonneville  constitutes  at 
present  a  distinct  hydrographic  depression  embracing  the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  the 
other  lakes  and  streams  of  its  basin.  The  running  waters  descending  from  the 
Wasatch  Mountains  and  watering  a  narrow  zone  of  cultivated  land  at  the  west 

Pig.  186.— Old  Riveb  between  the  Two  Babims  of  Lake  Bonneville. 

Scale  1  :  600,000. 


:^?^ 


West  oF  Greenwich 


t 

Divide  between  the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  Serier  Lake  BariM.  .i,' 

foot  of  that  range,  converge  in  the  Prove  River,  which  flows  in  the  direction  from 
south  to  north  and  falls  into  the  triangular  basin  of  Lake  Utah.  This  basin, 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  state  colonised  by  the  Mormons,  has  a  length  of  nearly 
24  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  a  width  of  14  miles  at  its  widest  point,  with  an 
estimated  area  of  about  130  square  miles.  It  is  limited  westwards  by  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  Desert,  and  although  averaging  not  more  than  14  or  16  feet  in  depth, 


ilitWrt.iii<  in  Wt  ,'"<■' i' 


'^■^i56mw.5^-^>^-AH"'"--^ 


Illlllll<)»«l>ll«'l  'Jit'l 


BEAE  LAKE. 


406 


it  remuins  quite  fresh  nnd  is  well  stocked  with  fish.  Trout  especially  is  abundant 
thanks  to  the  river  forming  its  outlet,  which  has  received  the  name  of  Jordan 
from  the"  Latter-Duy  Saints,"  who  founded  their  New  Jerusalem  on  its  hanks. 

This  "Jordan"  of  the  Promised  Land  of  the  Far  West  issues  from  the  north 
end  of  Lake  Utah,  and  after  a  southerly  course  of  nearly  40  miles  measured  in  a 
straight  line,  falls  into  the  Great 
Salt  Lake   at   its    south-eastern  ^'«  186.-Beab  Lakk. 

_,  ,  .  ,  Scale  t  :  SOO.OOft 

extremity,  i^rom  the  east  side 
come  also  the  other  afiiuente,  the 
Weber  and  Bear  Rivers,  both 
of  which  force  their  way  right 
through  the  Wasatch  Mountains. 
Weber  River  is  remarkable  as 
affording  a  gateway  directly . 
through  the  Wasatch  Range, 
Echo  and  Weber  caiions  present- 
ing some  of  the  grandest  scenery 
in  the  West.  These  cafions  are 
utilised  by  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad,  which,  after  debouch- 
ing on  the  east  side  of  the  Great 
Salt  Lake,  sends  a  branch  south- 
wards to  the  Mormon  capital  and 
then  bends  round  the  eastern  and 
northern  shores  of  the  lake, 
crossing  the  Bear  River  a  little 
above  its  mouth  in  the  Bear 
River  Bay.  The  Bear  River, 
which  has  a  remarkably  winding 
course  of  about  450  miles,  mostly 
in  a  narrow  rocky  bed  between 
high  escarpments,  traverses  from 
'  north  to  south  the  flooded  de- 
pression of  Bear  Lake,  a  typical 
river  valley  lake.  Formerly  far 
more  extensive  than  at  present, 
it  develops  its  graceful  oval  con- 
tour-lines between  two  parallel 
ridges,  and  is  separated  at  its  northern  extremity  by  a  semicircular  beach  of 
shelving  sands  from  the  swampy  tract  known  as  Bear  Lake  Marsh.  The  lake, 
which  is  about  20  miles  long  by  7  miles  wide  and  nearly  180  feet  deep,  is  a 
lovely  sheet  of  water  "  set  like  an  emerald  in  the  mountains.  Not  even  the  waters 
of  the  Yellowstone  Lake  present  such  vivid  colouring"  (Hayden). 
.,..,   The  Great  Salt  Lake  is  disposed  in  the  direction  from  east  to  west  into  two 


12  MUm. 


»mf  ^t!^lf||^;^g)m'^i^v  VVy. 


406 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


main  sections  by  one  of  the  numerous  chains  which  traverse  the  plateau  for  short 
distances,  mainly  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south.  Here  the  chain  rises  above 
the  surface  of  the  water  in  two  ridges,  forming  in  the  north  a  rocky  peninsula, 
in  the  south  the  long  mountainous  mass  of  Antelope  or  Church  Island,  which  has 
a  length  of  li  miles,  with  an  extreme  height  of  6,890  feet.  The  Great  Lake 
receives  a  mean  annual  rainfall  estimated  at  about  17  or  18  inches;  but  in  some 
years  this  quantity  is  reduced  by  one-fifth,  and  then  there  is  a  corresponding 

Fiif.  187.— OsoiixATioNS  of  thb  Obbat  Saw  Laxb. 
Soale  1 :  1,900.000. 


Lake  in  18S0. 


Elooda  of  1869. 

a5Mile«. 


subsidence  in  the  lake  level.  The  contributions  of  the  three  affluents,  the  Bear, 
Weber,  and  Jordan  Rivers,  being  derived  mainly  from  the  melting  snows  of  the 
eastern  uplands,  are  reduced  to  next  to  nothing  during  the  dry  autumn  and 
winter  months.  The  attempts  made  to  gauge  approximately  the  total  discharge 
of  the  watercourses  feeding  the  Great  Salt  Lake  have  given  a  mean  of  about  5,900 
cubic  feet  per  second,  and  of  this,  Bear  River  alone  would  appear  to  supply 
perhaps  3,500  cubic  feet.     Explored  for  the  first  time  by  Stansbury  in  1849, 


•mtgiminiaummm 


i»iiiBrm"iiiiii'ii*ii»ii>i« 


iiii'iiiliiiiilii 


PYRAMID  LAKE,  NEVADA. 


407 


lort 

)ve 

ila, 

has 

Lake 

lome 

ling 


tha  Salt  Lake  is  now  one  of  the  best-known  lacustrine  reservoirs,  and  since  the 
year  1875  its  daily  levels  and  shifting  contour-lines  have  been  accurately  recorded. 
The  mean  altitude  above  sea-level  is  or  was  recently  4,218  feet.  Hut  even  since 
the  arrival  of  the  Mormons  on  its  shores,  it  has  twice  risen  and  twice  subsided, 
the  difference  of  level  being  no  less  than  12  feet.  Such  a  difference  natuially 
caused  great  changes  in  the  outlines  of  such  a  shallow  sheet  of  water,  spread  out 
on  a  plain  enclosed  by  no  high  cliifs.  Thus  the  superficial  area  has  risen  from 
1,730  square  miles  at  its  lowest  level  to  as  much  as  2,200  square  miles  at  its 
greatest  expansion.     In  the  lowest  depression  the  depth  ranges  from  four  or  five  to 

Tig.  188.- Ptbamid  LiKB,  Netaoa. 


■^*^J5^ 


eight  fathoms,  according  to  the  seasons.*  But  the  mean  depth  varies  as  much  as 
from  two  to  lour  fathoms,  so  that  in  dry  years  the  volume  of  the  lake  is  less  than 
half  of  its  contents  in  wet  years.  At  low  water  the  liquid  mass  is  much  the  same 
as  that  of  Lake  Neuch&tel,  and  this  is  about  doubled  during  periods  of  heavy  rains 
or  snow.  The  interference  of  man,  diverting  the  a£9uent  rivers  for  irrigation 
purposes,  will  necessarily  have  the  eflfect  of  reducing  the  extent  of  the  Great  Lake, 
and  increasing  the  proportion  of  salt,  which  is  already  so  great  that  in  its  normal 
state  the  bather  finds  it  impossible  to  plunge  entirely  below  the  surface.     The 


*  Volume  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake : 
1,390,000,000,000  cubic  feet. 


-At  low  water,  610,000,000,000  cubic  feet ;  at  high  water, 


408 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


fuuna  of  the  luke  comprise  only  two  organisms  thriving  in  such  strongly  suliue 
waters — the  larva  of  a  fly  {Ephydrn),  and  a  crustacean  (Arfeniia  gracilis). 

Lake  Sevier,  another  remnant  of  the  old  inland  sea,  lias  been  reduced  to 
dimensions  far  inferior  to  those  of  the  Great  Salt  I^ake.  It  was  almost  completely 
dry  in  the  year  1880,  when  the  geologist  Johnson  was  able  to  walk  across  its 
saline  bed.  The  long  river  of  like  name,  which  falls  into  this  depression,  after 
describing  a  bend  of  about  liOO  miles  round  a  range  parallel  to  the  Wasatcli 
Mountains,  loses  half  its  volume  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  hence  contributes 
nothing  to  the  lake  beyond  a  sluggish  saline  stream.     The  other  torrents  dosuend- 

Fig  189.— Mud  Fiats  and  Qhaokibes  of  thh  Old  Lazk  Lahomtam. 

Scale  1  :  1,400,000. 


WcEt  op  Greenwirh         119*50 


1 18*  30- 


.  30  Mileb. 


ing  from  the  surrounding  mountains  run  dry  in  their  beds  before  reaching  the 
lake,  except  during  the  freshets. 

Another  evaporated  quaternary  lake,  smaller,  and  of  more  irregular  form  than 
Bonneville,  has  received  the  name  of  Lake  Lahontan.  This  title,  however,  seems 
scarcely  justified,  for  the  French  traveller  from  whom  it  is  named  gives  a 
description  of  the  regions  traversed  by  him  west  of  the  Mississippi,  which  has  no 
resemblance  with  the  reality.  The  salt  lake  of  which  he  speaks  as  lying  150 
leagues  to  the  west  of  the  "  de  la  Hontan  limit,"  in  the  land  of  the  Mozimliks, 
can  have  been  none  other  than  the  Great  Salt  Lake  of  the  present  day,  if  he  had 
any  knowledge  of  it  at  all.  The  depression  flooded  by  the  waters  of  Lake  Lahontan 
during  quaternary  times  is  the  western  section  of  the  Great  Basin,  separated  from 


m 


u-liiiiii]iiiiiiiri(ir-'—— ^'  '■""■"'■■"■"""■ 


■MaMUWMMMMWMWHtM 


ottM 


rS^<N^-"* 


LAKE  TAHOE. 


409 


v'ii>.     <■ 


Lake  Bonnoville  by  various  dividing  ridgos,  but  otborwlae  quite  analogoun  to  the 
eastern  depression  iu  altitude  uud  general  physical  conditions.  The  lakes  which 
have  survived  us  remnants  of  the  old  Jiahontan  Sea,  and  which  have  no  seaward 
outlet,  ore  for  the  most  part  mere  "  mud-lakes,"  us  they  are  called.  Several  are 
not  even  flooded,  or  scarcely  moistened,  except  for  a  part  of  the  yeur.  J  Fere  suit 
may  be  said  to  take  the  place  of  water.  These  basins  are  also  frequrntly  called 
"sinks,"  a  term  implying  loss  or  disappearance,  and  elsewhere  applied  only  to  the 
orifices  of  underground  chasms.  Thus  geographers  speak  of  the  Humboldt  Sink, 
or  the  Carson  Sink,  whose  wuters,  when  there  are  any,  do  not  at  all  sink  into  the 
clays  of  their  bed.  After  the  rains,  the  Humboldt  and  Carson  Sinks  coalesce  in  a 
single  sheet  of  water.  In  the  same  way  Pyramid  Lake,  so  named  from  a  bluff 
in  its  basin,  Winnemucca  Lake,  and  Mud  Lake  merge  during  the  floods  in  one 
vast  body  of  water. 

In  many  of  the  cavities  formerly  covered  by  the  great  lake  there  stretch  a 
few  pools  of  alkaline  water,  and  deposits  of  natural  soda  from  which  the  moisture 
has  evaporated.  But  the  most  remarkable  reservoirs  of  chemical  substances  are 
two  craters  of  the  Carson  desert,  not  far  from  the  little  hamlet  of  Ragtown. 
These  volcanic  vents  are  known  as  the  Soda  Lakes,  or  Bagtown  Ponds.  The 
largest  is  encircled  by  a  rim  rising  80  feet  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
land.  Within  this  rim  the  sheet  of  water  is  160  feet  lower  than  the  edge  of  the 
rocky  walls,  which  are  very  steep  on  the  inner  side.  The  soundings  have  revealed 
a  depth  of  144  feet  in  the  centre  of  the  basin,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this 
" Soda  Lake"  was  at  one  time  the  crater  of  a  volcano,  as  was  also  the  other  now 
dried-up  basin. 

West  of  Lake  Lahontan,  along  the  eastern  flank  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  follow 
other  lakes,  which  are  specially  interesting  as  indicating  the  natural  transitional 
state  between  the  old  glacial  lakes  and  the  basins  where  saline  mutter  has  been 
accumulated.  Lake  Tahoe,  a  vast  basin  about  240  square  miles  in  extent,  flooding 
a  cirque  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  with  its  pure  crystalline  waters,  also  belongs  to 
this  system  of  closed  lacustrine  basins.  It  has  an  outlet  in  the  rapid  Truckee 
Biver,  it  is  true  ;  but  this  impetuous  stream  of  sparkling  waters,  descending  from 
an  elevation  of  over  6,000  feet,  falls  after  a  course  of  some  miles  across  the 
plateau  into  the  closed  basins  of  Lakes  Pyramid  and  Winnemucca.  Lake  Tahoe, 
however,  is  favourably  distinguished  from  all  these  dreary  saline  or  muddy  basins 
of  the  arid  plateau.  This  lovely  sheet  of  water,  standing  at  an  altitude  of  6,200 
feet,  mirrors  in  its  sparkling  bosom  the  encircling  granite  heights,  which  tower 
3,000  feet  above  the  surface,  their  base  clad  with  verdure,  their  crests  covered  with 
a  snowy  mantle.  Job's  Peak,  one  of  these  summits,  attains  an  elevation  of  10,270 
feet,  or  nearly  4,450  above  the  lake  level.  Despite  the  quantities  of  sedimentary 
matter  washed  down  by  the  torrents  descending  in  cascades  on  all  sides  and  rush- 
ing through  their  wooded  gorges,  the  soundings  have  recorded  a  depth  of  over 
250  fathoms  in  this  charming  mountain  lake,  and  so  marvellously  limpid  are  its 
wuters  that  fish  may  be  seen  at  a  depth  of  80  or  90  feet  below  the  surface.  :^ 

- ..    Five  extremely  regular  parallel  moraines,  separated  by  troughs  flooded  by  a 


":y:;' 


410 


TUK  UNITKD  STATKH. 


fow  pliu'id  turnH,  tprminnto  on  tlio  Hborcs  of  Lake  Tuhoo  ;  but  frontal  moruiiifn  uro 
nowhiTc  to  1)0  wi'ti,  doiibtl(!R8  bi'cuuBU  tho  unoiont  ((laciurH  wrro  foriuorly  continunl 
into  tho  lako  by  Hoatiii^  blorkit  of  ict>,  which  d(*{)ONit(<(l  in  its  water*  tho  urrutiu 
l)oul(l(<rH  and  drift  that  would  otlu'rwino  have  formod  a  torniinal  moraine. 

Mono  liuku  (6,730  foot)  occupit'H  a  poHition  anuloguus  to  that  of  Lako  Tahoo 
on  tho  caHtcrn  slope  of  tho  Hiorra  Nevada,  whero  it  floods  on  ancient  orator, 
Hurroundod  by  lofty  mountains.     Tho  HumniitH  towuring  abovu  its  woBtorn  slion-H, 

Fiir.  100 —Lakh  Taiiok  and  LAcnimiNi  PtUNs  or  thb  Old  Laki  Lahontaic. 

d<i4U  1  ;  S/iUU,UO0. 


Prrwnt  l4ik«  aad  Bwamp*. 


Eztmt  of  flw  Old  Ijtka 

•  m  lUiM. 


Bucli  as  Mounts  Dana,  Lyell  and  Hitter,  are  the  snowy  crests  on  the  other  side 
of  which  lies  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Yosemite  River.  liuring  the  quaternary 
epoch.  Mono  Lake  received  numerous  glaciers,  several  of  which,  grinding  their 
way  from  the  snowfields  of  the  crest  down  the  steep  rocky  slopes,  projected  their 
terminal  moraines  right  into  the  water.  This  detritus  has  partly  filled  up  the 
basin,  which  is  only  150  feet  in  its  deepest  cavity.  Mono  Lake  has  no  emissary 
flowing  eastwards  to  any  depression  in  the  Great  Basin ;  hence  its  waters  are 
saline,  the  proportion  of  salt  being  five  per  cent.      Neither  fish  nor  niolluscs  live 


-i^a*u*iimiii«i.ii  fill  I rtitfifliiiiaiiiiiiiittiiM 


.--i- 


T.AKR  MONO.— OWEN'S  I,AKR. 


411 


in   tlio  lako,  which,  however,  •oom»  with  tho  hirva  of  u  Hpccie*  of  fly  col'.cctod  oiid 
■tored  for  winter  ww  by  tho  Hurrounding  I'iuto  IndiuriH. 

A  fi<  er,  risiiig  iniinodiutoly  to  tho  south  of  the  Bouthorn  oscurpmontH  of  the 
hills  whioli  skirt  tho  •hores  of  tho  luko.  flows  Houth-oaMtwiirdH  piiruUel  with  tho 
rxIb  ol  ll»e  Sit>rru   N^'^udu,  and  uftor  u  oourHo  of  125  iniloH,  Iohob  itself  in  Owon'g 


fif,  191'— Lau  Muno  kMu  in  GLAaiaua  in  tiik  Quatbunahv  Ki-oon. 

Hwio  I :  fino.OK). 


m- 


■  9  MiiM. 


Lake,  another  lacustrine  basin,  which  must  have  formerly  resembled  Mono  Luke 
It  is  situated  exactly  at  the  eastern  base  of  Mount  Whitney,  and  was  also  formerly 
fed  by  glaciers  from  this  lofty  mountain.  But  being  at  present  deprived  of, 
suflBcient  moisture,  its  waters  have  become  intensely  saline,  and  the  lake  itself  has 
shrunk  to  a  space  of  about  116  square  miles  in  its  long  valley,  with  a  depth  of 
not  more  than  60  to  66  feet.     The  depression  through  which  its  overflow  formerly 


412 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


escaped  on  the  south  side  stands  at  about  the  same  height  (54  feet)  above  the 
present  lake  level.  Of  all  the  lacustrine  basins  in  the  United  States,  Owen's 
Lake  contains  the  largest  proportion  of  soda;  Loew  estimates  the  quantity 
deposited  in  its  basin  at  no  less  than  220,000,000  tons.  The  surrounding  volcanic 
region  is  frequently  convulsed  by  violent  earthquakes. 

None  of  the  closed  basins  within  United  States  territory  are  better  entitled  to 
the  name  of  "  desert "  than  that  named  from  the  Mohave  Indians,  which  is  limited 
south-westwards  by  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains  and  their  offshoots.  The 
channel,  which  is  habitually  spoken  of  as  the  Mohave  '*  River,"  is  nearly  always 
dry,  and,  even  after  the  rains,  its  current  flows  not  on  the  surface,  but  under  a 
layer  of  sand.  The  Soda  Lake,  where  this  serpentine  watercourse  terminates,  is 
merely  a  bed  of  impure  salt,  above  which  the  mirage  often  conjures  up  visions  of 
blue  waters  encircled  by  woodlands  and  human  habitations.  One  of  the  saline 
depressions,  which  has  received  the  name  of  the  Death  Valley,  occupies  a  sort  of 
canon,  which  at  some  former  geological  epoch  formed  a  river-bed  like  that  of  the 
Colorado,  probably  that  which  is  now  lost  in  the  Soda  Lake.  At  present  the  only 
watercourse  flowing  to  the  Death  Valley  is  the  sluggish  Amargoza  or  "  Bitter  " 
River.  The  valley,  which  has  a  mean  breadth  of  about  18  or  20  miles,  is 
developed  parallel  with  the  main  axis  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  for  a  distance  of  about 
125  miles,  and  its  deepest  depressions  fall,  according  to  the  naturalist  Bell,  as  low 
as  170  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  slopes  bristle  with  little  peaks  or 
needles  of  salt,  sharp  as  glass,  while  deposits  of  borax  and  of  salt  fill  the  cavities. 
Here  and  there  shifting  sands  drive  before  the  wind,  and  caravans  have  lost  their 
way  and  perished  in  this  desolate  region.  One  of  the  crests  dominating  the  Death 
Valley  bears  the  name  of  the  "  Funeral  Mount." 

III. — Climate,  Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  of  the 

Pacific  Slope. 

The  elevated  lands  comprised  between  the  border  ranges  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Sierra  Nevada  have  the  extreme  or  continental  climate  charac- 
teristic of  regions  deprived  of  the  moist  marine  breezes.  Moreover,  the  tem- 
perature is  lowered  several  degrees  by  the  altitude  on  the  inhabited  parts  of  the 
plateau.  Thus  the  isothermal  line  of  Pike's  Peak,  which  has  a  height  of  14,147 
feet,  descends  to  19-4°  Fahr.,  that  is  to  say,  thirty-four  degrees  below  that  of 
Saint  Louis,  which  lies  as  nearly  as  possible  under  the  same  parallel.  In  these 
elevated  regions  the  winter  cold  often  falls  below  the  freezing-point  of  mercury. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  summer  heats  are  intense'.  During  the  summer  months 
the  nights  being  reduced  by  several  hours,  the  absorption  of  heat  greatly  exceeds 
its  dissipation,  with  the  result  that  the  mean  temperature  is  relatively  very  high. 
By  a  remarkable  coincidence  the  summer  isothermals  are  developed  from  east  to 
west  of  the  United  States,  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  plateau  of  the  Great 
Basin,  in  parallel  lines,  as  if  there  were  no  intervening  mountain  ranges.  At 
Fort  Laramie,  standing  4,224  feet  above  eea-level,  the  weather  is  as  warm  in  July_ 
as  at  Boston  under  the  same  latitude.     So  also  at  Santa  F^  in  New  Mexico,  6,862 


r'i.'f 


iiiikim 


KMM 


MMiiMiMil 


•?,•■!:  -: 


CLIMATE  OF  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


413 


feet  above  the  sea,  the  temperature  in  the  same  month  is  but  slightly  exceeded  by 
that  of  New  Berne,  lying  at  a  corresponding  distance  from  the  equator  on  the  low- 
lying  shores  of  North  Carolina.* 

The  desert  of  the  lower  Colorado  is  the  focus  of  heat  rays  for  the  United 
States.  At  Fort  Yuma,  on  the  verge  of  those  wastes,  the  mean  temperature  for 
the  whole  of  the  summer  season  exceeds  90°  Fahr.  Here  the  mercury  has  been 
known  to  rise  at  times  as  high  as  102°  and  even  104°  Fahr.,  a  unique  phenomenon 
under  this  latitude  on  the  North  American  continent.  In  those  regions,  with- 
drawn from  the  moderating  influence  of  the  ocean,  the  alternations  of  the  daily 
climate  present  extremes  analogous  to  those  of  the  annual  clim-ite.  All  the 
conditions  are  here  combined  to  cause  a  great  variation  within  the  twenty-four 
hours.  The  comparative  absence  of  clouds  and  the  grey  colour  of  the  arid  ground 
promote  the  accumulation  of  heat  in  the  lower  atmospheric  strata  during  the 
hours  that  the  sun  stands  above  the  horizon.  At  night,  on  the  contrary,  radiation 
is  stimulated  by  analogous  causes.  The  lack  of  humidit}'  in  these  "  hot  furnace  " 
regions  t  is  all  the  more  remarkable  that  the  winds  blow  usually  from  the  sea, 
and  are  consequently  charged  wiih  a  considerable  proportion  of  moisture.  But 
during  their  passage  over  the  lower  Colorado  plateaux  and  deserts,  these  winds, 
becoming  still  more  heated,  retain  their  aqueous  vapour,  which  is  not  precipitated 
as  rain  until  they  strike  the  mountains  of  the  interior. 

As  regards  its  climate,  the  narrow  zone  of  oceanic  coastlands  stretching  along 
the  foot  of  the  Cascades  and  Sierra  Nevada  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
elevated  inland  plateaux.  Under  the  same  latitude  the  annual  temperature  is 
much  milder  in  these  maritime  regions  than  on  the  corresponding  seaboard  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  The  eastern  and  western  coastlands  of  the  North  American 
continent  offer  climatic  differences  analogous  to  those  observed  in  the  Old  World 
between  the  shores  of  Asia  and  of  West  Europe.  Thus,  while  the  isothermal  of 
44°  or  45°  Fahr.  strikes  the  coast  of  Maine  under  45°  north  latitude,  the  fluvial 
plains  of  Oregon  under  the  same  parallel  enjoy  a  mean  temperature  of  53°  or  54° 
Fahr.  Nevertheless,  the  discrepancy  is  less  than  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere, 
owing  to  the  trend  of  the  coast-line  and  the  direction  of  the  oceanic  currents.  In 
this  respect  West  Europe  is  specially  favoured,  being  so  dispoded  as  to  receive  the 
full  benefit  of  the  heat  waves  brought  from  the  tropical  regions  by  the  atmospheric 
and  marine  currents.  ^  .  V' 

In  the  direction  from  south  to  north,  that  is,  from  California  to  the  Washing- 
ton seaboard,  the  isothermal  lines  are  deflected  in  such  a  manner  as  to  hug  the 
shore,  so  to  say,  for  long  distances.  So  far  from  coinciding  with  the  degrees  of 
latitude,  they  tend  to  follow  the  meridians,  and  in  some  places  even  coalesce  with 
them.  Moreover,  the  great  central  plain  of  California  presents  the  singular 
phenomenon  of  oval  isothermals,  which  are  developed  around  the  whole  periphery 
from  the  plains  of  the  San  Joaquin  to  those  of  the  Sacramento  River.  The  climatic 
contrasts  between  California  and  Europe  are  felt  especially  during  the  summer. 

•  Jnly  temperatures :— Fort  Laramie,  75°  Fahr. ;  Santa  Ti,  752''  Fahr. ;  Boston,  72-6°  Fahr. ; 
New  Berne,  79-7''  Fahr. 

t  Such  appearei  to  be  the  mcanioff  of  the  term  "  California,"  giren  in  Cartes'  time  to  this  seaboard. 


4U 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


This  season  is  much  cooler  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  than  might  be  expected 
from  the  position  of  the  sun.  At  times  the  apparently  contradictory  phenomenon 
has  even  been  observed  that  the  mean  temperature  of  the  Californian  summer  is 
exceeded  by  that  both  of  the  spring  and  autumn  seasons.  This  anomaly  is 
unmistakably  perceptible  at  San  Francisco,  where  the  hottest  month  is  September, 
and  where  July  is  no  warmer  than  October.  From  January  to  July  the  monthly 
mean  increase  of  temperature  is  only  about  six  degrees,  a  phenomenon  which  is 
probably  unparalleled  in  any  other  temperate  region  of  the  globe.  Hence  a 
number  of  plants,  which  require  for  their  maturity  a  tolerably  strong  summer 
heat  as  well  as  cloudless  skies,  extend  their  range  far  less  towards  the  north  in 
California  than  under  the  corresponding  isothermals  of  the  Mississippi  plain  and 
of  Europe.  The  vine,  which  yields  abundant  returns  in  the  Los  Angeles  district, 
and  in  South  and  Central  California,  scarcely  advances  beyond  the  38°  of  latitude. 
Maize,  also,  the  American  ceieal  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  seldom  ripens  north  of 
San  Francisco.  This  remarkable  tempering  of  the  Californian  summers  is  due  to 
the  cold  waters  brought  during  this  season  by  a  Pacific  current.  Between  35°  and 
45°  north  latitude,  the  waves  which  strike  the  coast  in  summer  are  as  cold  as,  or 
even  colder  than,  in  winter.  They  probably  form  part  of  a  polar  counter-current, 
which  in  the  warm  season  reappears  on  the  surface,  whereas  at  other  times  it 
flows  below  the  tepid  waters  setting  from  Japan  and  the  equatorial  seas.  But 
whatever  be  the  source  of  the  cold  current,  it  is  sufficient  to  lower  by  several 
degrees  the  mean  temperature  throughout  the  whole  of  the  coastlands.  Never- 
theless, South  California,  or  the  section  comprised  between  Conception  Point  and 
the  Mexican  frontier,  is  distinguished  by  quite  an  exceptional  local  climate,  but 
slightly  influenced  by  the  cold  northern  currents.  The  projecting  headland  of 
mountains  at  the  Point  deflects  to  the  west  of  the  Santa  Barbara  Archipelago 
these  cold  oceanic  waters  coming  from  the  shores  of  Alaska,  while  the  mountains 
themselves  are  sufficiently  elevated  generally  to  intercept  the  winds  blowing  from 
the  same  direction.  Consequently  the  vast  semicircular  maritime  zone  separated 
from  Central  California  by  the  San  Bafael  and  San  Bernardino  ranges  forms 
climatically  a  world  apart. 

Another  feature  of  the  Californian  climate,  as  compared  with  that  of  Europe, 
is  the  uniformity  of  the  barometric  pressure.  Great  atmospheric  disturbances  are 
rare,  and  the  normal  oscillations  follow  with  considerable  regularity.  The  fierce 
typhoons  developed  on  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia,  having  exhausted  their  fury 
before  traversing  the  Pacific  Ocean,  are  not  felt  at  all  on  the  coasts  of  the  opposite 
continent,  as  are  the  hurricanes  which  reach  Europe  from  the  east  side  of 
America.  Any  marked  changes  in  the  equilibrium  of  the  atmospheric  strata  take 
place  very  slowly,  are  scarcely  ever  attended  by  electric  dischargee,  and  never 
occur  in  summer,  the  regular  season  in  a  pre-eminent  sense.  On  the  Pacific  sea- 
board the  normal  wind  sets  landwards,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  west  and  south-west, 
and  to  this  regular  marine  wind  is  mainly  due  the  almost  uniform  mildness  of 
the  climate.  In  summer  the  monsoon  is,  so  to  say,  superimposed  on  the  normal 
current.     Being  attracted  by  the  hot  arid  plains  of  the  interior,  the  cool  oceanic 


-  '"•^fsr^naSmMttlMH 


MMl 


MMQH 


Mi 


m 


iViiitiMliii') 


CLIMATE  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 


416 


breeze  sets  steadily  from  the  west  or  north-west  towards  the  inland  regions.  But 
this  breeze,  whose  mean  velocity  is  estimated  at  over  six  miles  an  hour,  blows 
only  during  the  day.  At  night,  when  the  deserts  beyond  the  mountains  have 
been  gradually  cooled,  the  marine  current  is  stilled,  and  then  replaced  by  a  feeble 
aerial  current  setting  in  the  opposite  direction.  Wherever  the  coast  ranges 
present  an  opening  the  wind  rushes  through,  thus  penetrating  to  the  plateau 
along  the  lines  of  least  resistance.  In  the  Columbia  basin  the  wind  passes  with 
great  fury  up  the  gorge  of  the  Dalles.  The  "  Golden  Gate  "  of  San  Francisco, 
through  which  the  sea  reaches  some  distance  inland,  gives  access  at  the  same  time 
to  a  great  body  of  air,  whitii  then  spreads  out  like  a  fan  in  the  interior  of  the 
valley.  Thus  the  breeze,  which  has  San  Francisco  as  its  diverging-point,  sets  in 
summer  from  south  to  north  up  the  Sacramento  Valley,  and  from  north  to  south  up 
that  of  the  San  Joaquin.  Nevertheless,  some  of  the  lateral  glens  remain  sheltered 
from  this  daily  breeze,  and  here  the  normal  summer  temperature  is  maintained. 
Two  neighbouring  towns  standing  at  the  same  altitude  may  thus  present  a 
divergence  of  several  degrees  in  their  summer  temperature.  In  winter  the 
westerly  winds  no  longer  blow  regularly,  and  are  moreover  frequently  inter- 
rupted by  contrary  currents.  At  times,  soft  winds,  analogous  to  the  antan  of  the 
Pyrenees,  or  to  the/dhn  of  the  Alps,  make  themselves  felt  across  the  mountains, 
whose  snows  they  rapidly  melt.  Such  is  the  so-called  C/iinook,  so  named  because 
it  prevails  in  the  region  formerly  visited  by  the  "  Chinook  "  traders  in  British 
Columbia,  Washington  and  Oregon.  In  South  California  a  similar  wind,  which 
brings  a  stifling  heat  and  bums  up  the  vegetation,  is  known  by  the  name  of  "  Santa 
Ana."  Under  the  influence  of  all  these  warm  moist  currents  the  sky  becomes 
overcast,  and  the  atmosphere  charged  with  fogs,  though,  generally  speaking,  the 
air  of  California  is  remarkable  for  its  great  purity.  The  Lick  Observatory, 
estaMisbed  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Hamilton,  in  the  Coast  Ilange,  at  an  altitude 
of  4,440  feet,  is  one  of  those  where  continuous  observations  may  be  carried  on 
with  the  least  risk  of  interruption  from  foul  weather.  Thus  excellent  observations 
of  Mars  were  made  during  the  period  of  opposition  in  August,  18P2,  when  the 
''canals"  or  double  lines  recorded  by  Schiaparelli  in  1877  were  studied  by  three 
independent  observers. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  mountainous  region  of  the  Far  West  is  one  of  the  driest 
zones  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  Certain  parts  of  Utah,  of  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico  receive  no  supplies  of  water,  except  from  the  torrents  descending  from  the 
snow-clad  crests,  and  here  all  tillage  would  be  impossible  without  artificial  irriga- 
tion. Where  the  canals  or  acequias  stop,  there  begins  the  desert  chaparral.  The 
great  age  of  houses  built  of  simple  adobe  or  sun-dried  brick,  which  in  a  rainy 
country  would  soon  be  converted  to  a  heap  of  mud,  is  a  convincing  proof  of  the 
extreme  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  in  New  Mexico.  If  the  testimony  of  the  few 
farmers  settled  in  the  country  can  be  accepted,  this  dryness  would  appear  to  have 
even  increased  since  the  arrival  of  the  whites.  The  statement  is  rendered  highly 
probable  from  the  ruins  of  formerly  populous  cities,  situated  in  regions  which  at 
present  are  quite  arid. 


416 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


On  the  Pacific  seuboard,  the  rainfull  increases  in  the  direction  from  south  to 
north.  While  the  South  Californian  valleys  receive  a  scant  supply,  the  mean 
annual  discharge  exceeds  twenty  inches  at  San  Francisco,  and  amounts  to  upwards 
i>r  forty  inches  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  "  It  is  always  raining  in  the 
North,"  say  the  less  fortunate  South  Californians,  who  jocularly  assert  that 
the  Oregonians  have  "  webbed  feet."  But  immediately  to  the  east,  the  rainfall 
is  far  less  copious.  The  annual  precipitation,  however,  differs  greatly,  and  in  some 
years  San  Francisco  receives  a  supply  three  times  in  excess  of  the  quantity 
discharged  during  certain  dry  years.  The  moisture  precipitated  in  the  form  of 
snow  on  the  plateaux  and  the  crests  of  the  mountain  ranges  varies  in  the  same 
proportions.* 

Flora  and  Fauna. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  a  country  are  necessarily  reflected  in  its  vegetation. 
Where  the  rainfall  is  slight  the  flora  is  scanty,  and  forest  growths  are  absent 
altogether.     Where  the  rains  are  plentiful  forests  cover  the  land,  and  their  density 
,  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  frequency  and  abundance  of  the  downpours.     In  the  vast 

space  of  about  1,150,000  square  miles,  which  stretches  from  the  upper  Missouri 
\  '  to  the  plateaux  of  Texas,  and  from  the  low-lying  plains  of  the  Colorado  to  the 

crests  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  prevailing  species  are  the  characteristic  plants  of 

''  the  cactus  and  artemisia  families,  which  impart  its  general  physiognomy  to  the 

scenery  of  these  saline  and  gypsous  regions.  The  limits  of  the  zone  of  "wild 
sage"  (Artemisia  tridentata)  roughly  coincide  with  those  of  the  plateaux.  Since 
the  invasion  of  the  Laramie  slopes  by  -ae  Pacific  Railway  the  vegetation  has 
undergone  a  marked  change.  Instead  of  grasses  the  ground  yields  scarcely  any- 
thing except  this  sage-bush  and  other  odoriferous  plants.     They  grow  everywhere 

^  in  dense  patches,  in  the  bottom-lands,  on  the  slopes  and  summits  of  the  hills,  and 

the  higher  they  ascend  on  the  plateau  the  more  they  increase  in  size.  The  air 
is  heavy  with  the  odour  of  camphor  and  oil  of  turpentine  peculiar  to  these  aromatic 
growths.  To  them  perhaps,  as  well  as  to  the  general  salubrity  of  the  climate, 
should  be  attributed  the  numerous  cases  of  recovery  in  the  case  of  consumptive 
patients  sent  by  their  physicians  to  the  regions  of  the  Far  West. 

The  moist  river  bottoms  are  fringed  with  a  few  trees  of  the  poplar  family, 
aspens  with  slender  trembling  foliage.  In  the  canons  of  Nevada  stunted  junipers 
and  firs  still  linger  in  the  more  sheltered  spots.  But  they  were  formerly  far 
more  numerous,  their  cones  yielding  to  the  Indians  a  much-valued  food,  while  the 
timber  was  utilised  by  the  early  miners  as  fuel  and  in  preparing  the  gear  required 
for  their  mining  operations.     Plants  of  low  growth  are  replaced  in  the  southern 

*  Average  rainfall  in  the  western   regiona  of  the  Unitod  Statc|B  according  to  Schott  and  other 


obeervers  :— 

KooKT  Mountains. 

inches. 

Virginia  aty  . 

17 

Fioohe     .... 

6-50 

Fort  Laramie  . 

14-70 

Fort  Bridger    . 

8  60 

Pike's  Peak     . 

32 

1  Pacific 

}  Sraboakd. 

inches. 

Port  TowDBend  . 

.     4060 

Olympia     . 

.     56 

Astoria 

.     79 

San  Francisco 

.     22 

San  Diego  . 

t<       • 

9-60 

Mii 


mmi 


^jUiiiiii' 


FLOBA  OF  THE  BOCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


417 


regions  by  the  creosote  bush  {Larrea  mexicana),  and  by  prickly  shrubs,  such  as  the 
mezquite  and  sharp-leafed  yuccas,  imparting  to  the  laudsoap.  as  aggressive  aspect. 


Fig.  192.     AnizONA  LANUBCArK    Wax  Cacttts  axd  Yuccas 


The  pitahaya,  or  giant  cactus  {Caetm  gigantmn),  is  the  characteristic  plant  of  the 
Arizona  and  New  Mexican  wastes  even  more  than  it  is  of  the  Mexican  plateau. 
Colossal  wax  cactuses,  from  35  to  60  feet  high,  stand  out  as  solitary  sentinels  on 
M 


;.'  ,■■■■■•  '■':>.; -vv^;' 


418 


THE  UNITLD  STATES. 


the  plaiu,  retaining  from  base  to  summit  a  nearly  uniform  thicknesa.  The  branches, 
never  more  than  two  or  three,  sprinp^  from  the  stem  at  right  angles,  and  then 
shoot  up  vertically,  armed  like  the  stem  itself  with  star-like  spikes. 

In  the  more  arid  regions,  such  as  the  Mohave  desert  deprived  of  all  moisture 
by  the -barrier  of  the  San  Bernardino  range,  even  the  cactus  type  of  plants  disap- 
pears. Here  nothing  is  to  be  seen  except  the  argillaceous  clays  and  saline  flats 
dotted  over  the  vast  plains  bordered  in  the  distance  by  reddidh  mountain  ranges. 
But  above  the  arid  depressions  and  denuded  plateaux  here  and  there  are  seen  lofty 
summits  penetrating  into  the  upper  zone  of  moisture-bcariug  clouds,  their  sparsely 
timbered  or  even  richly  wooded  slopes  presenting  a  most  agreeable  contrast  to  the 
surrounding  cliffs.  Certain  wooded  tables,  with  their  bare  yellowish  and  ravined 
escarpments,  look  at  k:  distance  like  gardens  suspended  in  mid-air. 

Above  the  altitud )  of  4,300  feet  the  creosote-yielding  larrea  is  no  longer  seen, 
and  here  the  traveller  enters  the  zone  of  junipers,  which  on  the  flank  of  the 
mountains  reach  no  higher  than  about  H,600  feet.  Beyond  them  follows  the  zone 
of  pines,  and  then  at  varying  elevations  all  arborescent  vegetation  is  killed  by  the 
cold.  In  Colorado,  mountains  exceeding  11,000  feet  have  no  longer  any  trees  on 
their  crests,  and  the  highest  forest  growths  are  mere  scrub  transformed  beneath  the 
weight  of  the  snow  to  a  sort  of  rough  flooring  over  which  the  climber  has  to 
scramble  as  best  he  can  to  reach  the  summit.  In  the  Californian  Sierra  Nevada 
the  upper  limit  of  the  foicst  zone  begins  at  10,000  feet. 

There  are  few  regions  where  the  decided  influence  of  moisture-bearing  currents 
on  the  vegetation  can  be  more  easily  recognised  than  in  California.  Here  the 
winds  from  the  Pacific,  driving  the  rain  clouds  before  them,  strike  first  against  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range.  Then  surmounting  the  crests  of  this  low  outer 
rampart,  they  impinge  on  the  escarpments  of  the  far  more  elevated  Sierra  Nevada 
at  a  mean  altitude  of  about  4,000  feet.  Below  this  line  the  vegetation  is  scanty, 
the  foliage  lustreless,  while  the  general  aspect  of  the  landscape,  often  seen 
through  a  veil  of  dusty  fog,  varies  from  a  grey  to  a  violet  or  reddish  tint. 

But  where  the  beneficent  influence  of  the  regular  moist  winds  begins  to  be 
felt,  there  also  prevails  a  grand  and  vigorous  growth  of  conifers.  Forests  of  this 
order  ©f  plants  cover  the  upper  valleys  and  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  as  far 
as  the  base  of  the  snow-clad  pyramids ;  their  range  extends  northwards  along  the 
coastlunds  into  British  Columbia  and  Alaska,  and  ramifies  eastwards  along 
the  United  States  frontier  through  Idaho,  Montana,  and  Wyoming.  In  this 
superb  forest  zone  the  species,  although  less  varied  and  less  numerous  than  those 
of  the  corresponding  zone  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  are  still  reckoned  by  the 
dozen.  Twelve  distinct  varieties  of  conifers  prevail,  not  intermingled  promiscuously, 
but  following  regularly  along  the  uplands  in  so  marv  o.'esof  family  groups. 
On  an  average  the  domain  of  each  such  family  group  comprises  on  the  flanks  of 
the  mountains  a  vertical  height  of  about  2,600  feet,  but  for  none  of  the  groups  are 
these  lines  coincident.  Most  of  them  are  disposed  obliquely,  lower  in  the  northern 
regions  where  moisture  abounds  from  the  very  roots  of  the  mountains ;  then  the 
several  zones  ascend  gradually  in  the  direction  of  the  south  towards  the  snowy 


■*w- 


:m 


•m 


mm 


-rir:''f^ 


FLOBA.  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 


419 


iches, 
then 


uplands  in  search  of  the  atmosphere,  the  degree  of  humidity  and  temperature 
that  best  suit  their  constitution.  Another  noteworthy  contrast  is  presented  by 
the  various  timbered  zones  of  California,  where  the  forests  are  much  more  dense 
and  continuous  in  the  north,  whereas  towards  the  south  they  more  readily  break 
into  smaller  groups  and  thickets  in  which  each  member  of  the  family  acquires 
a  more  marked  individuality  and  assumes  a  more  picturesque  beauty. 

In  the  northern  forests  the  domiuaut  species  is  the  Douglas  spruce  or  "yellow 
pine"  of  Canada  (abies  i>o«^^««»V),  distinguished  by  its  ruddy  brown  b.irk.  Certain 

Fig.  193,— F0BE8T8  OF  THE  West. 

Scale  I  :  20  000,000.  • 


35' 


Vrt 


lb' 


I3G' 


W«»t  op  Greenwich 


l4in  thmi  • 
■Uteeuth. 


Overs 
■izteenth. 


Over  a 
fourth. 

.  SlOIIUes. 


Over  a 
half. 


forests  that  have  now  fallen  to  the  woodman's  axe  consisted  exclusively  of  this 
species.  Till  recently  it  was  by  no  means  rare  to  meet  in  the  pine  groves  of 
Washington  and  Oregon  specimens  of  the  yellow  pine  260  and  even  360  feet 
high.  Still  taller  are  the  conifers  of  the  sequoia  genus,  of  which  there  survive 
only  two  species,  the  evergreen  redwood  {Sequoia  sempervirens)  and  the  "  big 
tree,"  or  mammoth  tree  {Sequoia  gigantea,  formerly  Wellingtoma  gigantea).  Accord- 
ing to  Oswald  Heer,  the  sequoia  is  a  "  witness  of  past  ages."  Common  enough 
in  the  extinct  tertiary  flora  of  the  whole  earth,  its  range  is  extremely  limited 
in  the  present  epoch.    Nevertheless  it  presents  no  symptoms  of  decrepitude ;  it  is 


# 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


still  in  the  plenitude  of  all  it8  vigour  and  majesty.  The  redwood  is  confined 
entirely  to  the  Coast  Range  from  the  mountains  of  Santa  Ana  to  the  Klamath 
valley.  Noar  Russian  River,  where  it  forms  whole  forests  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
other  species,  Whitney  measured  a  stem  276  feet  long.  The  range  of  the  Sequoia 
gigantca  is  even  still  more  restricted,  being  found  only  on  <he  western  slopes  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  between  the  30^  and  38*^  30'  north  latitude,  and  here  only  in 
nine  separate  groves.  The  largest  of  these  groves  shades  the  slopes  of  the  valleys 
draining  to  King's  River,  north-west  of  Whitney ;  but  visitors  are  attracted  chiefly 
to  the  giants  of  Calaveras  and  Mariposa,  which  lie  nearer  to  San  Francisco  and 
the  Yosemite  Valley.  The  largest  sequoia  measured  by  Whitney  is  325  feet  high 
with  a  girth  of  90  feet.  Formerly  there  were  others  which  exceeded  400  and 
even  425  feet ;  but  some  speculators  had  them  felled  to  exhibit  the  bark  at  fairs, 
or  to  sell  the  wood,  though  this  has  scarcely  any  value.  Despite  the  law  which 
protects  these  giants  of  the  forest  by  declaring  them  the  common  property  of  the 
nation,  the  work  of  destruction  continues. 

In  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  fossil  remains  of  an  extinct  fauna  are  found  in 
enormous  multitudes.  The  alluvial  deposits  of  the  cretaceous  sea,  which  formerly 
flooded  a  great  part  of  the  upland  plains,  are  extremely  rich  in  fossil  saurians  of 
all  kinds,  amongst  others  pterosaurians,  or  "flying  lizards,"  of  far  larger  dimen- 
sions than  the  pterodactyls  of  the  Old  World.  From  these  they  also  differed  in 
the  complete  absence  of  teeth,  thus  approaching  nearer  to  the  modern  bird  type. 

Amongst  the  crawling  saurians  the  titanosaurm  of  Colorado  was  no  less  than 
60  feet  long,  and  rose  to  a  vertical  height  of  30  feet  to  reach  the  foliage  of  the 
large  trees  which  formed  its  chief  food ;  on  the  other  hand  the  diminutive 
nanosaurus  was  no  bigger  than  an  ordinary  cat.  These  various  animals  of  the 
reptile  order  are  often  called  by  the  general  name  of  "  sea  serpents ;  "  but  the  first 
American  snakes,  all  of  pelagic  origin,  made  their  appearance  about  the  eocene 
epoch.  The  dinosaurians,  or  land  reptiles,  that  is  to  say,  the  "  frightful  lizards," 
are  characteriEed  by  an  extremely  small  brainpan,  smaller  than  that  of  any  other 
known  animal  form.  Comparing  the  brain  of  a  dinosaurian  with  that  of  an 
ordinary  crocodile,  Marsh  has  shown  that  it  was  proportionately  a  hundred  times 
smaller. 

!No  traces  of  an  avifauna  occur  before  the  cretaceous  ages.  But  the  mammals 
come  in  with  the  triassic  epoch,  when  they  are  represented  by  a  marsupial,  an 
inferior  type  of  this  order.  Unfortunately  geologists  have  hitherto  failed  to 
discover  any  remains  of  mammals  in  the  jurasbic  and  cretaceous  formations.  On 
the  other  hand  later  strata  have  yielded  them  in  the  greatest  variety  of  types.  It 
was  in  the  lower  eocene  that  was  found  the  eohippua,  the  oldest  representative  of 
the  horse,  though  no  bigger  than  a  fox.  About  thirty  other  species  of  the  horse 
family  belong  to  the  New  World,  which  geologists  are  now  disposed  to  regard  as 
the  original  home  of  the  equidse.  According  to  Marsh  the  tapirs  and  rhino- 
ceroses would  also  appear  to  be  animals  of  American  origin,  as  well  as  the  camel 
and  deer,  and  perhaps  also  the  bovidea  and  the  probo.«cid8B.  Elephants,  mastodons, 
and  the  megalonix  roamed  the  forests  and  savannas  of  North  America.      The 


-:^sm 


BMH 


MM 


^>si#<;jf>)lj»^.» 


t^i-V  v.i'V   i<.,  »i-*/    )>_.-, 


V   'i    '  ■ 


FAUNA  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 


421 


Indians,  who  often  came  across  skeletons  of  these  huge  beasts  in  the  muds  and 
gravels  of  the  modern  drift  period  and  in  other  detritus,  hud  given  them  the  numo 
of  "  fathers  of  the  bison,"  as  if  they  also  had,  after  a  fashion,  recognised  the 
doctrine  of  the  evolution  of  species.  Amongst  the  mammals  which  date  from  the 
beginning  of  the  tertiary  eponh,  the  phena  '•<»,  an  animal  about  the  size  of  a 
wolf,  has  attracted  the  special  attention  of  paleontologists.  According  to  Cope  it 
offers  essentially  primitive  and  undifferentiated  forms,  so  that  it  might  be  recog- 
nised as  the  common  ancestor  of  the  hoofed  animals,  of  the  monkey  and  of  mun. 
The  imprint  of  footsteps  of  a  species  of  edentate  discoverod  near  Carson,  in 
Nevada,  had  also  led  to  a  belief  in  the  discovery  of  a  special  human  type,  the 
so-called  homo  nevadensis. 

The  highland  regions  of  the  United  States  facing  towards  the  Pacific  Ocean 
are  still  inhabited  by  large  animals ;  but  none  of  these  belong  to  absolutely 
indigenous  forms.  They  are  quadrupeds  of  the  Canadian  fauna,  such  as  the 
elk  and  the  grizzly  bear,  which  are  mot  on  the  elevated  plateaux  in  association 
with  representatives  of  the  fauna  of  the  Mexican  plateaux.  The  beaver,  one  of 
the  characteristic  animals  of  the  well- watered  and  wooded  northern  regions,  was 
everywhere  till  recently  met  along  the  banks  of  all  the  watercourses  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Sierra  Nevada,  and  even  as  far  soui/h  as  the  valleys  of  the  Pecos, 
Rio  Grande  del  Norte  and  Gila  Rivers.  It  has  constructed  dams  in  the  streams 
as  far  as  the  neighbourhood  of  El  Paso  on  the  Mexican  frontier.  In  the  Bad 
Lands  these  rodents  are  still  common  enough  ;  whenever  sportsmen  give  them  a 
short  respite,  they  begin  at  once  to  swarm  along  the  banks  of  the  torrents.  Other 
species  have  disappeared  without  any  apparent  cause.  Thus  the  hares  of  the 
Great  Basin,  which  were  so  numerous  in  1870  that  thev  were  killed  to  feed  the 
swine,  had  become  so  rare  in  1871  that  the  naturalist  Allen  had  to  himt  them 
up  far  and  wide  before  he  could  procure  a  single  specimen.  But  the  great  pla- 
teaux of  the  Rocky  Mountains  still  remain,  as  in  cretaceous  times,  the  special  home 
of  reptiles.  Here  are  found  lizards  of  all  sizes  and  colours,  some  of  which  are 
of  formidable  aspect  though  quite  harmless.  The  only  species  that  is  really  veno- 
mous is  the  Helod^rina  smpectum,  which  has  received  from  the  Anglo-Americans 
the  name  of  "  monster  of  the  Gila ; "  but  even  this  creature  is  of  peaceful  habits 
and  slow  to  bite.  On  the  plateaux  are  also  some  large  tortoises,  "  horned  frogs  " 
{Phrynosoma  cornvtum),  which  resemble  chameleons,  huge  warty  lizards  bristling 
with  spikes,  centipedes,  tarantulas,  and  other  creeping  things  that  glide  about 
in  the  holes  and  cievices  of  the  clay  or  rocky  ground. 


fen 


m-xiV' 


'  •< 


II  I  I  II 


m 


.j,«ii- 


CTIAPTER  VIII. 

STATES  AND  CITIES  OF  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS  liHh  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 

1. — Montana. 

TIE  terra  Montana,  in  the  sense  of  "  Mountainous  Land,"  is 
applied  to  the  state  which  comprises  within  its  limits  the  lofty 
dividing  ridgi>s  between  the  sources  of  the  Missouri  and  several 
headwaters  of  the  Columbia.  Like  momi  >f  the  other  states, 
it  is  bounded  by  straight  lines  with  no  regard  for  the  ntitural 
features  of  the  country,  except  towards  the  west  and  south-west.  Even  the 
small  section  of  the  marvellous  Yellowstone  National  Park  included  within 
its  frontiers  is  marked  off  by  similar  conventional  lines.  The  Dominion  of 
Canada,  the  Dakotas  and  Wyoming  form  the  conterminous  political  regions  on  the 
north,  east,  and  south,  the  lines  of  deniarcaticti  uere  being  various  degrees  of  lati- 
tude and  longitude.  But  the  crests  of  mountain  ranges  serve  in  great  measure  as 
the  common  frontier  between  Montana  and  Idaho  on  the  west  and  south-west  sides. 
In  superficial  extent  Montana  ranks  amongst  the  very  largest  territorial  divisions 
of  the  Union,  being  about  26,000  square  miles  larger  than  the  whole  of  ihe  British 
Isles.  But  by  far  the  greater  part  of  this  vast  area  is  too  mountainous  and  too 
cold  to  be  suitAle  for  tillage.  Hence  stock-breeding  constitutes  the  chief  agri- 
cultural resource  of  the  country  ;  the  wool  yielded  by  its  numerous  flocks  is  highly 
prized  in  the  markets  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Both  cattle  and  sheep  thrive 
on  the  nutritious  buffalo  and  bunch  grasses  of  the  sheltered  valleys,  where  they 
range  thrdughout  the  year,  needing  little  artificial  protection  in  ordinary  winter 
seasons.  Some  of  the  bench -lands  and  river-bottoms  are  even  suitable  for  regular 
farming,  and  good  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  roots  and  potatoes  are  grown  in 
these  more  favoured  districts.  But  far  more  important  are  the  mineral  resources 
of  the  country,  which  abounds  especially  in  copper,  gold,  and  silver.  In  this 
respect,  Montana  occupies  a  foremost  position  amongst  the  mining  states  of 
the  Union,  and  its  gold -washings,  gold,  silver  and  copper  mines  have,  with 
the  development  of  its  railways,  contributed  most  to  the  settlement  of  the  land. 

Of  all  the  states  of  the  Union,  Montana  comprises  (1892)  the  most  extensive 
enclaves  of  lands  reserved  for  the  aboriginal  populations.  In  the  north-west 
dwell  the  Flatheads  ;  in  the  north  along  the  Canadian  frontier  extend  the  reserva- 


~"^*^n-- 


!lsl^,-iA 


'A 

o 

'ii 


's^i^-XB^^:  '-'.m  -• 


■^  ■"'  -f"'   •  ■'■'" 


I'jiliSI 


.•^ 


-ian.,« 


MONTANA. 


428 


tioni  of  the  OroH  Ventres  Pu'gono,  Crows  und  IUikkI  Ii.diiias;  \aM\y  in  the  south, 
bolwocn  thu  courso  of  the  YullowHtonu  and  Ihu  Wyoming  frontier,  the  ('rows 
poHHOsH  Biiothur  cnclavo  wuU'red  by  tho  Hig  Horn  Kivcr.  It  wum  liom  that  the 
dctuchmfut  of  4;J7  mm  oominundod  hy  (lonorul  ('ustcr  waminnihilutcd  in  IH70.  The 
Choyonnos,  tho  M(k1o«i«,  and  the  AHHiniboineit  huve  uIho  Uttlo  Hcpirato  territorios 
in  tho  Buine  region.  Hut  tho  white  •i'tth>rB  ure  yearly  growing  more  imputiunt  nt 
tho  presence  of  theHo  natives,  many  of  whom  seem  to  bo  really  inoa{)ablo  of  adapting 
theniHelveh  to  tho  requirements  of  u  liigher  culture.  Hence  cloHcr  contact  muMt 
almoHt  inevitably  result  in  further  oncroachmentH  und  the  confiacution  of  all  tho 
Indian  landn  in  the  near  future. 

Meanwhile,  however,  there  is  plenty  of  room  for  tho  white  inhabitants,  who 
before  the  year  1H9I  had  brought  inly  about  2(i,000  ocr'  under  cultivation.  At 
the  cenHUB  of  IHiH)  tho  density  of  tho  population  fell  short  of  one  jMjrHon  t^  the 
square  mile.  lOvon  after  its  annexation  this  region  long  continued  to  be  fre- 
(juented  only  by  the  Canadian  voyugeurs,  trappers,  and  peltry  dealers.  At  that 
time  tho  warlike  tribes  of  prairie  Indians,  more  ospeciully  the  (.rows,  Dakotaf", 
and  Blackfeet,  occupied  the  eastern  slopes  and  pIutouu-Y,  while  the  more  peaceful 
Flatheads  (SoHsh)  and  Hannacks  were  confinod  to  the  western  uplands.  Although 
Montana  was  organised  as  a  territory  under  its  present  name  in  the  year  18tJ4, 
it  continued  at  first  to  attract  so  few  settlers  that  the  total  population  scarcely 
exceeded  20,000  in  1870.  At  the  next  census  of  1880  it  still  fell  short  of  40,000  ; 
but  it  was  nevertheless  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1889,  before  it  was  officially 
known  to  contain  the  required  number  of  uhabitants.  The  census  of  18*J0, 
however,  showed  a  population  greatly  in  ex(\  as  of  that  number. 

A  few  villages,  trading  stations,  and  military  posts  follow  at  great  intervals 
along  the  banks  of  the  Yellowstone  and  Missouri  Rivers ;  a  few  mining  towns, 
connected  by  branches  with  the  transcontinental  lines  of  railway,  nestle  in  the 
sheltered  nooks  of  the  river  gorges.  Hekna,  the  capital,  lies  in  the  heart  of 
the  mount'tins  at  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet  on  the  Prickly  Pear  Creek,  which 
descends  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Missouri  •  below  the  "Hell  Gate  Passes." 
At  the  neighbouring  station  of  Prickly  Pear  the  first  dibcbveries  of  auriferous 
sands  were  made  in  1859,  and  rich  gold-mines  wero  discovered  in  the  same  district 
in  1864,  after  which  Helena  began  to  attract  numerous  settlers.  About  18  miles 
west  of  Helena  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  pierces  the  chief  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  by  a  tunnel  under  the  Mullen  Pass.  Butte  City,  about  65  miles  south 
by  west  of  the  capital,  owes  its  name  to  the  granite  "buttes"  by  which  it  is 
surrounded,  and  from  which  it  extracts  gold,  silver,  and  copper  ores  to  the  annual 
value  of  over  ^20,000,000.  Including  the  neighbouring  camps  of  the  miners  it 
had  a  population  of  over  35,000  in  1890,  and  was  the  most  important  mining 
centre  in  the  north-west  between  Minneapolis  and  Portland.  But  the  largest 
gold-mine  in  the  state  is  found  about  20  miles  north  of  Helena  at  Dt'um  Lummon, 
a  place  of  quite  recent  foundation.  On  the  other  hand  Virginia  City,  formerly 
a  flouriehing  mining  centre,  has  now  been  nearly  abandoned.  It  stands  near  the 
Continental  Divide  about  110  miles  due  south  of  Helena  at  an  altitude  of  over 


mn\ 


424 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


6,700  feet.  Here  is  the  celebrated  Alder  Gulch,  which  is  about  16  miles  long,  and 
which  receives  several  gold-yielding  tributaries.  Silver  and  argentiferous  lead  ores 
also  occur  in  the  district. 

2. — Idaho. 

Idaho,  which  follows  west  from  Montana,  lies  almost  entirely  within  the 
Columbia  basin,  being  drained  in  the  north  by  Clarke's  Fork  and  its  affluents, 
and  in  the  south  by  the  Snake  River,  which  here  receives  no  tributary  of  any 
size.  The  extreme  south-eastern  corner  lies  in  the  Great  Basin,  being  drained  by 
Bear  River  to  Great  Salt  Lake  in  Utah.  The  state  has  somewhat  eccentric 
outlines,  the  eastern  frontier  tapering  rapidly  in  the  direction  of  the  north-west, 
where  a  narrow  strip  of  its  territory  projects  between  Montana  and  Washington 
northwards  to  the  Canadian  boundary.  In  the  north-east  it  is  separated  from 
Montana  by  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  which  here  form  the  dividing  ridge 
between  the  Missouri  and  Columbian  catchment  basins.  In  the  south-east  the 
meridian  111°  3'  west  longitude  constitutes  the  common  frontier  with  Wyoming, 
while  southwards  the  42°  of  latitude  separates  it  from  Utah  and  Nevada. 
Lastly,  its  long  western  frontier  towards  Oregon  and  Washington  is  formed 
partly  by  the  117°  longitude,  and  partly  by  a  section  of  the  Snake  River, 
which  here  nearly  coincides  with  the  same  meridian.  Like  Montana,  Idaho 
possesses  a  small  slice  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  though  most  of  this 
"  Wonderland "  lies  within  the  limits  of  Wyoming.  The  northern  districts  of 
Idaho,  which  are  extremely  mountainous,  possess  little  to  attract  immigrants 
except  their  forests,  pasturages,  and  mineral  deposits.  But  the  depressions  of  the 
vast  southern  plains  have  some  highly  productive  lands  ;*  aud  a  great  part  of  the 
elevated  sage  plains  might  be  brought  under  cultivation  by  artificial  irrigation. 
But  Idaho  is  on  the  whole  far  more  suited  for  stock-breeding  than  for  tillage. 
Vast  spaces  on  the  prairies  and  lower  slopes  are  covered  with  the  "  white  sage  " 
{Eurotia  lanata),  familiarly  know.\  by  the  name  of  "winter  fe,t,"  because  cattle 
thrive  and  fatten  on  it  even  in  the  cold  season. 

But  like  its  eastern  neighbour;  Idaho  has  been  occupied  by  settlers  of  white 
race  mainly  for  the  sake  of  its  gold-washings.  Some  of  the  more  productive 
districts  had  become  so  many  little  Californias,  thanks  to  the  arrival  of  miners 
who  either  camped  out  or  burrowed  in  the  ground,  constituting  a  new  society  in 
which  modern  civilisation  was  strangely  blended  with  a  return  to  barbarism. 
But  the  mines  were  gradually  bought  up  by  capitalists,  and  the  adventurers 
disappeared,  giving  place  to  permanent  settlers,  while  their  camping-grounds 
were  transformed  to  regular  towns.  Recently  a  few  Mormon  communities  have 
established  themselves  in  the  southern  districts.  The  Chinese  also  form  a 
relatively  numerous  element  of  the  population,  nhereas  the  former  masters  of 
the  land — Blackfeet,  Nez  Percys,  Coeurs  d'Alene,  Kootenay,  and  other  Indinn 
tribes — have  been  confined  to  narrow  reservations  scattered  over  the  state.  In 
1863  Idaho  was  constituted  a  separate  territory,  which  at  first  included  the 
whole  of  Montana  and  a  portion  of  Wyoming.  Next  year  a  great  part  of  this 
region  was  detached,  and  in  1868  Montana  was  finally  reduced  to  its  presont 


,»)B.r)i»;;,r||i»,«^iii||>|it»JiiV.irrt,|»il||i>i.iiyy-Jii'"'iu»'0^ 


UM^ 


WYOMING. 


425 


limits.  Althougli  gold  had  already  been  found  in  1852,  and  rich  deposits  dis- 
covered at  Oro  Fino  in  1860,  the  population  increased  so  slowly  that  it  numbered 
only  a  little  over  20,000  at  the  census  of  1870.  Progress  was  again  retarded  by 
the  devastating  Indian  War  of  1878,  so  that  at  the  census  of  1880  the  population 
had  advanced  only  to  '32,600.  Even  when  Idaho  was  admitted  as  a  state  into  the 
Uuion  in  1889,  its  population  was  but  84,385. 

Apart  from  the  officials  and  others  required  for  the  service  of  the  stations  on 
the  various  railway  lines,  the  white  populations  are  almost  exclusively  concentrated 
in  the  south-western  districts  of  the  state.  Here  Idaho  City  wus  founded  by  the 
miners  in  1865  on  the  Moore's  Creek  affluent  of  the  Snake  River ;  in  its  early 
days  it  had  a  fluctuating  population  rangping  from  6,000  to  10,000.  At  present 
it  is  quite  a  small  place,  the  rich  gold  placer-mines  on  which  its  prosperity 
depended  having  been  mostly  exhausted.  About  50  miles  south-west  of  Idaho 
City  lies  Boisi  City,  which  has  been  the  capital  since  1864,  and  which  still 
remains  the  largest  place  in  the  state.  It  stands  close  to  the  old  post  of 
Fort  Boisi,  so  natned  from  the  Bois^  or  Big  Wood  River,  on  which  it  stands, 
and  which  flows  westwards  to  the  Snake  on  the  Idaho  frontier.  East  of  Bois^ 
City  are  a  few  little  temporary  or  permanent  centres  of  population,  such  as 
Warren,  Richmond,  Washington,  and  Silver  City,  all  in  the  valley  of  the  Little 
Salmon,  which  flows  northwards  to  its  confluence  with  the  Salmon  tributary  of  the 
Snake  River  near  the  Oregon  frontier.  Silver  City  is  so  named  from  its 
numerous  quartz  silver  mines,  of  which  as  many  as  twelve  have  been  worked  at 
the  neighbouring  mining  camp  of  Fairview.  It  is  distant  80  miles  south-west 
of  Boise  City. 

3.— Wycmino. 

The  new  state  of  Wyoming  takes  its  name  from  one  of  its  mountains,  which 
is  itself  named  from  the  lovely  Pennsylvanian  valley  of  Wyoming,  the  Angli- 
cised form  of  the  Indian  Maughwaume,  or  "  Broad  Plain."  It  is  everywhere 
marked  off  by  geometrical  lines  which  form  a  rectangle  somewhat  longer  east 
and  west  than  north  and  south,  and  which  is  conterminous  with  Montana  in  the 
north.  South  Dakota  and  Nebraska  in  the  east,  Colorado  and  Idaho  in  the  south 
and  west.  At  its  north-west  comer  it  encloses  a  large  portion  of  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park,  while  its  south-western  angle  forms  a  wedge  penetrating  some 
distance  into  the  north-eastern  section  of  Utah.  Most  of  the  surface  is  essentially 
mountainous  and  even  Alpine,  being  traversed  in  an  oblique  direction  from 
north-vest  to  south-east  by  some  of  the  main  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
system.  Here  is  the  Continental  Divide  between  the  three  basins  of  the  Columbia, 
Colorado  and  Missouri-Mississippi,  some  of  whose  head- waters  have  their  sources 
in  close  proximity  within  the  limits  of  the  state.  Hence  Wyoming  is  far  too 
rugged  and  elevated  ever  to  become  the  centre  of  a  large  agricultural  population. 
But  numerous  cirques  of  great  extent,  formerly  lacustrine  basins,  now  under 
grass,  present  magnificent  alpine  pasturage  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  most  low-lying  part  ot  the  state,  and  also  the  most  valuable  from  the 
economic  standpoint,  lies  in  the  south-eastern  corner,  which  is  watered  by  the 


^l^^^l^ 


«  W-' 


426 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


North  Fork  of  the  Platte  or  Nebraska  River.  On  these  plains,  which  lie  beyond 
the  western  plateau  at  the  east  foot  of  the  Rockies,  the  capital  of  the  state  has 
been  founded,  and  here  also  was  constructed  the  first  railway  intended  to  cross  the 
upland  region  of  tablelands  and  mountains  between  the  Mississippi  plains  and 
the  Pacific  seaboard. 

Wyoming  was  first  organised  as  a  territory  in  1868,  when  it  was  constituted 
within  its  present  limits  by  various  sections  detached  from  Dakota,  Idaho,  and 
Utah.  In  1870  the  white  population  was  still  under  10,000,  and  although  it  had 
advanced  to  little  more  than  20,000  in  1880,  it  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a 
stute  with  a  number  of  other  territories  in  1889,  while  the  number  of  inbabi.  .nts 
still  fell  short  of  60,000.  It  is  even  more  amply  represented  than  some  of  these, 
for  the  franchise  has  been  extended  to  women.  All  the  aborigines  have  dis- 
appeared except  about  l,tOO  Shoshone  (Snake)  Indians,  who  are  confined  to  a 
reservation  of  3,600  acres  on  both  sides  of  the  Wind  River  towards  the  centre  of 
the  state. 

Chcyenne,\h.Q  capital,  occupies  an  important  position  near  the  Colorado  frontier 
at  the  junction  of  two  trunk  lines  of  railway ;  it  stands  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Black  Mountains  about  6,000  feet  above  sea-level  and  106  miles  north  of 
Denver.  Formerly  a  mere  collection  of  tents  and  log-huts  peopled  by  navvies 
and  others  connected  with  the  railway  works  then  in  progress,  Cheyenne  has  long 
grown  out  of  its  chrysalis  state  and  is  now  a  handsome  city,  regularly  laid  out, 
with  railways  radiating  in  all  directions.  Some  50  miles  farther  west  beyond 
Evans  Pass  the  Central  Pacific  Railway  passes  Laramie  City,  a  busy  centre  of 
metallurgic  and  railway  machine  factories.  The  term  Laramie,  of  such  frequent 
occurrence  in  this  region,  being  applied  to  plains,  mountains,  a  peak,  a  river  and 
a  neighbouring  fort,  perpetuates  in  a  slightly  modified  form  the  name  of  the 
Franco-Canadian  voyageur  and  pioneer  explorer,  Laramie.  At  Fort  Larnmie,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Laramie  River,  there  is  a  Government  reservation  60  square 
miles  in  extent.  -     ^     .  >■ 

Evanston,  on  Bear  River,  76  miles  north-east  of  Salt  Lake  City,  is  the  seat  of 
the  coal-mining  interest.  Here  iron  ores  occur  in  association  with  the  coal-beds, 
which,  near  Evanston,  range  in  thickness  from  20  to  over  30  feet.  Other  grow- 
ing centres  of  population  are  Green  River  City,  a  station  on  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  272  miles  west  of  Laramie ;  Rawlins  on  the  same  railway  136  miles  from 
Laramie,  with  a  sulphur  spring  possessing  curative  properties,  and  S/ierman,  also 
on  the  Union  Pacific  37  miles  west  of  Cheyenne,  in  the  heart  of  the  Laramie  range, 
8,257  feet  above  sea-level.  ...  ■  ,  . 

4. — CoLo:iAt)o. 

The  state  of  Colorado  is,  like  Wyoming,  a  slightly  elongated  rectangle  carved 
out  geometrically  across  plains  and  mountains  with  little  regard  to  the  physical 
conditions.  Besides  Wyoming  and  Nebraska  in  the  north-east  it  has  for  conter- 
minous states— Kansas  on  the  east,  New  Mexico  and  Utah  on  the  south  and  west, 
and  in  the  extreme  south-east  corner  the  western  extension  of  Oklahoma  territory. 
But  despite  these  purely  conventional  boundaries,  Colorado  really  comprises  two 


:im-^' 


i^'jijj;^-'-' 


COLOBADO. 


427 


eyond 
to  has 
88  the 
s  and 


well-marked  physical  regions,  presenting  the  sharpest  contrasts  in  their  relief, 
general  ispect,  climate  and  products.  In  the  west,  occupying  more  than  half  of 
the  whole  territory,  is  the  upland  region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  their  snowy 
peaks,  elevated  mountain  valleys  or  "parks,"  deep  river  gorges  and  tablelands. 
In  the  east  stretch  the  slightly  inclined  prairies,  sloping  gradually  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Mississippi,  and  watered  by  sluggish  shallow  streams.  In  the  western 
highlands  are  stored  the  inexhaustible  treasures  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  coal  and 
petroleum,  which  have  hitherto  been  the  chief  attraction  for  settlers.  In  the. 
eastern  plains  are  its  fertile  and  well-watered  bottom  and  bench  lands,  its  rich 
pasturage,  pure  atmosphere  and  salubrious  climate,  towards  which  immigrants 
must  continue  to  gravitate,  according  as  its  multitudinous  resources  are  developed. 
Colorado  also  enjoys  the  advantage  of  commanding  the  most  frequented  passes 
over  the  -Rocky  Mountains.  Down  to  the  middle  of  the  present  century  its  only 
white  inhabitants  were  a  few  Mexican  herdsmen  settled  in  the  San  Luis  Valley, 
in  the  upper  Rio  Grande  basin.  But  the  French  names  of  numerous  rivers  and 
mountains  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  Canadian  traders  who  formerly  traversed 
the  Far  West  in  all  directions. 

Before  the  Mexican  War  about  two-thirds  of  Colorado,  including  the  whole 
of  the  West  and  much  of  the  South,  were  still  regarded  as  belonging  to  Mexico ; 
but  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  all  this  region  was  permanently  ceded  to  the 
United  States.  It  first  began  to  attract  Anglo-American  settlers  after  the  dis- 
covery of  rich  goldfields  north  of  Pike's  Peak  in  1868  and  1859 ;  at  the  first 
census  of  1860  the  inhabitants  already  numbered  over  34,000,  including,  however, 
nearly  10,000  Indians  chiefly  of  Ute  stock.  In  1861,  that  is,  in  the  very  year  that 
the  Civil  War  broke  out,  it  was  organised  as  a  territory  with  its  present  limits,  and 
after  several  applications  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  state  in  1876,  though 
♦he  po|)iiIation  at  the  census  of  1870  scarcely  exceeded  47,000.  Since  then  the 
increase  both  of  inhabitants  and  material  wealth  has  been  extremely  rapid,  the 
population  having  more  than  doubled  during  the  decade  between  1880  and  1890. 
During  the  same  period  over  620,000  acres  of  prairie  were  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion by  artificial  irrigation,  while  the  development  of  the  mining  industries  was 
such  as  to  place  Colorado  in  the  forefront,  at  least  for  the  production  of  silver 
and  lead.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  this  region  most  of  the  surprisingly  rich  silver 
ores  also  contain  gold,  the  gold  ores  being  similarly  associated  with  silver  and 
copper,  while  the  lead  ores  are  also  argentiferous. 

Denver,  capital  and  largest  city  of  Colorado,  is  already  one  of  the  great  cities 
of  the  Far  West ;  its  flourishing  aspect  is  all  the  more  surprising  to  visitors  that 
it  is  separated  by  vust  solitudes  from  the  well-peopled  plains  of  Kansas  and 
Alissouri.  It  rises  on  the  western  horizon  like  an  affluent  city  of  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  suddenly  transplanted  to  the  heart  of  the  wilderness.  For  the  beauty 
of  its  surrounding  panoramic  views  Denver  is  almost  without  a  rival  amongst  the 
cities  of  the  United  States.  Standing  5,300  feet  above  sea -level  at  the  confluence 
of  Cheery  Creek  with  the  main  branch  of  the  South  Platte,  it  commands  towards 
the  east  the  vast  expanse  of  rolling  plains  merging  in  the  distance  with  the  rotun- 


111. 
111 


fm 


Mi: 


428 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


dity  of  the  globe,  while  in  the  west  it  is  itself  dominated  to  a  height  of  over 
8,200  feet  by  the  escarpments  of  the  great  Colorado  range,  clothed  in  verdure 
from  its  base  to  its  snow-capped  crests,  and  stretching  away  beyond  the  northern 
and  southern  horizons.  Thanks  to  a  tangled  network  of  converging  lines  of 
railway,  Denver,  which  is  distant  640  miles  west  of  Kansas  City,  and  106  miles 
south  of  Cheyenne,  has  become  the  chief  emporium  and  distributing  depot  on 
the  main  highway  between  the  middle  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
.  Owing  to  its  salubrious  climate  it  has  become  a  popular  health  resort  for  invalids. 
The  surrounding  heights  are  dotted  over  with  suburban  villas,  many  of  which 
belong  to  traders  and  manufacturers  of  the  Atlantic  States,  and  the  population 
has  risen  from  less  than  5,000  in  1870  to  over  36,000  in  1880  and  nearly  107,000 
in  18iJ0.     The  mountain  gorges,  through  which  several  railways  penetrate  from 

Fig.  194.— Deitveb. 

Scale  1 :  875,000. 


■  eMUee. 


Denver  to  the  western  plateaux,  are  occupied  by  a  number  of  mining  villages,  such 
as  Qolden  City,  Golden  Gate,  Mountain  City,  Central  City,  and  Empire  City,  whose 
rich  auriferous  ores  are  sent  to  the  branch  mint  of  the  United  States  in  Denver. 

But  the  most  populous  mining  centre  of  Colorado  is  the  flourishing  city  of 
Leadville,  which,  two  years  after  its  foiindation  in  1878,  had  already  a  population 
of  nearly  15,000.  It  lies  at  a  mean  altitude  of  about  10,200  feet  in  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Arkansas,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains,  dominated  by 
Mount  Lincoln.  Leadville  differs  as  regards  its  early  history  from  most  of  the 
mining  towns  of  California.  In  this  state,  which  was  suddenly  invaded  by 
adventurers  from  every  quarter,  the  new  arrivals  scarcely  ever  thought  of  laying 
out  their  towns  on  any  regular  plan ;  sheds,  shanties,  and  scaffoldings  were  run 
up  at  haphazard,  according  to  the  necessities  of  the  miners,  and  these  structures 


'm 


m 


■:'^mm^'isii§mmm 


UTAHi 


439 


either  served  as  the  beginning  of  future  towns  or  else  fell  to  ruins,  according  to 
the  results  of  the  mining  operations.  But  when  the  extensive  deposits  of  the 
upper  Arkansas  were  discovered,  larg^  monopolies  had  already  been  developed, 
and  financial  companies  at  once  bought  up  all  the  available  lands.  Thus  it 
happened  that  Ijeadville  was  constructed  on  the  usual  plan  of  American  citieoi 
with  regular  blocks,  straight  thoroughfares  and  avenues,  squares,  and  public 
gardens.  This  great  centre  of  the  mining  industries  has  also  become  a  favourite 
summer  resort,  and  various  bathing  establishments  and  other  attractions  have 
sprung  up  in  the  neighbouring  valleys  and  on  the  surrounding  mountains. 

Fig    195.— liKADVlUJi  ADD  TH£  SoUUCBS  OF  THE  AbKANBAB. 
Scale  1  :  370,000. 


.  6MUw. 


.'t.'^v:- 


At  the  foot  of  the  "  Grand  Cafion  "  of  the  Arkansas  stands  the  city  of  Pueblo, 
a  centre  of  the  coal,  oil,  and  metallurg^o  interest,  which  has  been  called  "  the 
Pittsburg  of  the  West."  It  is  connected  with  Denver  by  railways  that  skirt  the 
foot  of  the  main  range  and  pass  by  Colorado  Springs,  a  muoh-frequented  pleasure 
resort  known  as  the  "City  of  Millionaires."  Trinidad,  near  the  New  Mexico 
frontier,  lies  in  the  vicinity  of  the  extensive  coal  beds  of  the  Raton  Hills. 

5. — TTtah.  . 

Utah,  which  takes  its  name  from  an  Indian  tribe  of  the  Snake  family,  is  one  of 
the  most  isolated  regions  of  the  United  States.    With  the  neighbouring  Nevada 


^f^ 


^% 


i80 


THE  UNITED  STATES, 


.'i.  • 


\P\ 


pa-r 


U0^ 


it  is  enclosed  by  ranges  and  divides,  which  prevent  its  surface  waters  from  being 
discharged  seawards ;  hence  the  expression  "  Great  Basin  "  in  the  sense  of  the 
"  Closed  I3u8in  "  often  applied  to  the  whole  of  this  elevated  plateau.  The 
streams,  however,  flowing  through  the  rocky  gorges  in  the  southern  and  south- 
eastern districts  of  Utah  find  their  way  to  the  Colorado.  Those  of  the  centre  and 
north  belong  to  the  closed  depressions  of  Lake  Sevier  and  the  Great  Salt  Lake, 
survivals  of  ihe  "  Luke  Bonneville,"  which,  in  a  former  geological  epoch,  sent  its 
overflow  to  the  Columbia.  Lines  coinciding  with  degrees  of  latitude  and  longituda 
separate  Utah  from  the  conterminous  stages  of  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Arizona 
and  Nevada.  The  arable  laads  are  mainly  confined  to  a  narrow  zone  skirting  the 
foot  of  the  Wasatch  range  irrigated  by  freshwater  streams  from  the  uplund 
valleys.  The  Mormons  having  taken  possession  of  this  fertile  tract,  nothing 
remained  for  later  immigrants  in  a  region  which  had  well  been  named  the 
"  Desert "  by  the  first  arrivals.  Of  over  80,000  whites  all  but  about  a  thousand 
were  Mormons  in  the  year  1869,  when  speculators  and  miners  were  suddenly 
attracted  by  the  discovery  of  rich  argentiferous  lead  veins.  Denpite  the  hostile 
attitude  of  the  "  Saints  "  and  the  massacres  organised  by  them  in  association  with 
their  Indian  allies,  the  Gentiles  have  gradually  acquired  the  ascendency  in  some 
of  the  towns,  while  the  Mormons  are  still  in  a  majority  in  the  rural  districts. 
Legal  and  political  complications  of  all  kinds,  caused  by  the  antagonism  of  two 
populations  with  different  laws  and  usages,  have  hitherto  prevented  Congress  from 
admitting  Utah  into  the  number  of  sovereign  states.  Since  1891,  however,  the 
chief  obstacle  has  been  removed,  a  new  revelation  having  definitely  condemned 
polygamy.  Those  Mormons  who  have  refused  submission  to  this  innovation  have 
mostly  emigrated,  especially  to  the  Mexican  province  of  Chihuahua,  where  they 
have  received  concessions  of  at  least  125,000  acres  (1891). 

Salt  Lake  City,  capital  and  metropolis  of  Utah,  was  founded  in  1847  by  the 
Mormons  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Jordan,  1 1  miles  above  its  mouth  in  the 
Salt  Lake.  Eastwards  rises  the  chain  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  and  the  city, 
being  divided  into  uniform  blocks  by  broad  shady  avenues  irrigated  by  running 
waters,  is  one  of  the  cleanest  and  healthiest  places  in  America.  The  "  Tabernacle," 
its  most  conspicuous  and  one  of  its  ugliest  buildings,  forms  a  rotunda  with 
flattened  dome,  beneath  which  from  8,000  to  10,000  of  the  "  Latter-Day  Saints" 
congregate.  A  spur  of  the  hills,  three  miles  to  the  east,  is  crowned  by  Forf 
Douglas,  where  a  Federal  garrison  supports  the  United  States  executive.  Provo 
City,  on  the  east  side  of  Lake  Utah,  and  Ogden  City,  on  a  plain  west  of  the  Great 
S«ilt  Lake,  are  convenient  centres  of  trade  at  the  converging  points  of  several 
railways.    ^  <  .  .        .     .. 

6. — New  Mexico.  ' 

Now  Mexico  has  preserved  the  collective  name  given  by  the  Spanish  con- 
querors to  all  their  possessions  north  of  the  Rio  Grande,  which  have  been  curved 
by  the  Americans  into  several  states.  As  at  present  delimited  it  forms  an  almost 
perfect  square,  broken  only  by  the  little  quadrangular  annex  of  the  Mesilla 
valley  in  the  south-west  corner.     The  cultivable  and  inhabitable  districts  are 


■yOu, 


T;^7;:^?'1':i(m^!7m^-Mff?W 


„ _    niw%-'^''''iiir''«-^-''^'^''"-''''^'''-'^^'^'^^-''- 


MMMMpSii^iM^iiMir''^^ 


NEW   MEXICO. 


481 


ly  confined  to  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  Grande,  which  traverses  the  state  from 
north  to  south,  of  the  parallel  Rio  Pecos  and  of  a  few  lateral  streams  and  elevated 


main 


C 


■"I 
O 

a 


^ 
s 


plains.      Nevertheless,  settlers  have    also  been  attracted  by  the  mines  of   the 
precious  metals  to  the  mountainous  regions  beyond  the  alluvial  bottom-lands. 


432 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


Althougb  halt  u  century  has  elapsed  since  the  annexation,  the  Spanish  com> 
munities  still  preserve  their  language  and  usages,  and  it  is  probably  owing  to 
this  fact  that  New  Mexico  has  not  yet  been  admitted  to  the  number  of  Federal 
States.  In  1890  nearly  a  third  of  the  508  primary  schools  gave  no  instruction 
in  English,  and  in  most  of  the  villages  communal  affairs  are  still  discussed  in 
the  Spanish  language.  The  vast  domains  claimed  by  the  old  Mexican  land- 
owners against  the  Anglo-American  speculators  also  create  a  special  situation 
in    Now  Mexico.      There    are  several    Indian    reserves,  such    as    that    of   the 


\W- 


U'  I 


Fig.  197.— Rio  Orandi  Vallet  rw  rnB  Ckstbb  of  Nbw  Mexico. 

ScfUt  I  :  UOJ,ntiO. 


SANTX  rt 


'7v 

C\fM-  i/a  Cm/ihteo 


I06*45- 


West   op    Greenwich 


~  VI  MUM. 


Moscaleros,  an  Apache  tribe,  between  the  Sierra  Blanca  and  the  Sierra  del  Sacra- 
mento, east  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Pecos  (Puerco),  a  narrow  channel  flowing  between 
two  deserts,  there  were  till  lately  scarcely  any  groups  of  habitations  beyond  a  few 
wretched  hamlets  founded  before  the  construction  of  irrigating  canals.  But  it 
has  now  been  discovered  that  the  hard  bare  soil  brought  down  from  the  mountains 
by  the  glacial  torrents  needs  nothing  but  water  to  become  highly  productive  land, 
and  large  companies  have  consequently  been  formed  to  develop  the  agricultural 
resources  of  this  region.  The  arable  tracts  comprise  about  600,000  acre^, 
belonging  to  the  National  Domain,  and  these  tracts  appear  to  have  formerly  been 
densely  peopled.  Whole  cartloads  of  painted  potsherds,  says  Bandelier,  may  here 
be  collected  from  the  refuse  left  by  the  aborigines.     Xa«   VeqaSf  that  is,  "  the 


I  laij^i  iiinM>ijj|liPWi 


mii 


k|M*< 


aMTM 


NEW  MEXICO. 


433 


Plaint,"  A  pleasant  liltle  town  atanding  at  an  altitude  of  over  0,500  feet  in  a 
lateral  valluy  of  the  1'ooom,  at  the  f(H)t  of  inountaiita  with  c.fpiouH  mineral  ^mugi; 
is  the  natural  ooutro  of  tliU  region,  as  well  aa  one  of  the  nioHt  fre(|ueuted  health 
reborta  in  the  West. 

The  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  being  better  woterod  ond  lying  nearer  to  the 
mining  districts,  as  well  us  to  the  Mexican  provincca,  whence  it  has  been 
colonised,  is  also  more  thickly  peopled.  But  although  it  ia  traversed  by  the  great 
international  trunk  line  running  from  Chicago  through  Denver  to  Mexico,  JSanla 
Fi,  capital  of  the  state,  lies  not  on  the  bunks  of  the  Rio  Grande,  but  in  the 
lateral  valley  of  the  Rio  Chiquito,  some  20  miles  west  of  the  main  stream.  This 
place  was  the  chief  centre  of  population,  even  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards, 
who  first  penetrated  into  the  district  in  1642,  but  formed  no  permanent  settle- 
Fig  108.— Laud  of  thr  ZoRi  Indians. 

.     Scale  I  :  900,000. 


1 11  MUm. 


menta  till  the  following  century.  One  of  their  churches  had  been  erected  as 
early  as  1627 ;  but  their  possession  of  the  country  was  long  contested  by  the 
Indians,  and  when  they  obtained  permission  to  remain  in  1704,  it  waa  only  on 
condition  of  abstaining  from  working  the  mines.  But  the  Americans  are  ham- 
pered by  no  such  conventions,  and  numerous  deposits  are  already  being  worked  in 
the  Santa  F^  district.  The  city  itself  is  said  to  stand  on  some  argentiferous  beds, 
and  the  ores  extracted  from  the  very  streets  are  reported  to  have  yielded  over 
^200  per  ton.  Santa  F(5  has  preserved  its  antique  aspect,  half  Indian,  half 
Spanish,  with  irregular  streets  and  low  houses,  built  of  adobe  or  sun-dried  bricks. 
The  old  "  governor's  palace "  still  stands,  a  low  structure  with  a  peristyle  of 
slender  wooden  columns.  .       *-■  ; 

•   A    few    Indian  villages   inhabited    by  civilised    aborigines,   to   whom    the 
.94  .   .   , 


.,  ^,.-  ^.^  ■■''^i_..'    -''".'*'•    ''':,  '  -rr'    '--'''.''A 


m 


434 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Americans  have,  by  a  strange  misconception,  applied  the  collective  name  of 
"  Pueblos,"  *  have  held  their  ground  in  the  Rio  Grande  valley,  both  north  and 
south  of  Santa  ¥6.  The  best-known  village  is  that  of  Tao8,  in  a  western  valley 
of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains.  Another,  in  a  lateral  valley  of  the  Bio 
Grande,  has  received  the  name  of  Jcmez  from  the  Spaniards,  though  its  inha- 
bitants call  it  Vallatoa.  In  the  vicinity  are  dozens  of  thermal  springs,  the  so- 
called  Ojo8  Calientes,  much  frequented  by  invalids.  In  the  west,  on  the  Arizona 
frontier,  live  tl.6  Zufii ;  who,  however,  are  now  stationed  in  a  valley  not  far  from 
their  former  villages,  which  were  perched  on  rocky  crags.  In  the  neighbouring 
gorges,  and  especially  in  the  canon  of  Chelly,  are  seen  some  of  those  astonishing 
domiciles  formerly  occupied  by  the  Cliff  Dwellers.     The  industrious  Navajos, 

Fig.  199. — Thb  Chbixy  CaKoh. 
Soale  1  :  480,000. 


eMilei. 


northern  neighbours  of  the  Zufii,  fabled  to  have  sprung  from  a  maize  cob,  are 
unrivalled  in  America  for  the  manufacture  of  woollen  blankets. 

Albuquerque,  which  has  the  advantage  of  lying  in  the  Rio  Grande  valley 
at  the  converging-point  of  the  natural  highways  of  the  country,  has  recently 
taken  rank  as  the  chief  city  of  New  Mexico,  if  not  for  population  at  least  for 
commercial  activity.  A  completely  new  town  of  American  aspect  has  sprung  up 
beyond  the  enclosures  of  the  decayed  old  Spanish  quarter.  Eastwards  rises  the 
superb  mass  of  the  Sierra  de  Sandia,  where  are  the  ruins  of  a  church  said  tradition- 
ally to  have  belonged  to  the  mythical  city  of  Gran  Quicira. 

*  Pueblo  is  a  Spanish  word  meaning  town,  Tillage,  or  commune  ;  hence  designates  no  particular 
tribe,  but  has  not  inappropriately  been  applied  generally  to  all  these  settled  Indian  communities,  living 
in  the  peculiar  "  pueblo  "  or  village,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Prairie  Indians,  living  in  tents.— £d. 


V   •'.-.. 


,-i 


ij^pjyaaifiiiifi^^^vilin^^jSM 


ABIZONA. 


43C 


7. — Arizona. 

The  territory  which  has  received  the  name  of  Arizona,  that  is,  "  Arid  Zone," 
has  been  entirely  carved  out  of  the  lands  ceded  by  Mexico  in  1848  and  1853. 
Like  moftt  of  the  states,  especially  in  the  west,  it  has  been  geometrically  delimited 

Fig.  200. -The  "Captains,"  Chbixy  Ca.non,  Amzona. 


by  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  except  on  the  west,  where  the  course  of  the 
Colorado  separates  it  from  California  and  Nevada,  and  on  the  south-west,  where  a 
line  disposed  obliquely  to  the  meridian  serves  as  the  frontier  towards  Mexico. 


J:! 


436 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


^M'  ^^f 


m 


Having  the  eame  aoil  and  climate  as  New  Mexico,  Arizona  presents  arable  tracts 
only  in  the  well-watered  bottom-lands.  Although  an  irrigation  canal  completed 
in  1882  is  noarly  40  miles  long  and  waters  many  thousand  acres,  artificial  irrigation 
has  not  yet  been  extended  to  a  thoxisandth  part  of  the  whole  surface. 

Hence  the  economic  value  of  Arizona  is  due  principally  to  its  gold,  silver,  and 
copper  mines.  Even  diamonds  are  found,  as  well  as  deposits  of  magnificent 
garnets,  and  petrified  forests  transformed  to  agate  and  jasper. 

Although  Arizona  has  formed  part  of  the  republic  for  over  forty  years,  its 
population  still  falls  far  short  of  the  number  required  for  admission  into  the  Union 
as  a  state,  and  a  large  part  of  that  population  still  consists  of  Mexican  miners. 
There  are  several  Indian  reservations,  those  of  the  Hualapais  in  the  north-west, 
of  the  Tumas  in  the  south-west,  of  the  Navajos  and  Moqui  in  the  north-east,  and 
of  the  Apaches,  Pimas,  Maricopas,  and  Fapagos  in  the  south.  The  latter  dwell 
in  Spanish-built  villages,  whereas  the  Moqui  (Moki)  still  occupy  four  almost  in- 
accessible cliffs,  where  they  were  long  able  to  defy  the  attacks  of  the  Navajos  and 
Apaches.  Their  estvfaa  are  no  longer  temples,  but  serve  as  workshops  occupied 
by  the  weavers  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  The  Apaches,  formerly  the  terror  of 
the  Mexican  settlers,  have  all  been  reduced,  and  either  confined  as  prisoners  of 
war  in  the  forts  or  settled  as  peaceful  peasantry  along  the  banks  of  the  upper  Gila. 

Tucson,  former  capital  of  Arizona,  is  the  oldest  place  in  the  country ;  here  the 
Spaniards  had  erected  their  first  military  post,  and  the  finest  church  in  the  country 
stands  a  little  to  ^he  south  in  the  village  of  San  Javier  del  Bttc,  where  there  is  a 
settlement  of  6,000  Catholic  Papagos.  But  Tucson  has  been  displaced  as  capital  by 
the  American  city  of  Phcenix,  which  also  lies  in  the  Gila  basin  near  the  centre  of  the 
territory.  The  mining  town  of  Prescott,  situated  farther  north,  is  commanded  by 
Fort  Whipple,  headquarters  of  the  Federal  troops  in  Arizona.  Along  the  banks 
of  the  Colorado  follow  a  few  riverine  ports ;  the  most  important  is  Tuma,  or  Ari' 
zona  City,  facing  Fort  Yuma  on  the  Californian  side  just  below  the  Gila  confluence. 

8. — Nevada..        _,    ;  .•;'.,}:—:   4;..;     .r  ■;_?  ^ 

Already  a  sovereign  state,  despite  the  small  number  of  its  inhabitants,  Nevada 
is  one  of  the  least  densely  peopled  regions  in  the  Union,  thanks  to  the  great  eleva- 
tion of  its  plateaux,  and  its  bare  rocky  or  arid  clayey  soil.  Even  its  rich  silver  and 
other  mineral  stores  can  contribute  little  to  its  settlement,  for  the  monopoly  of 
the  mining  districts  by  the  great  capitalists  prevents  all  individual  enterprise. 
Politically  this  vast  region  is  a  "  rotten  borough,"  which  during  the  decade  from 
1880  to  1890  has  even  decreased  in  population.  The  aborigines,  mainly  of  the 
Shoshonean  family,  are  btill  represented  by  a  few  groups,  all  now  settled  in  reserves. 
The  whole  of  the  state  belongs  to  the  region  of  closed  basins,  except  the  northern 
and  southern  districts  draining  to  the  Columbia  and  Colorado  respectively. 

Carson  City,  the  capital,  lies  in  the  mountainous  and  wooded  region  near 
California,  on  a  torrent  flowing  to  Lake  Carson.  Virginia  City,  the  largest 
place  in  the  state,  is  situated  in  the  same  river  valley  north-east  of  Carson  at  the 
famous  Comstock  Lode  silver-mines,  near  Gold  Hill  and  Silver,  all  these  places 


tracts 
)leted 
|;ation 

r,  and 
ificent 

rs,  its 
Onion 
liners, 
-west, 
it,  and 
dwell 
)8t  in- 
)s  and 
;upied 
Tor  of 
era  of 
•  Gila, 
ire  the 
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of  the 
led  by 
banks 
r  Ari- 
uence. 


reyoda 
eleva- 
Br  and 
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)  from 
[>£  the 
serves, 
rthern 

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argest 
at  the 
places 


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I 


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mmmmmm 


mmf 


^^'''m^im^mis^^iPMn^iiii^r 


^J 


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■S^^^«"-'? 


Mm 


^ 


WASHINGTON. 


437 


being  disposed  along  the  main  axis  of  the  lode  at  the  east  foot  of  Mount  Davidson 
(7,941  feet).  The  shafts  are  sunk  to  various  depths,  down  to  3,100  feet ;  but  the 
heat  is  terrific,  rising  to  120°  Fahr.  at  a  depth  of  2,350  feet.  The  cavities 
between  the  granite  rocks  of  Mount  Davidson  and  the  green  porphyry  masses  of 
the  plateau  are  flooded  with  water  from  springs  with  a  temperature  of  168°  Fahr. 
In  order  to  render  mining  operations  possible  in  the  stifling  atmosphere  of  these 
lodes,  the  richest  in  the  world,  it  has  been  necessary  to  excavate  an  underground 
gallery  6,730  yards  long,  which  begins  7,770  feet  under  Mount  Davidson,  and 
after  a  iall  of  some  3,300  feet  terminates  at  an  elevation  of  4,500  feet  on  the 
plain  of  Sutro  traversed  by  the  Carson  torrent.    All  operations  are  arrested  below 

Fig.  201.— ViRoiNiA  Cirr. 
Boale  1 :  60,000. 


0^>.'f^^_ 


uT^^ 


'Mr:"^ 


>8,M)Taia«. 


the  gallery,  where  the  atmosphere  is  suffocating.    In  recent  years  the  population 
of  Virginia  City  has  fallen  from  35,000  to  less  than  9,000. 


.^;   ,;•>::-   ['■■3::.A-  ^- — Washington.  -  .    -' 

The  state,  which  has  received  the  name  of  the  first  president  of  the  republic,  is 
one  of  the  most  prosperous  despite  its  remoteness  from  the  great  centres  of  trade 
and  migration.  In  1853  it  still  formed  part  of  the  unorganised  territory  of 
Oregon,  and  when  constituted  a  separate  administrative  division,  it  was  so  destitute 
of  communications  that  only  a  few  pioneers  ventured  to  settle  in  the  country. 
In  1880  the  population  was  still  under  75,000  ;  but  its  prosperity  began  with  the 
completion  of  the  transcontinental  line  connecting  San  Francisco  with  New  York. 


M 


438 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  climate,  severe  on  the  uplands,  is  very  salubrious,  and  every  valley  has  its 
running  waters ;  a  marvellous  group  of  havens  ramifies  from  Puget  Sound  into 
the  interior ;  fertile  tracts  stretch  over  the  vast  plains  between  the  Cascade  and 
Coast  Ranges  ;  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  clothed  with  magnificent  timber, 
and  the  underground  stores  of  coal,  iron,  and  the  precious  metals  have  already  been 
tapped.  Hence  the  population  is  increasing  with  marvellous  rapidity,  and  towns 
till  recently  unheard  of  are  already  busy  commercial  and  industrial  centres.  The 
Indians,  formerly  very  numerous,  still  possess  a  few  reserves,  which,  however,  they 
find  it  difficult  to  defend  from  the  white  intruders. 

I^umerous  towns  have  sprung  up  round  the  ramifying  shores  of  Puget  Sound. 
South  of  Blaine,  the  frontier  town  towards  Canada,  where  the  two  sections  of 
the  international  trunk  line  are  connected,  Whatcom  is  followed  by  Mount 
Vernon  at  the  mouth  of  the  Skagit ;  Snohomish  below  the  cascades  of  the  river  of 
like  name,  and  Seattle  facing  Port  Madison  and  Port  Blakeley,  both  on  an  island 
near  the  west  side  of  the  sound.  Seattle,  by  far  the  most  flourishing  of  all  these 
places,  is  rivalled  by  Tacoina,  which  was  suddenly  transformed  from  an  obscure 
hamlet  to  a  commercial  city  by  the  completion  of  the  North  Pacific  Railway,  which 
reaches  the  coast  after  surmounting  the  Cascade  Range  by  a  tunnel  two  miles 
long  under  Stampede  Pass.  It  already  trades  with  China  and  Japan,  and  its 
inhabitants  have  named  it  the  "  City  of  Destiny,"  as  if  to  proclaim  its  future 
rank  among  the  cities  of  the  Pacific  seaboard.  The  port  of  Steilacoom  follows 
Tacoma  on  the  east  side  of  Puget  Sound  near  its  southern  extremity,  where 
Olympia,  capital  of  the  state,  has  been  founded.  On  the  west  side  of  the  sound 
the  busiest  place  is  Port  Totcnxend,  whose  harbour,  nowhere  under  30  feet  in 
depth,  lies  on  the  route  of  vessels  plying  in  the  Juan  de  Fuca  Strait.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  South  Bend,  terminal  station  of  the  Northern  Pacific,  stands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Wyllapa  or  Shoalwater  Bay,  which  despite  its  name  has  a  depth  of 
at  least  20  feet  at  ebb  and  30  feet  at  flow.  In  the  interior  the  only  noteworthy 
places  are  Vancouver  on  the  right  bank  o^  the  Columbia,  a  little  above  the 
Willamette  confluence  ;  Walla  Walla,  an  old  station  of  the  Nez  Perces  Indians  ; 
and  Spokane,  which  since  1880  has  been  rapidly  developed,  and  is  now  the  chief 
trading  and  industrial  centre  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state. 

10. — Oregon.  "  ■: 

Oregon,  which  has  retained  the  name  formerly  applied  to  the  Columbia  River, 
has  the  massive  quadrangular  shape  common  to  most  of  the  Western  States.  Never- 
theless, it  has  for  natural  limits  the  sea  on  the  west,  and  the  course  of  the  Columbia 
on  the  north  nearly  as  far  as  Walla  Walla  under  46°  N.,  while  half  of  its  east 
frontier  is  traced  by  the  course  of  the  Snake  River.  Its  progress  has  been  retarded 
by  the  cold,  damp  climate,  its  remoteness  from  the  centres  of  migration,  and 
the  small  extent  of  arable  lands.  Nearly  all  the  eastern  section  between  the 
Cascade  Range  and  the  plateaux  traversed  by  the  Snake  River  is  too  bleak  and 
elevated  for  tillage,  and  here  the  only  resource  is  stock-breeding,  the  bunch- 
grass  yielding    an  abundance  of  fodder  at  all  seasons.       A  great  part  of  the 


^iiii'&i<';i  r-i/:-^''iil'ift inaisr'y.'li' ■;!■«', ^ 


g 


•♦■'1*' 


rX, 


OEEOON. 


439 


west  also,  formerly  under  gigantic  forest  growths,  is  occupied  by  rugged  moun- 
tains or  steep  hills,  but  the  bottom-lands  are  extremely  fertile,  and  according  to 
the  local  saying,  there  are  no  bad  harvests  in  Oregon. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the  only  white  settlers  were  some  Franco- 
Canadian  trappers,  one  of  .'hose  stations  is  still  maintained  at  Qenaia,  in  the 
Willamette  valley.  The  first  Anglo-American  log-hut  dates  only  from  1810,  and 
the  country  remained  so  long  unoccupied  that  it  was  held  in  common  by  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  for  the  thirty  years  ending  in  1846,  when  it  was  at 
last  found  necessary  to  define  the  limits  of  the  conterminous  powers.  Then  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  the  cession  of  that  region  by  Mexico,  attracted 
swarms  of  immigrants  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  Oregon  took  its  part  in  the 

Fig.  202.— PoBTLAOT),  Obeoon. 
Scale  1 :  895,000. 


I??"50 


Wa»t   pF  Greenwich 


l?2'3?i- 


,  SHOm. 


general  movement,  especially  when  gold  was  here  also  discovered.  Still  agricul- 
tural produce — cereals,  hops,  hemp,  wool — and  the  salmon  fisheries  have  more 
economic  value  than  the  mining  industry. 

Four-fifths  of  the  populat'on  is  centred  in  the  rich  Willamette  valley,  the 
"Garden  of  the  North- West,"  which  is  traversed  by  the  coast  line  between 
British  Columbia  and  Mexico.  Here  are  situated  Eugcue  City,  an  agricultural 
centre;  Cornwallk,  where  the  transcontinental  line  branches  off  westwards  to 
Netpport  on  the  Pacific ;  Salem,  the  pleasant  capital  of  the  state  ;  Oregon  City,  a 
manufacturing  town  which  derives  its  motive  power  irom  the  neighbouring  falls 
of  the  Willamette ;  and  Portland,  a  flourishing  msit  which  has  recently  absorbed 
the  suburbs  of  East  Portland  and  Albina  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  is  the 


i 


440 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


oommprcial  capital,  and  the  centre  of  all  life  and  enterprise  in  the  ^tute.  Although 
110  nuies  from  the  rucific,  l*ortland  is  really  a  seajMJrt,  with  direct  steam  com- 
municution  through  the  Willamette  and  the  Columbia  with  San  Francisco,  New 
York,  Japan,  and  China.  It  is  also  connected  by  the  North  Pacific  Railroad  with 
Chicago  and  the  Atlantic,  while  other  lines  radiate  in  uU  directions.  Antoria,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  is  the  oldest  white  settlement  on  this  part  of  the 
coast,  having  been  founde.!  in  1811  by  the  peltry  trader  Astor,  from  New  York. 


11. — Camkornu. 

On  the  Pacific  slope  the  preponderance  belongs  necesp'  ily  to  California,  which 
possesses  the  magnificent  inlet  of  Sun  Francisco  Bay,  and  which  is  one  of  the 
great  states  of  the  Union,  comprising  a  seaboard  of  nearly  10  degrees  of  latitude, 
and  stretching  inland  beyond  the  coast  ranges  and  Sierra  Nevada  to  the  Great 
Basin.  North  and  south  it  is  conterminous  with  Oregon  and  Lower  California 
(Mexico),  while  eastwards  it  is  separated  by  conventional  lines  meeting  at  Lake 
Tuhoe  from  Nevada,  and  by  the  course  of  the  Colorado  between  Forts  Mohave 
und  Yumu  from  Arizona.  Thanks  to  its  equable  and  temperate  climate  California 
seems  more  suited  for  the  residence  of  man  than  any  other  region  of  North 
America.  The  chief  part  of  the  state,  formed  by  the  double  oval-shaped  valley 
of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  Kivers,  is  alluvial  land  of  great  fertility 
wherever  water  is  available.  Much  of  the  southern  region  on  the  seaward  slopes 
of  the  Coast  Range  is  very  fertile,  and  when  irrigated  produces  great  quantities  of 
oranges,  lemons,  olives,  and  raisins.  East  of  the  San  Bernardino  Range  the 
Mohave  and  Colorado  Deserts  are  rocky,  clayey,  or  saline  wastes,  an  absolutely 
barren  "  land  of  death."  The  productive  northern  and  central  tracts  yield  some 
of  the  finest  wheat,  as  well  as  the  best  fruits  and  wine,  in  the  Union.  The  state 
also  stands  first  for  the  production  of  gold,  though  the  yield  has  fallen  off  by  one- 
half,  and  it  is  the  only  state  possessing  mines  of  quicksilver.  Its  position  at 
the  convergence  of  several  oceanic  routes  also  gives  it  great  industrial  and  com- 
mercial advantages,  although  San  Francisco  no  longer  possesses  the  monopoly  la 
this  respect  which  it  recently  enjoyed  on  the  Pacific  seaboard. 

Owing  to  the  rush  of  miners  and  adventurers  soon  after  the  annexation  of  this 
El  Dorado,  the  old  Mexican  population,  pure  or  half-caste,  was  rapidly  swept  aside 
by  the  stream  of  immigration,  comprising  English  and  Americans,  Germans, 
French,  Italians,  Scandinavians,  and  Russians,  besides  3'ellow  and  black  elements, 
in  a  word,  peoples  of  every  race  and  speech.  At  first  the  female  sex  was  absent, 
but  the  equilibrium  has  since  been  re-established,  and  all  the  heterogeneous  white 
elements  are  now  being  gradually  fused  in  a  uniform  Californian  type.  The 
Chinese  immigration,  the  "  yellow  invasion,"  as  it  was  culled,  has  been  almost 
entirely  arrested  by  special  legislation  inspired  by  the  rivalry  of  the  white 
proletariates.  The  Mexican  settlers,  all  but  the  rich  landowners,  have  been 
driven  to  the  interior,  where  they  form  a  degraded  population,  largely  half-breeds, 
often  contemptuously  culled  "  Greasers.''  The  pure  Indians  also,  whose  tribes 
were  reckoned  by  the  dozen  before  the  arrival  of  the  gold-seekers,  have  been  more 


^ 


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SAN      FRANCI 


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NEW  ^OHK.  D    Al 


4*141     -1^ 


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mmmmi^il 


3AN      FRANCISCO      BAY. 


ftia.         5  to  fZ. 


fZ  u  zs. 


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to  SO.  50  upward*. 


NEW  "i-OHK.  -D    Ai'PLETON  Sc  C? 


i»iii,i[iiiii  ijiiJii."i)jNjjiiiiiii.ii 


~'  ff^^iUl^MlK;' 


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I        ''I 


ftliiatiiiii 


CALIFOENIA. 


441 


summarily  dealt  with  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  Union.  The  Modocs,  who 
held  out  longest  in  their  natural  strongholds  amid  the  lava-fields  northeast  of 
Lassen  Peak,  were  mostly  exterminated,  and  the  survivors  removed  to  Montana. 

Norfh  of  San  Francisco  almost  the  only  trading-places  are  the  little  ports  of 
Crescent  City,  Eureka,  and  Bodega,  which  were  formerly  fortified  by  the  Kussian 
Alaska  Company;  hence  the  name  of  Bussian  River  given  to  the  watercourse 
which  here  reaches  the  coast.  Sacramento,  capital  of  California,  lies  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  of  like  name  at  its  confluence  with  American  River.  This  place 
being  exposed  to  periodical  floodings,  it  was  decided  after  the  disastrous  inun- 
dations of  1861  to  raise  the  level  of  the  whole  city,  and  the  project  was  success- 
fully carried  out  with  a  skill  and  energy  almost  unexampled  even  in  the  United 
States.  Whole  streets,  with  their  houses,  furniture  and  all,  were  shored  up  and 
slowly  raised  from  10  to  16  feet  above  high-water  level  without  a  single  accident. 

In  the  more  arid  San  Joaquin  basin  the  best-known  place  is  Mariposa,  which, 
lying  near  the  Yoseraite  Valley,  is  much  frequented  in  summer.  Farther  south 
the  old  Spanish  settlement  of  Fresno  has  become  the  greatest  market  for  the 
grape  trade  in  the  whole  Union.  Thousands  of  boxes  of  raisins  and  fresh  grapes 
are  annually  forwarded  to  San  Francisco,  largest  city  on  the  Pacific  coast  between 
Bering  Strait  and  Cape  Horn.  Founded  by  the  missionaries  in  1776,  perhaps 
on  the  spot  where  Drake  cast  anchor  during  his  memorable  voyage  round  the 
globe,  this  great  emporium  was  only  an  obscure  village  of  a  few  hundred  inhabi- 
tants at  the  time  of  the  annexation.  But  after  the  discovery  of  the  gold-mines, 
San  Francisco  de  Yerba  Buena,  familiarly  called  Frisco,  became  a  busy  seaport, 
and  increased  rapidly.  It  occupies  the  northern  extremity  of  the  peninsula, 
which  projects  northwards  at  the  entrance  of  the  bay,  and  which  is  separated 
by  the  channel  of  the  Golden  Gate  from  the  opposite  headland  projecting  south- 
wards. In  order  to  deepen  the  water  at  the  quays,  the  shallower  part  of  the 
roadstead  was  filled  in  with  the  sandy  dunes  of  the  peninsula ;  the  inner  beach 
was  thus  enlarged  by  about  two  miles  in  width,  and  the  quays  were  advanced  to 
the  new  shore-line,  where  the  largest  vessels  can  ride  at  anchor  in  45  or  50  feet 
of  water.  Thus  also  was  seoured  an  admirable  site  for  the  growing  city,  which 
already  covers  a  space  of  over  40  square  miles.  The  central  thoroughfares  are 
flanked  by  sumptuous  residences,  and  the  City  Hull  is  a  superb  structure,  adorned 
with  towers,  domes,  and  colonnades.  The  public  gardens  of  the  interior  are 
supplemented  by  handsomely  laid -out  cemeteries  in  the  outskirts,  and  by 
splendid  promenades  on  the  dunes  skirting  the  Pacific,  and  terminating  at 
Cliff  House,  whence  a  panoramic  view  is  afforded  of  the  Golden  Gate  and 
surrounding  waters.  Steam  ferries  ply  incessantly  across  the  bay  between  San 
Francisco  and  the  towns  on  the  east  side,  such  as  Oakland,  terminus  of  the  trans- 
continental railway  lines ;  Berkeley,  seat  of  the  State  University ;  and  farther 
south,  Palo  Alto,  where  Senator  Stanford  has  founded  and  richly  endowed  another 
university,  to  which  he  has  given  the  name  of  his  deceased  son,  Leland  Stanford. 
Benicia,  official  capital  of  California  before  Sacramento,  stands  on  the  Carquinez 
Strait,  flowing  between  the  inner  bays  of  San  Pablo  and  Suisun.     All  the  river 


'4 


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MMMnk 


mtmsms:- 


>^  »<■-_■'.  •  .^EJ^:-  »>vii£-,  K>J^1^<'.  -.''AJ.IAS:  .->^f iV«.- 


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t'"'&-:i 

■^i 

442 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


steamers  ascending  the  Sacramento  or  the  San  Joaquin  necessarily  touch  at 
Benicia  or  Martinez,  on  the  south  side  of  the  same  strait,  which  is  accessible  to 
vessels  of  3,600  tons  burden.  The  foreign  exchanges  of  San  Francisco  already 
exceed  ^85,000,000,  while  the  shipping  represents  a  collective  burden  of  over 
2,000,000  tons.  At  the  local  mint  a  sum  of  about  ^20,000,000  is  annually  coined, 
and  the  silver  from  the  Nevada  mines  is  forwarded  through  this  seaport. 

San  JoHi,  or  Ozi,  aa  its  inhabitants  call  it,  is  the  chief  place  in  the  alluvial 
district  stretching  between  two  parallel  ridges  south  of  San  Francisco  Bay. 
It  promises  soon  to  form  one  city  with  its  western  neighbour  8anta  Clara,  and 
thanks  to  its  geographical  position  it  commands  the  overland  communications 
of  San  Francisco  with  the  rest  of  the  United  States  and  with  Mexico.  The 
village  of  New  Almaden,  at  the  south  end  of  the  Santa  Clara  valley,  is  the  centre 

Pig.  203. — Los  Anoei:,K8. 
Scale  1  : 1,700,000. 


50' 


West  oF  Greenwich 


119' 


1I8" 


SOMUea. 


of  the  most  productive  quicksilver-mines  in  America.  The  old  Spanish  town  of 
Monterey  {Montery),  founded  in  1770  on  the  south  side  of  Monterey  Bay,  lower  down 
the  coast,  was  the  capital  of  California  while  that  province  belonged  to  Mexico, 
and  since  the  completion  of  the  i^iilway  connecting  it  with  San  Francisco  it 
has  become  one  r '  the  most  frequented  watering-places  on  the  Pacific  slope.  A 
few  other  little  seaports,  such  as  San  Simeon,  San  Luis  Obispo,  and  Santa  Barbara, 
follow  along  the  south-west  coast ;  but  in  this  region  the  most  important  place  is 
the  more  inland  town  of  Los  Angeles,  that  is,  Reina  de  loa  Amjeles,  or  "Queen 
of  the  Angels,"  which  was  founded  as  a  Mexican  missionary  station  in  1781, 
and  is  now  the  second  city  in  California.  Standing  at  the  foot  of  a  sierra, 
on  the  best-watered  plain  in  the  south,  it  has  naturally  become  the  chief  industrial 
and  trading  centre  of  this  region.  The  banks  of  the  streams  traversing  the  city 
resemble  a  vast  garden,  abounding  in  oranges  and  other  fruit-trees.  Strawberries 
ripen  all  the  year  round,  and  here  is  the  famous  Santa  Barbara  vine,  which  yields 


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'lpi^i0§||•'.M»^^m*^l^*jJ(':  nwai  f^mji^^f^^i't  tjtfg^piifgm^ifiwiititi^ipu .  i»i^:-»y  tir^tyii^ji'-yws. 


-jtr 


CALIPOENIA. 


443 


a  yearly  crop  of  from  9,000  to  10,000  pounds  of  grapes.  The  neighbouring 
little  watering-place  of  Santa  Monica  is  followed  down  the  coast  by  the  port 
of  Wilmington,  where  are  shipped  the  cereals,  wine,  wool,  and  other  produce 
of  the  district,  sent  down  by  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  line.  Beyond 
Wilmington  follows  San  Diego,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  like  name,  and  on 
a    deep   marine   inlet  close  to  the   Mexican   frontier.     San    Diego   dates  from 

Fig.  204.— San  Dieoo. 
Soda  1 :  170,000. 


Bands  expnied  at 
low  water. 


Viast   Op  Greenwich 


Dcptha. 


0  to  R 
Fathoms. 

O  Lipbthonae. 


n  FathoniB 
and  upward!. 


S  MUes. 


the  year  1769,  and  is  consequently  the  oldest  Califomian  settlement  within 
United  States  territory.  Since  the  annexation  it  has  become  an  active  commercial 
centre,  which  it  was  hoped  might  one  day  rival  San  Francisco  itself.  During  a 
period  of  reckless  speculation  it  is  said  to  have  had  as  many  as  75,000  inhabitants 
and  visitors,  and  since  the  completion  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway  it  has  at 
least  the  advantage  of  being  the  nearest  Pacific  seaport  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


".1^ 


_i 


M 


■I:    i" 


i    ■  ;       « 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SOCIAL  AND  MATKRIAL  CONDITION  OF  TUE  UNITED  STATES. 

HE  regular  decennial  census  taken  since  1790  has  invariably  borne 
witness  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the  population,  which  has  increased 
sixteenfold  (from  nearly  4,000,000  to  63,000,000)  in  the  century 
ending  in  1890,  while  the  national  resources  have  been  developed 
even  at  a  more  rapid  rate.  In  respect  of  population  the 
"Union  has  already  outstripped  both  France  and  Great  Britain  by  more  than 
one-third,  though  the  inhabitants  would  be  counted  by  hundreds  of  millions  were 
the  land  as  densely  peopled  as  those  states.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  serious 
errors  have  affected  the  value  of  some  of  the  decennial  returns,  and  all  American 
statisticians  admit  that  complete  reliance  cannot  be  placed  in  that  of  1870, 
especially  as  regards  the  Southern  States,  which  at  that  time  were  still  convulsed  by 
social  troubles  and  here  and  there  even  by  a  fierce  war  of  races.  Hence  errors 
especially  of  omission  were  so  numerous  that  efforts  were  afterwards  made  to 
replace  the  official  fip'ures  by  calculations  based  on  comparisons  with  previous 
decennial  returns.  xhe  opinion  prevails  that  even  in  1890  the  results  were 
often  defective,  as  shown  by  the  census  of  New  York  City,  which,  it  is  claimed, 
fell  short  of  the  actual  number  by  about  200,000  souls.  Nevertheless  the  census 
as  a  whole  is  sufficiently  accurate  to  brow  light  on  the  more  salient  demographic 
phenomena. 

As  regards  the  extremely  unequal  distribution  of  the  population  the  maps 
prepared  by  Gannett  are  highly  instructive,  as  showing  at  a  glance  the  influence 
of  the  environment,  altitude,  temperature,  rainfall,  soil,  mineral  resources, 
facilities  for  trad?,  as  well  as  of  the  origin  and  history  of  the  settlements,  on  the 
general  distribute  n  and  relative  density  of  the  populations.  Thus  Gannett's 
researches  make  v,  evident  that  districts  exposed  to  great  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture or  of  moisture  are  never  very  thickly  peopled.  Assuming  that  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  United  States,  excluding  Alaska,  coincides  with  the  isothermal 
line  of  53°  Fahr.,  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  are  found  to  be  grouped  in  a 
zone  comprised  between  the  isothermals  of  about  45°  and  59°  Fahr.  Below  41°  and 
above  70°  Fahr.  the  population  is  everywhere  thinly  distributed.  So  also,  if  the  mean 
rainfall  of  the  United  Statas  be  taken  at  30  inches,  a  like  proportion  of  three- 
quarters  is  found  concentrated  in  those  regions  enjoying   a  yearly   precipitation 


„  I.J  irjtimUji  '•ttMjjiit  fj 9 'O'W^'i'K'  i»t  '<'»"W  *fi "Wit  11* iWii irt 


■IIM*i»' 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  POPULATION. 


445 


ranging  from  about  29  to  51  inches.  Two-fifths  of  the  republic  receive  less  than 
10  inches ;  hence  not  more  than  three-hundredths  of  the  people  are  represented 
in  this  arid  section  of  the  Union,  According  to  another  calculation,  the  mean 
altitude  sf  the  country  being  estimated  at  2,500  feet,  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  population  coincided  in  1890  with  about  one-third  of  that  altitude,  or  say 
786  feet.  The  gradual  settlement  of  the  upper  regions  has  raised  this  centre 
by  100  feet  during  the  two  decades  between  1870  and  1890. 

Fig.  205.— CoMPABATivB  Incrbasb  of  Popitlation  in  the  United  States,  Gbbat  Bbitain,  and 

Fhance. 


in  <n 

• 

/ 

/ 

1 

/ 

U 

65 

60 
55 
50 
45 
40 

j^gSSS. 

7^ 

.  y.  . 

35 

50 

^^^-^ttT 

.  - ..   .  .  /.   .   . 

y 

/. 

.  . 

--^ . 

'                    '            ^^\ 

25 
20 

^ 



■  I  • 

..,;.. 

•  • 

15 

^   ^ 

..: . . 

.     •     .     > 

.    *^^»    •   -'•••••* 

..-•.. 

•  • 

10 

;^ 

6 

^^00r^» 

.     -     •     • 

I> 

'90 

1800 

1810 

•1820       1850      I84D 

1850        I860 

1870 

1880 

18 

90 

But  the  most  striking  contrast  is  that  presented  by  the  eastern  and  western 
sections  of  the  territory.  The  Atlantic  slope,  including  that  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  has  a  population  twenty-five  times  larger  than  that  of  the  closed  basins  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  of  the  Pacific  slope  combined— over  60,000,000  and  nearly 
2,500,000  respectively.  This  contrast  is  obviously  due  to  the  extreme  climate, 
cold  or  burning,  of  the  western  plateaux,  their  arid  soil  and  the  difficulties  of  the 
communications.     Allowance  should  also  be  made  for  the  great  distance  sepa- 


446 


TUB  UNITED  STATES. 


A 


rating  these  regions  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  where  most  of  the  European 
immigranta  are  landed.  A  subdivision  of  the  better-peopled  eastern  section 
shows,  however,  that  the  Atlantic  coastlands,  where  nearly  all  the  white  settlers 
were  concentrated  before  the  War  of  Independence,  have  in  this  respect  lost 
their  pre-eminence,  which  has  passed  to  the  central  parts  of  the  Union.  The 
drainage  area  of  the  Oulf  of  Mexico  alone  possesses  over  half  of  the  people,  while 
the  Mississippi  basin  contains  upwards  of  two-fifths.  Thus  the  central  region, 
including  the  shores  of  the  Groat  Lakes,  comprises  about  two-thirds  of  nil  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States. 

The  Northern  and  Southern  States  again  present  contrasts  both  of  population, 
of  industrial  activity  and  of  material  resources.  Excluding  the  3,000,000  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Rockies  and  Pacific  seaboard,  the  bulk  of  the  American  people  form 
two  main  divisions,  of  which  the  northern  is  exactly  double  that  of  the  southern. 
Tet  to  the  latter  division  must  be  assigned  all  those  states  which,  before  the 
Civil  War,  were  under  the  control  of  the  slave-holding  aristocracy,  though  they 


Tig.  206. — DiSTEIBtTTION  OP  THB  PoP0L4TION  OF  THE  StATBS  AOCOBDIKO  TO  THB  DeOBBES  OF  LONOrnrDB. 


f  v^r,  ii 


b 


De^' 

earn 

oF 

Lor 

S't 

ude 

b 

o 

b 
o 

ffi 

s 

to 

b 

CO 

b 

K 

o 

i 

ff> 

oo 

I 

?! 

^ 

b 

to 

have  now  gravitated  towards  the  commercial  and  industrial  Northern  States.  Such 
are  Delaware,  Maryland,  the  District  of  Columbia,  West  Virginia,  North 
J^iisuouri,  and  a  great  part  of  Kentucky.  The  material  advantages  of  the  two 
regions  are  about  balanced,  and  in  many  respects  the  southern  lands  are  even 
the  more  highly  favoured.  In  the  north  there  are  scarcely  any  districts  com- 
parable to  the  upland  valleys  of  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  the  Carolinas,  or  to  the 
rolling  plains  of  Georgia  and  Kentucky.  Nowhere  is  the  climate  more  healthy, 
the  soil  more  productive,  the  pleasure  of  life  more  intense.  Here  are  produced 
the  finest  races  of  men  and  animals,  as  regards  size,  strength,  beauty,  and  graceful 
forms.  How  then  does  it  happen  that  these  privileged  regions  have  not  beeij 
preferred  by  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  im.'nigrants  who  yearly  land  on  the 
shores  of  North  America  ?  Doubtless  a  lar  je  part  of  the  southern  territory 
being  hot  and  swampy  enjoys  a  less  favourable  climate,  at  least  for  the  white  man. 
But  on  the  other  hand,  the  north  comprises  vast  spaces  with  a  more  rigid  climate 
and  less  bountiful  soil,  as  well  as  completely  uninhabitable  wastes  occupying  over; 
one-half  of  New  England,  ^      ;  .;-^t,  >:   %  .,  =/.>u: 


im 


-m- 


—  DgmmjijfKwowfif^iljiiffltinii 


DISTRIBUTION  OP  THE  POPULA.TION. 


447 


)pean 
iction 
ttlera 
lost 
The 
while 


The  enormous  discrepancy  between  the  two  zones  is  clearly  due  to  the  long- 
standing difference  in  the  social  condition — on  the  one  hand  great  luruied  estates 
till  lately  worked  by  slave  labour ;  on  the  other  the  system  of  small  holdings  held 
and  worked  by  freemen. 

The  urban  grows  incessantly  at  the  expense  of  the  rural  population,  and  even 
more  rapidly  than  in  Europe,  The  difference  would  bo  even  more  apparent  if 
the  United  States,  as  in  France,  reckoned  as  towns  all  groups  of  2,000  inhabi- 
tants, instead  of  regarding  as  rural  all  under  8,000.  In  fact  the  town  element 
is  twice  as  numerous  as  would  appear  from  the  returns,  comprising  three- tenths 
of  the  whole  population,  even  if  wo  exclude  all  towns  under  8,000  inhabitants.  The 
number  of  large  cities  is  increasing  more  rapidly  than  elsewhere,  towns  of  8,000 

Fig.  207>— DiSTBinnnoN  or  thx  Population  or  tbk  Statks  acoohdino  to  the  Deoreks  or  Latttudb. 


Degrees  oF  Latitude 

1                           fe 

b 

In 
m 

lO                                        (O 

'i 

>; 


souls  having  advanced  from  six  in  1790  to  no  less  than  443  in  1890.  Not  one 
city  had  100,000  inhabitants  a  century  ago ;  now  there  aro  as  many  as  twenty,  of 
which  three  have  over  1,000,000,  and  all  of  these  stand  on  more  ground  than 
similar  agglomerations  in  West  Europe.  Some  have  as  many  as  fifteen  large 
parks  with  hundreds  of  acres  under  timber,  grass,  rocks,  streams  and  lakes.  The 
cemeteries  are  themselves  beautifully  laid  out  as  well-kept  parka,  in  which  the 
natural  relief  of  the  land  is  always  respected. 

In  recent  years  many  towns  have  sprung,  one  may  sny,  ready  made  from  the 
ground.  Speculators  or  mining  proprietors  trace  on  the  map  the  plan  of  the 
future  city,  with  its  streets,  squares,  hotels,  schoob,  and  public  buildings,  its  gar- 
dens, parks,  and  avenues ;  then  they  build  a  number  of  railways  converging  on 
the  chosen  site,  and  puff  the  lots  for  sale  through  the  newspapers,  pamphlets, 


^A;. 


MM 


448 


TUE  UNITED  STATES. 


■    ■■!* 

..  H 


or  posters.  The  boom  may  often  collapse ;  but  at  times  the  city  really  rises  in  the 
midst  of  tho  wilderness  with  uU  its  industrial  and  civilising  appliances.  Thus  it 
was  that  Omaha  and  Kansas  City  on  the  Missouri,  and  Cheyonue,  Denver,  I'uoblo, 
and  Colorado  Springs  on  the  prairies  skirting  the  Rooky  Mountains,  oamo  almost 
Buddonly  into  existence.  Hoanoko  on  the  Virginian  plateau,  and  Birmingham  in 
Alabama  are  also  newly  created  places,  and  at  present  Middlesborough  in  Kentucky 

Fig.  208.— Dmsitt  of  thk  Topulation  at  thk  BxaiNNiMa  or  the  CKKTUBy. 

Scale  1  :  34,000,000. 


Inhabitant!  per  iqaaie  mile. 

n       a        H       H       m  . 

T7ader2.  -^tolO  10  to  85.  M  to  60.       60  and  a(.waid& 

Each  fi^'iare  representa  a  popuiatinn  of  n,000  inhabitaota. 

.^____ii____^_^_  620  Milei. 

and  Kensington  in  Pennsylvania  are  rising  from  the  ground.  At  the  end  of 
August,  1891,  Kensington  was  scarcely  two  months  old,  yet  five  large  factories 
had  already  been  erected  on  the  banks  of  the  Alleghany,  and  twenty-eight  trains 
stopped  daily  at  the  new  station  built  in  a  forest  clearing. 

The  United  States  have,  properly  speaking,  no  capital,  for  "Washington,  seat  of 
Congress  and  official  residence  of  the  President,  lacks  the  supremacy  in  politics,  the 
arts  and  letters  which,  even  more  than  superiority  in  population,  constitutes  a  true 


i 


■:}l 


DISTRIUUTIOW  OF  TUE  I'OPULATION. 


440 


capital.  Doston  wus  formerly  the  chief  pluoo  in  the  northern  coIonicR,  and  from 
it  uU  Americans  of  Now  Knglund,  the  "  YunkcoH*'  properly  Ho-cullod,  wort;  known 
to  the  Franco-CantidiunH  us  "  HostonionH."  Boston  remains  the  metropolis  of 
this  re(?ion,  and  may  claim  the  first  rank  in  the  Union  in  respect  of  acience  and 
education.  Hut  in  population  and  trade  it  lags  far  behind  several  other  places, 
such  as  Now  York,  the  "  Empire  City,"  which  holds  the  foremost  position  in  com- 
merce, the  money  market  and  industry.  But  New  York,  like  Philadelphia,  which 
was  for  a  time  the  seat  of  Congress,  lies  too  fur  from  the  geographical  centre  of 
the  Union  to  maintain  its  influence  iu  the  Far  West.  This  is  now  also  true  of 
Washington,  ulthouu;h  its  site  seemed  excellently  chosen  at  the  time  of  its  founda- 
tion.    It  stood  close  to  the  geometricul  centre  of  the  thirteen  original  colonies, 

Fig.  209.— Density  or  thk  Populatiom  is  1800. 
Poala  1  :  so.non.noo. 


InbabltantR  per  aqiiare  mile 

□  o  a  K  ■ 

OtoS.  ■HoiS.  9atu60.  60  to  110.  110  and  iipwardi. 

E.icb  aqaare  repieients  a  population  of  60.000  int '>bitants. 
•  Citica  of  over  1,000,000  inhabitants. 

.^^^_^.^— ~— ^^^>— —  1,240  MilM. 

and  the  Federal  District  occupied  a  neutral  position  between  the  Northern  and 
Southern  States.  But  its  importance  at  present  is  mainly  strategical,  as  shown 
during  the  Civil  War,  when  the  main  e£fort8  of  the  contending  forces  were  directed 
towards  this  central  point  of  the  Atlantic  States.  Naturally  the  populations 
of  the  Mississippi  basin  regard  the  great  river  as  the  proper  site  for  the  Federal 
capital.  In  this  respect  the  claims  of  Saint  Louis  cannot  be  gainsaid,  althougth 
this  city  is  already  distanced  by  its  old  rival,  Chicago,  which  on  the  whole 
has  undoubtedly  the  fairest  prospects  of  becoming  the  future  metropolis  of  the 
Union. 

Although  European  immigration  has  acquired  vast  proportions,  the  American 
body  politic  is  now  so  firmly  constituted  that  the  prodigious  influx  occasions  not  the 
96 


^Iteit-r 


ssawer-    -"sj^fr^.-^'MJuMM^^^rrfn'^,' ft'-'.^'V-'^t  'M'rv..'- 


ioO 


TIIF  UNITKI)  J>TATKS. 


•'1 


i  ''.!! 


fllightoHt  matorial  (Hsturbanro.  It  mij^lit  rvon  pads  unnnlicod  but  for  the  economic 
und  Hociul  ronHoquoncuN  of  tho  croRbin^N  und  reciprocal  itiflutnct -i,  wliit'h  iiiiHt 
have  tho  groiitoHt  importutioo  for  iho  future  of  the  ''!•;•'  ?ltntoH  iind  even  of  the 
whole  world.  After  the  Wur  of  Iiidopoiidonce  the  v  ni^if  wmk  so  slight  that 
down  to  18'-i0  not  more  than  250,000  tirrivuls  had  boci  .'OOiJed.  Thon  it  began 
to  assumo  large  proportions,  fining  higher  und  higher  with  each  p-.ecessive  decade 
except  that  of  the  Civil  War,  when  there  was  a  considerable  fulling  off.  Tho 
official  returnH  give  a  total  of  ir),oOO,000  from  IH.'O  to  1891  ;  but  Ninco  1885  no 
account  has  In'on  taken  of  tho  arrivals  rid  Canada,  which  are  probably  under- 
estimated at  540,000.  Since  1870  the  proportion  of  Kritiah,  and  cHpociully  Irish 
settlers,  has  gradually  diiiiiniNhod  in  favour  of  the  Germans,  who  represent 
altogether  nearly  three-tenths  of  tho  grand  total  since  1820      Hut  this  element, 

Fig.   210  — MiDDLEHIIOUOUUU. 
Boole  1  :  ftnO,0()<). 


85"I5' 


West   oF    Greenwich 


es'so" 


IS  Milea. 


chiefly  from  the  northern  provinces  of  Mecldenburg,  Pomeranin  and  East  Prussia, 
Itas  now  also  entered  on  a  period  of  decline.  During  the  last  two  decades  the 
decrease  has  been  made  good  to  some  extent  bj'  colonists  from  every  part  of 
Scandinavia,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark  and  even  Iceland.  Moreover,  a  stream 
of  non-Teutonic  ethnical  elements  has  lately  set  in  ;  thp  Italians  and  Slavs,  driven 
by  misery  and  distress,  have  begun  to  arrive  in  such  numbers  that  they  threaten 
(>re  long  to  acquire  the  preponderance  over  all  others.  Whether  these  foreign 
elements,  so  different  in  their  usages,  traditions  and  national  temperament  from 
the  Anglo-American,  may  also  be  absorbed  as  readily  as  the  kindred  Teutons,  is  a 
(juestion  which  has  already  caused  some  anxiety  to  political  economists.  The 
difficulty  is  certainly  complicated  by  the  undeniable  inferiority  in  education  of 
the  Italians,  Polish  and  Russian  Slavs  and  Jews,  who  compose  the  bulk  of  this 


IMMIQRATlOy. 


451 


element,  rertuin  rostriciivo  nioaRurca  have  ulreudy  Irh-h  projx  iicil  n^uinst  this 
inovoinent  umuIo^ouh  to,  if  I'^sa  dniHtiu  thuu,  (hoHO  tiikcn  af][uint<t  tho  (.'hinosu  in 
1HH2.  Hitherto,  howovof,  tho  only  atop  taken  in  tluH  direction  is  tho  PxcluHion 
of  imbocih'B,  lunatics,  criminals,  the  indij^cnt  Hi\d  immoral  women.  It  is  obvioUHly 
u  question  not  of  racial  hostility  but  of  purely  economiu  and  political  considera- 
tions. The  educated  classes  naturally  object  to  an  administrution  appointed  by 
Ignorant  electors  exercising  their  right  of  sulTrago  in  a  blind  <»r  venal  way.  On 
the  other  hand  the  American    labouring  clashes  resent  the  unfair  competition  of 

Pig    211  -  flcRNB  or  TUK  (!lVIL  Was. 
Boato  1 :  17,000,000. 


.  BloHilea. 


an  alien  proletariate  tending  to  lower  the  rate  of  wages  by  a  third,  a  half  or 
even  more. 

With  regard  to  the  original  Anglo-American  stock,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that,  apart  from  some  partial  loss  of  vital'^y  due  to  local  causes,  the  race  as  a  whole 
is  as  vigorous  as  ever.  The  terrible  experiences  of  the  Civil  War  revealed 
prodigious  resources  in  physical  energy  and  the  solid  qualities  of  endurance  and 
courage  amongst  the  millions  of  combatants  engaged  in  the  struggle.  For  size 
and  full  chest  the  finest  men  are  those  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  next  to 
them  the  natives  of  Illinois,  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.     In  all  enterprises  needing 


MMM 


iiliwi'jiiiilWrwi'li 


■■-v^•■^'■.i.■«,>.^.,A.^-,". 


462 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


strength,  agility,  skill  and  valour,  the  Americans  of  the  east,  centre  and  west 
yield  the  palm  to  none.  They  are  even  more  energetic  than  the  parent  stock, 
and  although  their  life  is  more  intense,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  the  sooner 
exhausted  on  that  account. 

The  redskins  numbered  altogether  nearly  220,000  in  1890.  That,  as  a  body,  they 
are  decreasing  is  placed  beyond  doubt  by  the  returns  for  each  successive  decade, 
though  most  of  the  tribes  that  have  adapted  themselves  to  the  new  environment 
are  normally  increasing.  Thus  the  Iroquois  nation  has  advanced  from  a  little 
over  11,000  in  1863  tx)  upwards  of  16,000  in  1890  ;  these,  however,  are  largely 
intermingled  with  the  whites,  and  many  are  Iroquois  in  little  more  than  the 
name.     The  Etchemins  of  Maine,  the  survivors  of  the  Seminoles  in  Florida,  the 

Fig.  212. — Stbeahb  or  Immiobation.  '^ 

Scale  1 :  160,000,000. 


K.  Englbh. 
V.  French. 


0.  Germans. 
i.  Iriah. 


Ir.  Icelandem. 

1.0.  Italians  and  Orientala. 


ft.  KegToea. 
B.  Rnssiana. 


8.  Soandinavians. 
Np.  Spaniards. 


,  8,100  Uilea. 


Puyallups  of  Puget  Sound,  the  Dakotas,  and  especially  the  Cherokees,  the 
Choctaws,  Creeks  and  Ohickasaws  of  Indian  Territory,  have  all  made  some  pro- 
gress both  in  numbers  and  general  prosperity. 

But  they  have  seldom  been  left  to  themselves,  and  even  those  who  were  best 
treated  had  often  to  choose  between  death  or  exile.  In  spite  of  solemn  treaties 
the  Creeks  and  Cherokees  had  to  migrate  jeyond  the  Mississippi  in  1835.  They 
were  followed  by  the  Seminoles  of  Florida,  while  the  Sioux  of  the  Minnesota 
frontiers,  the  Bl  ickfeet,  the  Crows  and  Paunches  of  the  Western  prairies,  the 
Comanches  of  Texas,  the  Apaches,  Navajos,  and  Yumas  of  New  Mexico,  the 
Cheyennes,  Utes  or  Pah-Utes  of  the  Great  Basin,  the  Snakes,  Flatheads,  Modocs, 
and  others  of  the  Pacific  slope,  had  all  to  relinquish  their  hunting-grounds,  and 
now  find  it  difficult  even  to  defend  their  reserves  from  the  encroachments  of  the 


I  '•*iiu3Jii 


3?;^MS^ir 


■1^1  ■■i(rii|iiHr;tf,<fl>i 


"  'm 


ABORIGINES. 


463 


white  settlers.  Certainly  the  Federal  Government  has  advanced  vast  sums  for  the 
purchase  of  the  Indian  domains,  some  ^85,000,000  betwoen  1789  and  1840,  but 
all  the  money  does  not  reach  its  destination,  and  there  are  few  of  the  Government 


1 

to 


agents  of  whom  the  natives  have  not  had  to  complain.  But  the  present  system 
of  administration  is  so  framed  as  to  prevent  all  resistance.  Before  their 
reduction  the  tribes  had  independent  chiefs  in  whom  they  could  trust,  men  dis- 


i 


-,  -St. 


•.-"i 


iiiWi«i'iBmt.iftji»i«n>j  ■ 


484 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


i 


tinguiehed  by  tLeir  personal  qualities  of  courage,  skill  and  wisdom.  But  these 
chiefs  have  now  become  masters  whose  interests  are  distinct  from  those  of  their 
subjects,  and  who  grow  rich  at  the  expense  of  their  degraded  fellow-tribesmen. 
To  these  nothing  is  left  but  to  yield  or  to  perish ;  they  give  themselves  up  to 
drink,  gambling  and  other  vices ;  the  petty  dealers  hang  on  their  steps  "  like 
wolves  on  the  trail  of  the  bison,"  and  "the  paleface,  whiskey,  smallpox,  powder 
and  shot,  extermination,"  has  become  an  Indian  saying. 

From  decade  to  decade  the  extent  of  the  reserves  diminishes  perceptibly, 
and  a  law  passed  by  Congress  in  1887  anticipates  their  complete  suppression  by 
authorising  the  president  to  proclaim  the  extinction  of  the  tribe  as  a  distinct 
group.  By  dividing  the  territory,  like  the  National  Domain,  into  squares  of  160 
acres,  each  head  of  a  family  receives  an  allotment,  and  thus  there  will  be  no  more 


*r''')l»6|,«ii|| 


Fig.  214.-'Okbman  luaoitATiON  to  the  Statbs  in  1880. 
Scale  1  :  60,000.000. 


46- 

^^B 

■ 

>yT^m*m-»^^ ^ 

fp^ 

:46- 

^^^^/w^^'0/yyy/ 

■ 

^^^^^^^H^^^^^ 

'^^3 

^^m 

s 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

^^^^ 

^K^Mm<A^y 

/j^^/// 

Mmm^^^^^^m^y 

iiiXlit\»Mfkui—^= 

^^m 

^^ 

I^^^B 

^^___ 

^m 

wA 

^-^    -H 

^m^mm 

"^ 

^^^^^^^M 

26 

^^ 

k 

\/////£f'^—=rr-^=- ^Z^ 

^^ 

26 

115- 

West    oF  Greenwich 

»•      1 

Oto-i 
per  cent. 


8to4 
percent. 


4to6 
peroeut. 


«io9 
peroent. 

1,S40  Miles 


Overa 
percent. 


Indians,  all  being  merged  in  ihe  great  ocean  of  American  citizenship.  In  this 
way  the  Dakotas  recently  lost  about  two-fifths  of  their  domain  at  a  single  stroke. 
Their  threatened  revolt  was  stayed  in  North  Dakota  by  the  arrest  of  their  famous 
chief,  Sitting  Bull,  who  was  killed  in  the  ensuing  scuflBo;  and  in  South  Dakota 
by  an  accidental  massacre  of  unarmed  men,  wom.  n  and  children.  Other  reserves 
are  similarly  disappearing  in  the  old  Indian  Territory  itself,  where  the  new 
Territory  of  Oklahoma  has  already  been  organised  by  the  whites,  and  is  now 
claiming  admission  as  a  sovereign  state  into  the  Union. 

In  1790  the  first  census  of  the  new  republic  returned  the  negroes,  or  people 
of  colour,  as  they  prefer  to  be  called,  at  over  757,000,  of  whom  nearly  60,000 
were  freedmen  ;  this  gave  a  proportion  of  19'3  per  cent,  for  the  African  element, 
which  is  higher  than  at  any  8ub?equrnt  period,  although  slaves  continued  to  be 


II  »j  tifUKriirytii 


THE  NEJROES. 


465 


imported  down  to  the  year  1808.  Even  after  the  official  suppression  of  tho  slave 
trade  thousands  were  still  introduced,  especially  into  Alabama  ;  but  this  contraband 
traffic  had  but  a  slight  relative  importance,  immeasurably  outweighed  by  the  ever- 
increasing  tide  of  white  immigration.  On  the  eve  of  the  Civil  War  the  proportion 
had  fallen  to  14'1  per  cent.,  or  less  than  one  in  seven,  and  in  1890  it  again  fell 
to  less  than  one  in  eight.  In  the  "  black  zone "  the  increase  is  exclusively  by 
excess  of  births,  all  importation  having  completely  ceased.     Infant  mortality  is 

Fig.  215.— Sioux  Rbbebves. 

Scale  1  :  4,000,0uO. 


Lower  Brftld  iDdian  Beienration. 


Orow  Cr^k  iDdian  ReaerTation. 
—    60MUea. 


much  higher,  but  the  birth-rate  is  also  proportionately  still  greater  than  amongst 
the  wb'tes,  so  that  one  more  than  balances  the  other,  and  the  blacks  would  thus 
increase  more  rapidly  than  the  whites  but  for  the  immigration  of  Europeans  and 
of  Northerners  into  the  Southern  States.  During  the  decade  ending  1890  the 
Afro- Americans  diminished  in  none  of  the  states  ;  but  the  increase  was  nowhere 
great,  except  in  the  Southern  States,  in  Arkansas  and  Oklahoma. 

Since  the  emancipation  the  negroes  are  legally  regarded  as  the  equals  of  the 
whites.     But  although   they  enjoy  the  right  of  suffrage,  and  are  in  a  numerical 


: 


<mmm 


limi  BTiillBliWHl«l»l.W»l«*1«BW 


■  tllllia .nil  ■lliiliU' ilfM'tlfel '  '^n 


■:^r.-^S!ijr.K  :■ .»  iih  r^5*uiai/  'iv^-irttfli**-::.^-?!** 


% 


if^^i^^iiWff^'i.iii 


456 


TEE  UNITED  STATES. 


imh 


mm 


,-?■  I'll 


majority  in  the  three  Southern  States  of  South  Carolina,  Miseissippi,  and  Louisiana, 
they  nowhere  enjoy  social  equality.  North  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  they 
freely  enter  the  public  conveyances,  but  keep  to  their  own  churches  and  schools, 
and  do  not  venture  into  the  society  of  their  white  neighbours.  In  Texas, 
Georgia,  and  South  Carolina  they  are  practically  deprived  of  the  franchise  itself, 
and  they  are  unable  to  control  the  elections  even  in  those  states  where  they  ars 
numerically  predominant.  As  a  remedy  for  the  evils  caused  by  racial  hatred, 
some  statesmen  have  proposed  u  universal  exodus,  and  Brazil,  Cuba,  Haiti,  Central 
America,  and  especially  Africa,  have  been  successively  proclaimed  the  future 
"  earthly  paradise  "  of  the  expatriated  negroes.  But  such  a  project  is  naturally 
surrounded  by  formidable  difficulties,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the  fact  that  their 
very  labour  renders  the  blacks  indispensable  to  the  white  populations.     They 

Fig  216. —Black  Zonb  in  thk  Unitku  States. 

Scale  1  :  80,000,000. 


otoia 


10  to  9a 


so  to  60.  OvertjU. 

^..^mm  1,340  Mile*. 


have  also  made  some  progress  in  a  moral  sense ;  education  is  spreading,  and  in 

1890  nearly  20,000  primary  schools,  with   24,000  teachers,   were   attended  by 

1,378,000  negro  children  in  the  Southern  States. 

<  .   ■    , 

Land  Tenure  .\nd  Agriculture. 

The  extent  of  arable  lands  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  wants  of  the  people, 
and  this  very  superabundance  leads  to  reckless  waste.  The  several  states,  formerly 
owners  of  vast  spaces,  have  retained  only  some  marshy  or  unproductive  tracts. 
The  Federal  Government  also,  v/Lich  still  possesses  a  considerable  extent  of  forests, 
mountains,  plains,  and  deserts,  representing  altogether  about  750,000,000  acres, 
has  long  parted  with  the  best  of  the  National  Domain  to  settlers,  war  pensioners, 
and  especially  railway  companies.  In  virtue  of  the  "  Homesteads "  Law,  every 
American  citizen,  if  married  or  over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  may  demand  a  grant 
of  160  acres,  of  which  he  becomes  absolute  owner  in  a  period  of  five  years.     But 


■  T;i>lti|>J)i!i1ijiy|tf|y,wiVJr'i.»'' 


LAND  TENURE. 


457 


available  lands  have  become  so  rare  that  practically  they  can  now  be  scarcely 
obtained  except  by  competition  in  accordance  with  the  usual  laws  of  demand  and 
supply.  But  the  facilities  of  land  transfer  and  of  communications  are  now  so 
great  that  at  times  whole  communities  are  rapidly  organised,  and  enter  without 
delay  on  their  new  settlements. 

In  the  United  States,  public  land  surveys  have  preceded  occupation  ;  hence,  in 
level  tracts,  the  surface  is  usually  found  to  be  already  laid  out  with  the  monotonous 
regularity  of  a  cheas-board.     The  rural  districts  are  all  divided  into  townships 
Fig.  217. — HotrsB  op  Neoro  Family  in  FLOBisi.. 


BIX  miles  square,  and  subdivided  int^  lots  of  a  square  mile,  which  are  again  dis- 
posed in  four  parcels  of  160  acres  each,  and  these  are  the  plots  which  are  granted 
or  sold  lo  applicants.  All  these  quadrangular  spaces  are  arranged  with  geometrical 
uniformity,  each  pide  facing  a  cardinal  point.  The  purchasers  rarely  depart  from 
this  symmetrical  system,  opening  their  roads,  building  their  houses,  and  sowing 
their  fields  all  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian  or  of  the  parallels  of  latitude. 
These  regular  farms  also  contrast  with  those  of  Europe  in  the  greater  8pace 
assigned  to  the  several  crops.     On  the  plains  of  the  Mississippi  slope  it  is  no 


1 


M 


^^CA.^-. 


'  uwOtiAffrj.i'i.m— .ift.. 


468 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Fig.  218. — Townships  in  Iowa. 
Poale  1  :  S.V)  (MX). 


rare  sight  (o  meet  with  many  thousand  acres  under  muizo  or  wheat,  interrupted 
by  no  fallow  or  meadow  lands.  Such  wearisome  uniformity,  however,  is  naturally 
far  less  prevalent  on  the  more  broken  and  longer-settled  Atlantic  seaboard,  and 
especially  in  New  England.  The  ^^lowth  of  the  population  also  has,  on  the  whole, 
tended  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  farms,  which  haVe  fallen  from  an  average 
of  280  acres  in  18D0  to  125  in  ISliO,  and  of  this  space  not  more  than  about 
one -half  is  usually  under  cultivation.  The  great  extent  of  these  holdings 
explains  the  paramount  importance   taken  by  machinery  and  other  time-saving 

agricultural  pro- 
cesses, in  which 
respect  the  United 
States  unquestion- 
ably holds  the  first 
place  in  the  whole 
world.  The  national 
wealth  represented 
by  such  plant  on 
the  American 
farmsteads  is  esti- 
mated at  about 
$600,000,000,  and 
to  the  American  in- 
ventive faculty  the 
world  is  indebted 
for  the  first  steam 
reaping  and  thresh- 
ing machines,  and 
a  number  of  other 
ingenious  appli- 
ances dispensing 
with  much  human 
and  animal  labour. 
Such  is  the  extent 
of  fertile  land 
under  tillage,  and 
so  favourable  is  the 


U  MUea. 


climate  that,  with  comparatively  Httle  systematic  manuring  and  artificial  irriga- 
tion, the  agncaliural  produce  is  yielded  not  merely  in  abundance  but  in  a  super- 
abundance which  at  times  is  ruinous  to  the  farmers.  In  the  year  1883  the 
farmers  of  the  trans'-Mississippi  regions  harvested  such  quantities  of  maize  that  in 
many  places  they  scarcely  took  the  trouble  to  gamer  it,  or  else  used  it  for 
fuel  and  fodder,  or  sold  it  at  ridiculous  prices.  Thus  this  over-production 
tends  to  unduly  lower  market  prices,  and  to  depreciate  the  land  itself.  Hence 
mortgages  have  increased  to  an  alarming  extent,  and  many  farmsteads  have  been 
left  on  the  hands  of  the  .^.ouey-lenders.     Thousands  of  plantations  also  in  the 


■t'^  !    .    ',% 


Hi 


'vl^P*'' 


appli- 


and 


AGBICULTUEE. 


469 


Southern  States  have  been  bruken  up  into  email  holdings,  leased  to  the  negroes 
and  others  too  poor  to  purchase.  Altogether  about  one-fourth  of  the  land  under 
tillage  is  thus  already  held  by  tenants,  and  the  evil  increases  from  decade  to  decade 
owing  to  the  high  rates  of  transport,  for  the  farmers  are  practically  powerless 
against  ^he  monopoly  of  the  railway  companies.  Even  the  powerful  association 
of  the  Grangers,  founded  in  18(J7,  and  in  1874:  numbering  over  1,300,000 
members,  failed  to  break  down  this  monopc'  which  is  backed  up  by  the  great 
capitalists,  and  by  the  legislative  force  supplied  by  Congress.  The  small  holders 
are  also  threatened  by  the  great  syndicates  which  have  been  created  largely  by 
British  capital,  and  which  have  introduced  the  system  of  bonanza  farms,  so  called 
from  the  bonanzas  or  pockets  representing  vast  fortunes  in  the  mines  of  the 
precious  metals.  The  new  domains,  bought  up  by  a  few  capitalists  in  London  und 
some  other  large  cities,  often  comprise  vast  areas  larger  than  many  of  the  priu- 

Fig.  219.— Habvestino  Whbat  in  tkr  Wsbt. 


cipalities  of  the  old  Germanic  Confederation.  Certain  estates  in  Texas  have  an 
extent  of  over  2,500,000  acres ;  a  Calif omian  banker  has  reclaimed  500  square 
miles  by  artificial  irrigation,  and  a  model  farm  of  75,000  acres  in  Minnesota 
employs  200  reaping-machines  and  threshing-machines,  which  daily  turn  out  75 
waggon-loads  of  cereals. 

Apart  from  China  and  India,  the  United  States  take  the  first  rank  for 
agricultural  produce,  and  especially  for  cereals.  Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  the 
American  "  corn  "  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  covered  one-half  of  all  the  land  under 
cereals  in  1889,  and  the  yield  represented  three-fourths  of  that  of  the  whole 
world.  The  old  prairies  of  the  Central  States  are  now  one  vast  field  of  maize, 
which  here  shoots  up  to  an  occasional  height  of  15  or  16  feet.  But  for  the 
export  trade  maize  is  of  less  importance  than  the  wheat  crop,  which  is  surpassed 
by  that  of  Russia  alone,  and  which  in  years  of  scarcity  elsewhere  is  exported  to 
the  value  of  $200,000,000.     Of  other  cereals,  such  as  oats,  barley,  rye,  buck- 


— ■liljijitt'l'fH''''^'^'^^  '--- 


i,A  .fi'a3iii2iEir#g^«fe^ 


1^^ 


400 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


wheat,  rice,  and  eorghnm  (recently  introduced  for  the  manufacture  of  augar),  the 
most  important  are  oats,  which  in  1H89  yielded  725,000,000  bushels.  Cano  sugar, 
raised  chiefly  in  the  Mississippi  delta,  Texas,  and  Florida,  has  fallen  off  since  the 
plantation  days,  though  250,000  tons,  or  one-sixth  of  the  total  consumption,  wore 
produced  in  1890.  The  sugar  extracted  from  the  maple  in  the  north,  and  else- 
where from  sorghum  and  beet,  is  of  slight  economic  value.  Hut  on  the  other 
hand  viticulture  is  rapidly  spreading,  especially  since  the  indigenous  stock  has 
been  substituted  for  the  vines  introduced  from  Europe.  The  aoco  of  Louisiana, 
better  known  in  the  north  by  the  name  of  scuppeniotiff,  is  the  most  common  wild 
variety,  and  yields  extraordinary  crops  both  in  marshy  lands  and  on  the  slopes  of 
the  hills.  In  1890  the  vintage  exceeded  25,000,000  gallons,  besides  267,000  tons 
of  grapes  for  the  table  ;  half  of  the  whole  crop  is  grown  in  California,  New  York 
and  Ohio  ranking  next  in  importance.      Fruits,  such  as  pears,  peaches,  apples^ 

Fig.  220.— Cotton  Cbop  op  thk  Umited  States  in  1880. 

Scale  1  :  22,000  000. 


37 


•.^inclnnsli 
EvantvUta*  'Louiivill*  Richmond^ 


Under  1 
per  cent. 


ItolO 
per  cent.' 


10  to  20 
pfar  cent. 


.  620  Milea. 


Over  20 
per  cent. 


and  berries  of  all  sorts,  are  raised  in  prodigious  quantities,  especially  in  the  Chesa- 
peake peninsula,  in  California,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  the  north-east  Atlantic 
States.     Fruits  are  more  largely  consumed  than  in  any  other  country. 

Before  the  War  of  Independence  tobacco  was  the  staple  export  of  the  British 
North  American  colonies ;  at  present  Kentucky,  Maryland  and  Virginia  are  the 
chief  producers,  especially  of  the  medium  qualities.  None  of  the  varieties  have 
the  aroma  of  those  grown  in  the  West  Indies  and  Philippine  Islands,  and  amongst 
articles  of  export  the  foremost  place  is  now  taken  by  "  King  Cotton,"  for  which 
before  the  Civil  War  the  United  States  enjoyed  almost  the  commercial  monopoly. 
Most  political  economists  supposed  that  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the  stimulus 
civen  to  cotton-growing  in  the  competing  countries,  India  and  Egypt,  would 
permanently  deprive  the  Union  of  its  pre-eminence  in  this  respect.  But  America 
rapidly  recovered  its  lost  ground,  and  the  cotton  raised  in  the  Southern  States  by 


igar),  the 
mo  sugar, 
sinco  the 
bion,  were 
and  else- 
the  other 
stock  has 
Liouisiana, 
imon  wild 
slopes  of 
',000  tons 
ew  York 
a,  apples^ 


37 


i 


^ 


he  Chesa- 
t  Atlantic 

le  British 
a  are  the 
sties  have 
[  amongst 
[or  which 
nonopoly. 
stimulus 
pt,  would 
t  America 
States  hy 


L 


AOIUCULTUKE  AND  FOBESTUY. 


461 


free  white  and  black  labour  already  supplies  the  whole  of  the  New  World  with 
four-fifths  and  Fluropo  with  two-thirds  of  the  fibre  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  their  textiles.  Over  two-fiflhs  of  the  total  exportation  consists  in  this  product, 
amounting  in  1888  to  4,()5(),()00  bales,  or  more  tlum  double  that  of  1860,  much 
of  which*  represented  the  successive  crops  accumulated  during  the  Civil  War. 
Yet  even  cotton  is  surpassed  by  the  yield  of  hay  from  about  .'j;j,00(),()()0  acres 
under  grass,  with  a  production  of  50,000,000  tons,  valued  at  ^400,000,000. 

Forestry. — Stock- iirkedino. — The  FisiiEKrEs. 

The  development  of  agriculture  has  been  made  at  the  expense  of  the  timber 
in  all  forest  countries,  and  Maine,  which  formerly  yielded  large  quantities,  has 
now  little  left  except  thickets  of  saplings  and  undergrowths.  The  Pinu8  atrobus, 
most  valuable  of  all  trees,  has  almost  disappeared,  and  now  the  ravages  of  the 
woodman  have  extended  to  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  the  chief 
sources  of  supply  for  all  the  Central  States.  On  the  Pacific  slope  the  prucess  of 
destruction  goes  on  in  t1  same  reckless  way,  not  even  sparing  the  giant  conifers, 
wh'ch   ought  to  be  cted   as  natural  marvels.      The  inevitable  results  are 

already  seen  in  the  deterioration  of  the  climate  in  many  regions,  in  the  more 
prolonged  droughts,  and  more  sudden  and  disastrous  freshets.  But  most  of  the 
states  are  now  creating  forest  reserves  about  the  headwaters  of  the  streams  in 
order  to  regulate  their  discharge  and  preserve  the  beauty  of  the  landscape. 

As  for  husbandry,  the  United  States  take  also  the  foremost  rank  for  stock- 
breeding  amongst  countries  of  European  civilisation.  Judging  from  the  incomplete 
returns,  horses,  asses  and  mules  cannot  number  loss  than  20,000,000,  and 
there  appears  to  have  been  a  great  increase  during  the  last  decade.  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  excel  for  quality,  and  the  new  '*  Kentocke  "  breed,  a  fusion  of  the 
New  Mexican  mustang,  the  Indian  pony,  and  Engli>h  thoroughbred,  is  noted  for 
its  strength,  mettle,  speed,  and  staying  power.  In  1892  the  highest  record  for 
speed  was  broken  by  the  famous  trotter  Nancy  Hanks,  who  covered  a  mile  in 
two  minutes  and  four  seconds.  But  cattle-breeding  has  acquired  a  for  greater 
development,  especially  in  the  Atlantic  States,  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  the 
other  prairie  states,  which  already  possess  about  15,000,000  milch  cows  of  good 
stocks,  yielding  500,000  tons  of  butter  and  200,000  tons  of  excellent  cheese, 
largely  exported  to  England.  On  the  trans- Mississippi  plains  and  the  Western 
plateaux,  the  cattle  run  half  wild,  and,  like  the  bison  that  they  have  replaced, 
have  little  economic  value.  In  these  regions  regular  stock-breeding  dates  only 
from  about  1875 ;  about  that  time  some  English  and  other  speculators  rented 
vast  tracts  of  many  hundred  thousand  acres,  where  the  cattle  are  left  much 
to  themselves,  watched  from  a  distance  by  the  "  cow-boys,"  a  vigorous  and 
daring  race  of  men,  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  lasso,  in  branding  the  herds,  and 
driving  them  either  to  the  watering-places  or  to  the  shambles.  This  industry  has 
acquired  an  enormous  development,  and  the  "  cattle-kings "  now  yearly  consign 
millions  to  the  meat-packing  establishments  of  Chicago,  Omaha,  and  Kansas  City, 
besides  exporting  large  numbers  to  England.  Chicago  is  also  the  chief  centre  of 
the  pork  business,  and  here  are  packed  over  two-thirds  of   the  14,000,000  or 


'A 


,1 


463 


TUE  UNITED  STATES 


15,000,000  liopH  yearly  sent  to  tho  8liainl)lr'8.  Mi.  ton  is  less  opprociatod,  and  shoop 
uro  brod  cliiofly  for  their  wool,  whirh  lius  grt'u  .y  improved  in  texture  in  rccont 
yours.     Thin  indiiHlry  is  chiefly  confined  to  tho  Pacific  States. 

Tho  fihhinjjf  industry,  curried  on  espociiilly  in  tho  New  England  waters  >uid 
on  tho  bunks  of  Nowfoundlund,  whore  tho  Americans  have  tho  right  to  fish 
within  three  knots  of  the  coast,  is  necessarily  subject  to  grout  vicissitudea.  To 
the  dangers  of  tho  sea  is  at  times  added  tho  scarcity  of  fish,  especially  where  t)je 
trawlers  iiro  provided  with  us  many  us  six  lines,  each  armed  with  a  thousand 
biiited  hooks.  Thus  tho  Now  Kiigland  fli?et  returned  in  181)0  with  a  miserable  take 
of  loss  thun  80,000  barrels,  representirg  not  more  than  tho  twenty-fifth  purt  of 
tho  harvest  of  1884,  Thanks  to  the  syti  •;  latic  studios  of  the  naturalists,  American 
ichthyology  bus  mudo  considerable  progress,  und  science  has  already  recorded 
about  500  species  of  edible  fresh  luid  salt  water  fish,  of  which  over  a 
hundred  have  been  recently  discovered  and  classed.  Tho  varieties  of  salmon 
frequenting  tho  Columbia  and  other  rivers  of  Wasliington  have  been  introduced 
into  thoso  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  wliilo  tho  lakes  und  streums  huvo  been  stock nd 
with  now  species  from  Europe  und  Asiu.  Oyster  culture  has  also  been  grn-Mtly 
developed.  Some  formerly  productive  banks,  such  as  those  of  WoUfleot  on  llie 
Cnpo  Cod  peninsula,  have  been  compately  exhausted  ;  but  others,  especially  on 
tho  shores  of  Rhode  Island  and  iti  Ohusapeuke  Buy,  are  carefully  administered, 
and  yield  prodigious  returns,  more,  in  fact,  thun  uU  tlio  rest  of  tho  world. 

The  Mining  Industry. 
The  collective  mineral  wealth  of  the  United  States,  comprising  gold,  silver, 
quicksilver,  copper  Imd.  i.;,  coal,  and  mineral  oils,  exceeds  that  of  all  other 
countries.  The  »  .  pm.iuctive  auriferous  deposits  are  those  of  the  Rocky 
Mouniains  and  ••"  9  Sierra  Nevada,  where  the  great  "mother  lode,"  stretching 
purallol  with  tt  >  i;ain  axis  of  the  range,  gave  to  the  name  of  California  a  pense 
8oraewhu<  analogous  to  that  of  "  Eldorado,"  the  "  Pactolus,"  or  "  Golconda."  The 
Spaniards  had  already  worked  a  few  places,  digging  along  the  river  banks,  and 
the  discovery  that  caused  the  now  historical  rush  was  itself  made  in  the  fine  gravels 
that  had  been  deposited  in  the  canals  of  a  saw-mill  near  Sacramento.  At  first  the 
gold- seekers  moved  along  the  water-courses  which  descend  from  the  sierra,  sifting 
the  sands  and  gravels ;  but  they  soon  found  that  the  moraines  skirting  the  river- 
banka  also  contained  grains  of  gold,  and  these  high  bluffs  were  at  once  furiously 
attacked.  Pick  and  shovel  being  too  slow  for  the  work,  the  very  torrents  and 
streams  were  diverted  from  their  course,  and  utilised  to  carry  off  the  refuse  in  a 
series  of  cascades ;  then  the  less  compact  walls  of  gravel  were  demolished  by 
means  of  machinea  of  the  fire-engine  type,  so  that  the  very  physiognomy  of  the 
land  was  completely  changed  in  some  districts.  But  as  the  miners  ascended  higher 
and  higher  towards  the  primitive  veins  about  the  sources  of  the  rivers,  other 
more  effective  processes  had  to  be  applied  to  the  destruction  of  the  hard  rock, 
and  deep  galleries  and  tunnels  were  excavated  to  reach  the  rich  lodes  and  draw 
off  the  water  from  the  works.  These  costly  operations  are  not  always  re- 
munerative, and   the   more  accessible    goldficlds  are  already  to  a  large  extent 


,  and  shoop 
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sn  8tO(;liod 
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ministered, 
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I  all  other 
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the  river- 
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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


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Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


«' 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


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THE  MINING  INDUSTRY. 


463 


exhausted,  or  else  can  no  longer  be  worked  profitably ;  hence  the  production  has 
on  the  whole  diminished  in  California  since  the  middle  of  the  century,  having 
fallen  from  |81,:{00,000  in  1852  to  a  present  average  of  from  ^15,000,000  to 
^'20,000,000.  The  loss,  however,  has  been  partly  balanced  by  discoveries  in  New 
Mexicq,  Arizona,  Colorado,  Montana,  and  Idaho.  The  total  exceeds  that  of  tlie 
Australian  mean,  and  represents  about  one-third  of  the  world's  output. 

California  also  holds  the  first  place  in  the  Union  for  its  quicksilver-mines, 
though  tliese  are  less  important  than  those  of  Almaden  in  Spain,  and  also  probably 
less  productive  than  the  ores  of  Kwei-Shau  in  Central  China.  Since  1850  the 
total  production  has  exceeded  112,000,000  pounds,  and  more  than  a  half  of  this 
metal  comes  from  New  Almaden,  near  San  Jose  in  California. 

The  annual  yield  of  silver  has  increased  at  a  prodigious  rate.  Before  18G0  it 
scarcely  exceeded  10,800  pounds,  representing  about  ^'300,000.  But  the  discovery 
of  the  rich  Washoe  mines  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  at  once  raised  the  production  to 


Fig.  221. — Mining  Opehations  a.t  Forbst  Hn,i,,  Sifrta  Nevaba. 


1,350,000  pounds,  and  since  that  time  it  has  bepn  almost  quadrupled,  at  least  in 
value,  thanks  to  the  inflated  prices  maintained  in  favour  of  the  Federal  mint. 
The  commercial  value  of  the  metal,  however,  has  fallen  in  the  inverse  ratio  to  its 
monetary  value,  which  is  raised  by  a  third  in  consequence  of  the  compulsory 
annual  purchases  which  the  Government  is  compelled  to  make  by  Congress.  In 
1891  the  yield  of  the  United  States  probably  exceeded  half  of  that  of  the  whole 
world.  The  largest  known  silver  deposit  is  the  Comstock  lode,  on  the  east 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  between  1859  and  1890  produced  |332,000,000. 
The  United  States  also  possesses  apparently  inexhaustible  stores  of  copper, 
lead,  zinc,  manganese,  nickel,  cobalt,  and  iron.  Tin  occurs  only  in  low  grade 
ores  in  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota,  in  California,  and  some  other  districts. 
The  copper  mines  had  already  been  worked  by  the  Indians  before  the  arrival  of 
the  whites,  and  even  before  that  of  the  Ojibways  and  Assiniboines,  whom  the 
French  pioneers  met  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.     At  some  points  the  works 


U/iS 


464 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


had  been  carried  to  a  depth  of  .00  feet  in  the  solid  rock.  Tools  of  wrought 
copper  belonging  to  these  mines  have  been  found  in  numerous  mounds,  and  even 
the  deposits  of  lalo  Royule,  so  difficult  of  access  in  the  stormy  lake,  show 
evidences  of  protracted  mining  operations.  The  copper  ores  of  Lake  Superior, 
extracted  especially  from  the  Keweenaw  peninsula,  are  distinguished  from  uU 
others  for  their  almost  absolute  purity.  A  block  of  native  copper  weighini;  500 
tons  has  been  found,  wliich  took  no  less  than  fifteen  months  to  detach  from  th(» 
rock  in  which  it  was  embedded,  and  one  of  the  mines  in  this  district  is  1,480  feet 
deep.  Yet  they  are  exceeded  in  productiveniiss  by  the  mines  of  Montana.  Arizona 
also  contributes  to  the  yield,  which  is  about  two-fifths  of  that  of  the  whole  world. 
The  load-mines,  next  to  those  of  iron,  have  been  longest  worked,  and  their 
site  already  figures   on  the   French  maps  dating  from  the    middle  of   the   last 

Fig.  222.  -  Gold,  Silver,  Quicksilveb,  and  Copper  Mini-s  of  the  United  States. 

Pcale  t  :  4.').()0(l,00(). 


as- 


Silver. 


Quicksilver.  Copper. 

-       620  Uilea. 


century.  The  deposits  exploited  at  that  period  on  both  banks  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  are  nearly  exhausted,  but  extremely  rich  ores  have  been  found,  especi- 
ally in  South  Missouri,  where  the  lead  is  nearly  always  associated  with  zinc.  Of 
the  general  production  of  lead  and  zinc  the  United  States  yield  about  a  fourth 
and  a  sixth  respectively.  More  than  half  of  the  iron  annually  pnined  in  the 
Union  comes  from  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  but  owing  to  the  high  rates  of 
transport,  Pennsylvania  imports  over  1,000,000  tons  from  Cuba,  Spain,  Elba,  and 
Algeria.  America  possesses  an  enormous  reserve  of  coal,  which,  however,  is 
extracted  so  recklessly  that  for  every  ton  placed  on  the  market  two  are  wasted. 
Hence,  political  economists  have  already  anticipated  the  possible  exhaustion  of  the 
coalfields,  although  they  are  probably  more  extensive  even  than  those  of  China, 
being  estimated  to  occupy  an  area  of  about  200,000  square  miles. 

The  first  pit  opened  was  that  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  which,  like  most  of  the 


THE  MINING  INDUSTRY. 


4G5 


of  wrought 
ids,  and  even 
J  luko,  show 
ke  Superior, 
bed  from  all 
reighinij  500 
ich  from  th(i 

is  1,4H0  feet 
ina.    Arizona 
ivhole  world, 
ed,  and   their 
}  of   the  last 

States. 


25- 


of  the  upper 
found,  especi- 
n\\\.  zinc.  Of 
ibout  a  fourth 
ptiined  in  the 
high  rates  of 
lin,  Elba,  and 
I,  however,  is 
CO  are  wasted, 
laustion  of  the 
dose  of  China, 

ce  most  of  the 


smaller  basins  in  tho  chalk  formations  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  has  bepp  nearly 
oxhaustcd.  At  present  the  anthracite,  the  bituminous  and  semi-bituminous  coals 
are  most  actively  worked,  tho  output  advancing  from  00,000,000  tons  in  1880 
to  140,000,000  tons  in  1889,  representing  at  the  pit's  mouth  a  total  value  of 
^Ui0,900,000.  Pennsylvania  alone  prodaces  more  than  half  of  this  enormous 
quantity,  although  its  preponderance  is  gradually  diminishing  in  favour  of  tho 
beds  of  the  trans-Alleghany  regions,  and  especially  of  Illinois  and  of  Colo- 
rado, where  anthracite  is  also  found. 

Petroleum  is  another  source  of  great  wealth  to  the  United  States.     In  1027  the 

Fig.  22.3. — Keweenaw  Ptininsula. 

Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


Depths. 


OtoBO 
Fatbonu. 


60  Fathoms 
anH  iipwnrdB. 
.  IS  Uiles. 


missionary  Delaroche  speaks  of  a  "  Fontaine  de  bitume,"  wtich  he  saw  south  of 
Lake  Ontario.  The  oil  spring,  from  which  Oil  Creek  in  Pennsylvania  takes  its 
name,  was  well  known  to  the  Iroquois,  who  carefully  husbanded  the  fluid,  calling 
it  the  "  great  remedy."  It  was  near  Titusville,  in  the  upper  Oil  Creek  valley, 
that  the  first  direct  boring  was  made  to  tap  the  underground  reservoir,  which  was 
found  at  a  depth  of  about  70  feet,  and  which  yielded  a  daily  supply  of  1,000  gallons. 
Such  was  the  beginning  of  an  industry  which  has  since  been  developed  with  prodi- 
gious rapidity ;  wells  were  sunk  in  hundreds  and  thousands  in  the  oil-bearing  dis- 
tricts, and  some  of  these  yielded  as  much  as  220,000  and  even  260,000  gallons  a  day. 
Besides  the  Oil  Creek  valley,  petroleum  occurs  on  the  banks  of  the  upper  Alleghany 
96 


-nfc)',:"^" 


r^*''*i-*'*—<'^tg'i'.h» 


466 


THE  UNllED  STATES. 


in  the  south-woat  extremity  of  tbo  state  of  New  York,  anl  in  various  parts  of 
rennsylvunia;  wells  have  also  been  found  in  nearly  all  the  carboniferous  regions  of 
West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kcntuci<y,  Colorado  and  (Julifornia,  and  everywhere 
spring  from  sands  contained  in  paleozoic  (Silurian  or  Devonian)  rocks.  Their 
moan  depth  is  about  1,000  feet,  but  it  varies  greatly,  though  no  oil  has  been 
found  so  low  us  500  feet  below  sea-level.  Trans-Caucasia  (the  Baku  peninsula) 
alone  competes  in  this  respect  with  the  United  States,  which  in   1889  produced 

Fig.  224.— AnTHBAorrE  Reoion  in  PenxNBYivania. 

Scnie  t  :  l,40(),«no. 


Anthracite. 


Semi-bitumiuoaB  Cool. 


,  30  Miles. 


over  1,500,000,000  gallons,  valued  at  |27,000,000.     But  the  flow  is  diminishing, 
and  the  60,000  wells  now  open  yield  less  than  the  40,000  of  ten  years  ago. 

Another  source  of  wealth  associated  with  petroleum  is  the  natural  gas,  which 
was  first  used  for  lighting  purposes  at  Fredonia,  in  the  state  of  New  York.  In 
1874  it  was  utilised  in  some  metallurgic  works  in  the  Alleghany  valley,  and  in 
1877  a  boring  1,320  feet  deep,  near  Murraysville,  east  of  Pittsburg,  liberated  a  jet 
which  flamed  away  uselessly  for  five  years,  but  which  has  now  partly  or  altogether 
displaced  coal  in  the  neighbouring  factories.     The  composition  of  these  hydro- 


■\ 


THE  MINING  INDUSTRV. 


107 


rioua  parts  of 
rouH  regions  of 
1(1  everywhere 
•ocks.  Their 
oil  has  been 
iku  peninsuhi) 
889  produced 


».,1\ 


kNTON 


150 


is  diminishing, 
irs  ago. 

iral  gas,  M'hich 
^ew  York.  In 
valley,  and  in 
,  liberated  a  jet 
y  or  altogether 
)f  these  hydro- 


penaled  substuncos  varies  with  the  'ocalities  and  even  with  the  seasons,  but  they 
always  burn  with  a  bright,  smokeless  and  scentless  flame.  The  industry  lias 
been  rapidly  developed,  the  sale  rising  from  ^'<i()(),(l()()  in  \HH2  to  Hffy  times  that 
amount  in  1880.  In  Pittsburg  alone  the  gas  is  used  for  heating  and  lighting  in 
470  workshops  and  5,000  houses. 

Including  salt,  gems,  platinum,  bau.xites,  phosphates,   sulphur,  borates,  and 

Fig.  226.-  Coal  Mining. 


pyrites,  granites,  porphyries,  ■  marbles,  sandstones,  and  otiio  •  underground  stores, 
the  total  annual  mineral  production  is  estimated  by  Day  at  over  ^056,000,000. 

Manufactures. 
Since  the  middle  of  the  century  almost  every  branch  of  manufacturing 
industry  has  been  developed,  and  as  a  producer  of  manufactured  goods  the 
United  States  already  competes  with  Great  Britain,  and  even  holds  the  foremost 
position  for  the  number  of  steam-engines  employed  in  factories  and  railways. 
In  the  production  of  pig-iron,  iron,  and  steel  wares  the  Union  has  outstripped 
not  only  Germany  and  France,  but  even  England,  although  the  centralisation  of 
capital  has  been  so  rapid  that  the  increase  of  productiveness  has  corresponded  with 
a  considerable  decrease  in  the  number  of  factories.  Between  1880  and  1890  the 
yield  of  pig-iron  was  nearly  trebled,  while  the  blast  furnaces  were  reduced  from 


jismmimi^ 


•mff^" 


,..•■-'  =.J<H*St,',*»-.V-- 


468 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


(IHl  <(»  ,')()*J,  OliiMF,  papor,  lontherwures,  furniture,  vehicles,  Howing-machinoH, 
iigricultural  and  other  implements,  all  i)roHent  the  siimo  remarkable  phenomena  of 
progress  and  rapid  concentration.  Syndicates  are  formed  for  grouping  under  a 
single  administration  a  whole  industry,  or  oven  several  allied  industries. 

Am(!rica  is  already  independent  of  Great  liritain  for  its  cotton  fabrics,  about 
half  of  which  are  produced  in  Massachusetts  and  Uliodo  Island.  Kven  the 
Southern  States  are  beginning  to  share  in  this  industry,  and  spinning-mills  are 
sjH'in^ing  up  in  proximity  to  the  cotton  plantations.  So  also  metallurgic  works 
have  been  opened  in  v^l  the  Central  and  Southern  States,  or  wherever  coal  is 
found  associated  with  good  iron  ores.  Certain  factories,  such  as  the  sowing- 
niachino  works  of  Elizabeth,  near  New  York,  and  Pullman's  railway  rolling-stock 
works  near  Chicago,  may  be  compared  to  large  towns  for  population,  extent  and 
Fig'.  220. — Output  of  Coai,  in  the  U.jited  Statks. 

6n»le  1  :  4R,n()n,0()0. 


Tons  per  square  mile. 


0  to  1,000. 


1,000  to  4,000. 

.D 
Area  of  3,8J0  square  miles. 


4,000  snd  upwardu. 


1,240  MUes. 


productivity  ;  on  the  other  hand,  certain  cities,  such  as  Pittsburg  and  neighbouring 
places,  may  be  regarded  as  one  vast  workshop.  The  average  rate  of  wages  is  higher 
than  in  England,  although  in  many  mining  and  metallurgic  districts  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  Ohio  Basin  the  hands,  mostly  foreigners,  accept  payments  that 
American  artisans  would  refuse,  and  consequently  live  as  precarious  and  wretched 
an  existence  as  the  Silesian  weavers.  Thus,  despite  local  differences,  the 
economic  situation  is  much  the  same  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
same  antagonism  prevails  between  capital  and  labour. 

The  total  agricultural  and  industrial  wealth  of  the  republic  represents  a  sum 
approximately  estimated  in  1890  at  |62,610,000,000,  or  about  |1,000  per  head 
of  the  population.  But  this  aggregate  is  very  unequally  distributed,  and  in  1890 
more  than  half  of  the  national  wealth  was  in  the  hands  of  25,000  capitalists. 


i,.... 


HOME  AND  FOREIGN  TBADB. 


400 


ng-machinofl, 
phciioinonii  of 
ping  uiidor  a 
ic's. 

fubrics,  about 
Even  the 
lins-uiilla  uro 
lUurgic  works 
:<rovor  coal  is 
I  the  sowiiig- 
r  rolling-stock 
an,  extent  and 


5^1^ 


125 


75' 


id  neighbouring 
wages  is  higher 
itricts  of  Penn- 
payments  that 
18  and  wretched 
differences,  the 
tlantic,  and  the 

epresents  a  sum 
^1,000  per  head 
ced,  and  in  1890 
capitalists. 


ThADK. — IlKillWAYS    OK    CoMMt'NICATTON — NaVIOATION. 

According  to  Edward  Atkinson,  tlio  internal  (ruflic  oxcccdH  tlu*  foreign  twenty- 
fold,  both  collectively  representing  the  prodigious  Nutn  of  about  ^  10,000, 000, ()()(). 
The  republic,  producing  near;^  everything  necessary  for  sustoiuuice,  clothing  and 
luxury,  might  reduce  its  imports  to  aniinimuin,  and  the  recent  tiwcal  urrangenieiits 
have  tended  in  this  direction  witb  a  view  to  protecting  the  native  nianufactures 
against  foreign  competition.  IJut  despite  the  high  tariffs,  the  movement  of  the 
exchanges  is  second  in  importance  to  that  of  Great  Britain,  amounting  in  ISDO 
to  $1,750,000,000,  inclusive  of  |10;{,000,000  transit  charges,  but  exclusive  of 
the  precious  metals.  Thus,  since  1700  the  foreign  trade  has  increased  oightyfold, 
while  the  growth  of  population  has  only  been  at  the  rate  of  1  to  10. 

Great  Britain  still  remains  the  best  customer  of  the  United  States.  Both 
countries  having  the  same  language,  common  traditions,  and  to  a  great  extent  a 
common  origin,  they  naturally  gravitate  towards  each  other  in  all  social  and 
commercial  relations.  England  takes  the  greater  part  of  the  excess  of  the  agri- 
cultural produce — cereals,  flour  and  cotton,  sending  in  return  manufactured  goods, 
and  almost  monopolising  the  sea-borne  carrying  trade.  Including  the  British 
colonies  in  the  West  Indies  and  Canada,  more  than  half  of  all  the  exchanges  are 
made  with  lands  of  English  speech.  France,  which  formerly  took  the  second 
place,  also  imports  cereals  and  cotton,  in  return  sending  her  silks,  manufactures 
and  works  of  art.  Mexico  and  the.  Dominion  increase  their  commercial  relations 
with  the  growth  of  the  population  and  the  development  of  the  frontier  railways. 
Cuba  may  almost  be  regarded  as  an  economic  dependency  of  the  great  republic, 
which,  however,  apart  from  the  coffees  of  Brazil,  does  a  smaller  trade  with  South 
America  than  might  be  supposed.  The  trade  with  Asia  is  also  less  developed  than 
might  be  expected  from  the  proximity  of  San  Francisco  to  Japan  and  China, 

The  traffic  on  the  Great  Lakes  has  attained  prodigious  proportions  since  the 
time  when  Cavelier  de  la  Salle  launched  the  Griffin  on  the  Niagara  River.  In  1889 
the  merchandise  conveyed  on  the  Detroit  River,  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie, 
was  estimated  at  nearly  27,500,000  tons  for  the  American  pons  alone.  In  the 
same  year  the  constantly  increasing  mercantile  navy  of  the  lakes  comprised  over 
2,200  ships,  with  a  collective  burden  of  826,000  tons.  The  river  navigation  is 
even  more  considerable  than  that  of  the  lakes ;  but  it  represents  a  smaller  value, 
being  chiefly  engaged  in  the  carriage  of  coal,  salt,  and  other  bulky  but  less  costly 
commodities.  In  fact,  as  commercial  highways,  the  rivers  are  being  steadily 
replaced  by  the  railways,  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  and  merchandise  of 
value.  Yet  they  have  been  largely  supplemented  by  navigable  canals,  which 
have  a  total  length  of  over  3,000  miles,  and  which  serve  to  forward  from  25,000,000 
to  30,000,000  tons  of  goods.  Of  these  the  most  important  is  the  Erie  Canal, 
which  cost  $45,000,000,  and  has  a  length  of  350  miles  besides  several  branches  ; 
in  1886  its  navigation  exceeded  5,250,000  tons,  valued  at  $180,000,000. 

In  1827  was  opened  the  first  tramway,  which  ran  from  a  granite  quarry  in 
Massachusetts  to  the  port  of  Quincy  south-east  of  Boston  ;  but  the  first  railroad 
traversed  by  locomotives,  the  Albany-Schenectady  line,  16  miles  long,  connecting 
the  Hudson  and   Mohawk  Rivers,  dates  only  from  1831.     Ten  years  later   the 


470 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


(M)lloctiv('  l«'i)gth  of  uU  tlio  linoM  iilrt'iuly  oxcfodnl  M,000  niilcfl,  and  hiiico  that  opoch 
tlio  incn-um',  except  durinjj;  tlio  Civil  VV^ur,  lias  Im'cu  «t  tiii  .iccolorulod  rate. 
Srurcfly  n  year  passoH  willioiit  an  addition  of  ut  loust  (1,0(10  niili'H  to  the  system, 
whicli  already  repreHonts  a  capital  ol' over  ^11,000,000,000,  and  eniployn  us  many 
U9t  70(*,0()0  hands.  At  present  the  total  length  of  rails  exceeds  that  of  all 
Kurope,  and  includinf?  tliut  of  South  America  the  mileuge  is  greater  than  that  of 
all  the  rest  of  the  world.  This  vast  expansion,  stimulated  by  the  absence  of  good 
roads,  and  by  the  necessity  of  rapid  communication   between  regions  of  enormous 

Fig.  227  — Nktwouk  oc  Railwavh  im  thk  Wkst  or  tub  United  Htateb,  1889. 

Houle  I  :  ■i&,iiOO,niX). 


(»0  Miles. 


extent,  was  also  favoured  by  the  general  relief  of  the  land,  low-lying  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  with  convenient  gaps  leading  through  the  Appalachian  ranges 
to  the  boundless  level  or  slightly  rolling  plains  of  the  Mississippi  basin.  No 
great  difficulties  were  met  till  the  Rockies  and  the  elevated  Western  plateaux 
were  reached  ;  but  by  that  time  capital  had  been  accumulated  sufficient  for  any 
practical  undertaking,  and  the  urgent  necessity  of  connecting  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  emporia  of  New  York  and  San  Francisco  soon  enabled  the  great 
companies  to  overcome  these  obstacles.  The  two  transcontinental  lines,  begun 
in  1865,  were  completed  in  four  years,  and  since  then  several  others  have  been 
added  to  their  number.  These  lines  traversing  about  54°  of  longitude,  or 
nearly  a  sixth  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe,  the  question  of  time  acquired  a 


■  iifcwtii^fciii  mii-t' 


COM^IUXK'ATIONS. 


471 


30  that  opech 
lomtod    rate. 

tho  HyHtciii, 
((j'H  (iH  mimy 
ri  thiit  of  all 
•  than  thttt  of 
Honco  of  p;ood 

of  enormouM 

18H9. 


rvi. 


McVi 


)W-lying  on  the 
alacbian  ranges 
ippi  basin.  No 
estern  plateaux 
iflBcicnt  for  any 
he  Atlantic  and 
bled  the  great 
tal  lines,  begun 
thers  have  been 
)f  longitude,  or 
time  acquired  a 


capital  importance.  In  order  to  avoid  tho  confiiHion  cuuwd  by  tho  dilTt-nMit  horarii'H, 
the  coinpaiiioH  have  agreed  to  divide  the  continent  into  soctioiiH  of  15  degrocH, 
in  each  of  which  the  hour  is  unified.  Thus  are  arranged  the  five  /ones  of 
Jiitcrcolonitil  Tim>',  Eastern  Time,  Central  Tnnv,  Mimntuin  Time,  and  Vaeifie  Time, 
and  Hpecial  coiivoiitions  between  the  companies  and  tho  large  cities  detcrmino 
the  HtutiotiH  where  tho  tranHition  takes  place  from  one  hour  to  the  other. 

Such     importance    was   attached  to    the  completion  of  the    transcontinenful 
lino.s  that  public  opinion  was  unable  to  resist  tho  demands  made  by  the  compauien 
Fi(j.  2-'H  -  Nktwork  ok  Railways  in  thk  East  ok  tiik  Unitkd  States,   1889 

Ml.lo  1  :  'Jft.dOO,!  (X). 


for  assistance  ;  they  not  only  received  concessions  of  vast  stretches  of  the  National 
Domain,  but  were  also  aided  by  grunts  of  money,  and  the  precedent  once  established, 
it  was  afterwards  difficult  to  depai  from  it.  Va.st  sums  have  thus  been  paid  to 
the  railway  people,  who  have  also  received  millions  of  acres  of  land  along  both 
sides  of  the  trunk  lines.  By  a  skilful  administration  of  these  domains,  the  great 
companies  have  been  placed  in  a  position  to  acquire  the  control  of  the  whole 
territory  of  which  they  hold  the  vital  artery,  and  despite  the  resistance  of  those 
interested  in  opposing  it,  this  control  has  become  in  many  districts  an  accomplished 
fact.  By  analogous  processes  the  National  I'arks,  which  cannot  legally  be  sold 
in  small  allotments,  have  in  reality  become  great  hunting  reserves  for  the  directors 


'^^^S^ssm^^iismmrr 


^^mmmmmm 


472 


THE  UNITED  STATES, 


1! 


of  financial  companies,  owners  of  the  hotels,  and  of  the  railways  giving  access  to 
these  districts.  Kuch  of  the  huge  caravansaries,  such  as  that  established  near  the 
Mammoth  Terraces  in  the  Yellowstono  National  I'ark,  is  in  fact  the  centre  of  a 
real  principality. 

The  North  Americans  are  not  "sea  rovers"  like  their  English  cousins  and 
the  Norwegians.  This  is  at  first  all  the  more  surprising  that  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  century  the  national  flag  covered  three-fourths  of  their  foreign  trade.  The 
first  colonists,  having  settled  for  the  most  part  close  to  the  sea,  lived  partly  on 
the  produce  of  the  fisheries,  which  were  very  productive  in  those  waters.  They 
had  also  the  advantage  of  excellent  timber  for  their  commercial  fleets,  which  were 
surpassed  by  those  of  England  alone.  But  a  great  revolution  to  their  disadvan- 
tage was  caused  by  the  introduction  of  steam,  and  the  gradual  substitution  of 
iron  for  wood  in  shipbuilding.  Then  came  the  Civil  "War,  which  at  a  stroke 
Fig.  229. — Time  Zones  in  the  United  Stated. 

Scale  1  :  (iO.OOO.lHXi. 


120'OoFGr.  105"  '9D-  75* 

PACIFIC  TIME         MOUNTAIN  TIME  CENTRAL  TIME  EASTERN  TIME 

IX  X  XI  XII 


60* 

INTERCOLONIAL  TIME 
I 


1,240  Miles. 


reduced  their  mercantile  navy  by  a  third,  and,  the  same  economic  laws  still  pre- 
vailing, the  decrease  has  gone  on  from  year  to  year.  At  present  about  14,000,000 
of  the  18,000,000  tons  representing  the  foreign  trade  are  carried  by  foreign  flags. 
After  Fulton's  experiments  on  the  Hudson  in  1807,  steam  navigation  first 
acquired  an  industrial  character,  and  the  first  steamer  to  cross  the  Atlantic  was  the 
Sitcannah,  which,  sailing  from  the  city  of  the  same  name  in  1819,  reached  Liver- 
pool in  25  days.  The  United  States  thus  took  the  initiative  in  trans-Atlantic 
steam  navigation ;  which,  however,  first  assumed  a  practical  form  in  18!38,  when 
the  Sirius  and  the  Great  Western,  one  sailing  from  London  and  the  other  from 
Bristol,  steamed  into  New  York  harbour  within  a  few  hours  of  each  other,  the 
Great  Western  having  made  the  voyage  in  14|  days.  Two  years  later  was  founded 
the  Cunard  line,  which  has  remained  the  most  important  of  all  those  now  plying 
between  Europe  and  the  United  States.  In  1891  there  were  no  less  than  twelve 
trans- Atlantic  companies,  with  a  total  of  84  boats,  maintaining  a  regular  weekly 


I  u  II Mi<it«iA««Mi>i»iWlMii>i'i>ii'il»i' 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 


473 


to 

ilislied  near  the 
le  centre  of  a 

sli  cousins  and 
1  to  the  middle 
gn  trade.  The 
lived  partly  on 
waters.  They 
3ts,  which  were 
kheir  disadvan- 
substitution  of 
ich  at  a  stroke 


50' 


!  laws  still  pre- 

bout  14,000,000 

y  foreign  flags. 

navigation  first 

Atlantic  was  the 

,  reached  Liver- 

1  trans-Atlantic 

1  in  1838,  when 

the  other  from 

each  other,  the 

iter  was  founded 

lose  now  plying 

less  than  twelve 

regular   weekly 


service  between  New  York  and  several  European  ports,  besides  nine  other  lines 
carrying  passengers  at  longer  or  irregular  intervals.  The  boats  of  the  chief  lines 
vie  with  each  other  in  speed,  and  like  horses  on  the  racecourse,  these  "  ocean 
greyhounds  "  are  often  heavily  backed  one  against  another.  The  mean  time  of 
passage  from  Queenstown  to  Sandy  Hook  is  several  hours  less  than  six  days, 
and  has  been  reduced  by  two  days  during  the  last  fifteen  years.  Since  1851  the 
fastest  passages  of  sailing  vessels  have  been  made  by  American  ships. 

PrBMC  Instruction. — Rei.ioiox. 
The  first  schools  founded  by  the  early  settlers  combined  religious  with  secular 
instruction.  But  in  course  of  time  a  divorce  took  place  ;  the  religious  establish- 
ments became  private  institutions,  and  the  state  acquired  an  indirect  preponder- 
ance in  the  public  schools  and  colleges.  The  grants  made  by  the  state  legislatures 
and  by  Congress  constitute  in  fact  a  budget  of  public  instruction  differing  from 
those  of  Europe  only  in  their  administration.  In  1785  it  was  decided  that  every 
sixteenth  section  in  freshly  surveyed  lands  should  be  set  apart  for  the  public  schools. 

Fig.  230. — Reoulab  Lines  of  Steamers  oonvekoino  on  New  York,  1891. 

Scale  1  ;  2.1.000.000. 


r    Oreenwich 


310  MikB. 


Each  state  received  into  the  Union  became  ipso  facto  owner  of  extensive  territorial 
property,  the  sale  of  which  had  to  be  applied  to  educational  purposes.  Additional 
funds  were  voted  by  Congress  from  time  to  time,  and  in  1888  the  assignments  of 
land  had  increased  to  a  total  of  77,000,000  acres.  The  sale  of  these  lands,  bow- 
ever,  yields  not  more  than  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  revenue,  and  the  direct 
taxes  annually  voted  by  the  several  states  exceed  ^100,000,000. 

The  principle  of  free  and  obligatory  education,  originally  adopted  in  Massa- 
chusetts, now  prevails  throughout  most  of  the  Union,  though  its  practical  appli- 
cation meets  with  many  difficulties,  and  there  are  still  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  untaught  children,  not  only  amongst  the  foreign  immigrants  but  also  amongst 
the  native  Americans  themselves.  The  returns  for  1890,  however,  show  that  the 
attendance  is  increasing  in  all  the  states  except  Maine,  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire. Private  adventure  schools  are  perfectly  free  and  exempt  from  the  control 
of  the  law,  which  requires  only  that  English  be  taught.  The  public  schools,  being 
conducted  without  any  sectarian  spirit,  are  generally  looked  on  with  disfavour  by 
the  Roman  Catholics,  the  Episcopalians  and  Lutherans,  and  in  1889  the  Catholics 
possessed  about  3,000  private  establishments  in  which  their  religion  was  taught. 


iitlBli  iaiii'ii&JB'iii^liiiMii)  miiiiiiji  'Muh 


^'^ik'i^'d^^M^-^i'^^^T* 


474 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Above  the  primary  sclioola  follow  the  secondary  and  higher  schools  of  all 
sorts,  collo{»o8,  institutes,  academics,  normal  and  technical  schools,  universities, 
founded  citlier  by  the  states,  the  religious  bodies,  or  private  munificence.  The 
Federal  Government  itself  has  no  schools,  except  the  special  military  and  naval 
establishments  of  West  Point  on  the  Hudson,  Annapolis  on  the  Chesapeake, 
Leavenworth  in  Kansas,  and  New  Haven.  Nor  does  the  state  confer  diplomas,  so 
that  the  value  of  these  certificates  differs  greatly  according  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  universities  and  other  teaching  corporations  by  which  they  are  granted.  The 
right  of  women  to  full  instruction  is  generally  admitted  in  principle,  and  numerous 
schools,  colleges  and  universities  are  already  open  without  distinction  to  students 
of  both  sexes.  On  the  other  hand  200  colleges  reserved  for  girls  are  attended  by 
about  25,000  students,  and  real  universities,  such  as  Vassar  College  at  Pough- 
keepsie,  have  even  been  founded  for  them. 

Fig.  231 , — Chief  Univer'iities  and  Colleoes  in  the  United  States. 

Scale  1  :  45.000  000. 


West  op  Greenwich 


tiJU  Miles. 


The  older  universities  were  originally  religious  establishments,  which  became 
gradually  transformed  to  secular  institutions.  The  modem  universities,  also 
founded  by  the  states,  the  churches,  or  opulent  citizens,  aim  chiefly  at  a  scientific 
education.  They  are  very  numerous,  but  perhaps  not  more  than  fifteen  contribute 
much  to  the  advancement  of  knowledge.  Moreover,  the  principle  of  "  university 
extension,"  as  it  is  called,  is  gaining  ground,  its  object  being  to  enable  all  citizens 
to  share  in  the  progress  of  science  by  association  with  the  local  universities,  by 
attendance  at  the  professional  lectures  and  even  at  a  regular  course  of  studies,  by 
the  establishment  of  free  libraries  in  every  village,  by  systematic  visits  to  the 
museums,  and  laboratories,  and  by  utilising  the  long  summer  vacations  for  collec- 
tive studies  conducted  by  the  univer.sity  staff,  so  to  say,  alfresco. 

Although  America  is  too  young  to  have  yet  produced  an  ^?58(jhylus,  a 
Shakespeare,  a  Newton.,  a  Laplace  or  a  Hclmholtz,  she  has  already  taken  a  worthy 


"•fTot  rt*^^  "Wttftt « 


RELIGION, 


476 


ools  of  all 

iniversitiea, 

ence.     The 

iind  naval 

Chesapeake, 

diplomas,  so 

efficiency  of 

mted.     The 

id  numerous 

to  students 

attended  by 

B  at  Pough- 


5Wn«VEn- 

<jyoiiic= 


ietShil^g 


=^=?  25 


^hieh  became 
i^ersities,  also 
it  a  scientiRc 
en  contribute 
f  "  university 
le  all  citizens 
liversities,  by 
)f  studies,  by 
visits  to  the 
)n8  for  collec- 

^^suhylus,    a 
ken  a  worthy 


(.'hare  in  the  progress  of  science,  the  arts  and  letters,  as  evidenced  by  such  names 
as  Emerson,  Thoreau,  Hawthorne,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Maury,  Edison,  Dana  and 
many  others.  Of  the  5,000  or  6,000  works  yearly  issued  by  American  publishers 
several  form  valuable  additions  to  the  sura  of  human  knowledge,  and  few  places 
can  compare  with  New  York  and  Boston  for  the  excellence  of  their  scientific  and 
literary  serials. 

According  to  the  Federal  Constitution  the  Church  is  completely  separated 
from  the  state,  and  Congress  abstains  from  all  interference  in  religious  matters. 
The  local  constitutions  also  have  successively  adopted  the  principle  of  universal 
religious  equality,  though  traces  still  survive  here  and  there  of  the  old  intolerant 
spirit.  Regular  subsidies  are  even  voted  to  various  religious  bodies  or  at  least  to 
charitable  and  educational  institutions  controlled  by  the  clergy,  while  ecclesiastical 
buildings  are  exempt  from  taxation  in  most  of  the  states.  The  various  legisla- 
tures, as  well  as  both  Houses  of  Congress,  have  their  chaplains,  the  sessions  begin 
with  an  official  prayer,  days  of  public  fisting  and  penitence  are  solemnly  pro- 
claimed, in  a  word  the  American  Government  may  be  described  as  "  Christian  " 
without  special  qualification,  its  protection  extending  equally  to  all  forms  of  wor- 
ship from  the  Catholic  to  the  Adventist  and  Unitarian.  Certain  writers  have 
spoken  with  alarm  or  with  enthusiasm  of  the  progress  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
But  this  progress  is  due  entirely  to  immigration,  especially  Irish,  German,  and 
Latin.  This  element  probably  forms  one-third  of  the  whole  population,  but  the 
proportion  of  Catholics,  numbering  at  present  over  6,000,000,  is  less  than  a  tenth  ; 
hence  they  have  really  lost  much  ground.  The  proselytising  spirit  is  felt  far 
more  acutely  in  the  North  than  in  the  South.  Thus  it  happens  that,  while  many 
of  the  aborigines  settled  about  the  Great  Lakes  and  beyond  the  Mississippi  call 
themselves  Roman  Catholics,  the  Southern  negroes  still  remain  Baptists  and 
Methodists  as  in  the  plantation  days.  Many  even  of  the  Louisiana  "  Creoles  "  have 
adopted  these  forms  of  Protestantism,  as  if  they  hoped  by  the  change  of  worship 
to  place  themselves  on  a  level  with  their  liberators. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  formerly  powerful  Congregationalist  body,  which  com- 
prised the  Puritans  of  New  England,  has  lost  some  of  its  authority,  while  its  narrow 
dogmatism  has  become  less  rigid.  The  Ccngregationalists,  properly  so  called, 
scarcely  number  more  than  500,000,  so  that  multitudes  of  the  descendants 
of  the  old  Puritans  have  separated  from  the  parent  stem  and  joined  other  sects, 
or  developed  new  forms  of  belief.  Of  those  ofishoots,  one  of  the  most  enlight- 
ened is  that  of  the  Unitarians,  who,  though  relatively  few  in  numbers,  can  boast  of 
such  luminaries  as  C  banning,  Theodore  Parker,  Emerson,  and  Froth  Ingham.  New 
England  is  still  the  stronghold  both  of  the  Ccngregationalists  and  Unitarians. 
Here  are  also  the  headquarters  of  the  Presbyterians,  while  the  Episcopalians, 
Methodists,  and  Baptists  are  more  powerful  in  the  South. 

Besides  the  great  divisions  of  the  Christian  world  there  exist,  as  in  England, 
at  least  150  other  groups  of  a  more  or  less  fluctuating  character.  The  Quakers, 
first  settlers  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  are  reduced  to  about  100,000.  The 
Mormons,  after  severing  themselves  from  all  other  connections,  attempted  to  set 
up  a  distinct  political  state  in  the  Far  West,  whither  they  migrated  in  1847. 


«cm»iu«^i»iitiiiiii>iiK<Mmlii 


'SSj/*'" 


476 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


In  their  new  homes  on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Suit  Lake  the  struggle  with  the 
"  Gentiles "  was  resumed,  and  signalised  by  such  horrors  as  the  massacre  of 
Mountain  Meadow.  The  corn'nunity  of  "  Latter-Day  Saints,"  as  they  cull  them- 
selves, has  by  some  writers  been  regarded  as  an  outcome  of  American  democracy  ; 
but  it  was,  on  the  contrary,  a  reactionary  movement,  which  aimed  at  establishing 
an  infallible  theocracy  in  a  sect  of  Protestant  origin.  In  1890  the  Mormons  num- 
bered over  144,000,  forming  425  communities,  chiefly  in  Utah.     Before  the  sup- 

Fify.  232. — Moemox  Settlements,  Utah  Lake  and  Jokdan  Valley.  ■* 

Scale  1  :  376.000. 


pression  of  polygamy,  interdicted  by  three  successive  Acts  of  Congress,  over  1,300 
"  saints  "  had  been  imprisoned  for  the  crime  of  bigamy.  Many  are  now  migrating  to 
Mexico,  where  they  have  received  large  grants  of  land,  with  full  permission  to 
continue  the  practice  of  polygamy. 

The  so-called  "  camp  meetings  "  are  often  referred  to  as  proving  the  fanatical 
character  of  the  religious  sects  in  the  United  States.  But  these  open-air  gatherings, 
common  enough  in  the  rural  districts  on  the  banks  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  of  the 


^y^.^^gj^- 'J-       .i-.MiWtlKWti 


.Mi.^m.'if   «  .  LUipjm  ii '  .Itiwiwiilliillij. 


aOVERNMENT. 


477 


r\e  with  the 
massacre  of 
y  cull  them- 
democracy  ; 
establishing 
•rmons  num- 
ore  the  sup- 


140' 
Tis' 


398,  over  1,300 

w  migrating  to 

permission  to 

g  the  fanatical 
air  gatherings, 
ikes  and  of  the 


Ohio,  have  little  resemblance  to  the  popular  descriptions.  Impelled  by  the  need  of 
chang(  and  excitement  ingrained  in  all  Americans,  and  c>>pecially  by  the  love  of 
society,  the  farmers,  living  mostly  in  isolation,  feel  from  time  to  time  a  yearning 
for  a/'  revival,"  which  is  itself  a  relaxation  from  the  routine  of  daily  existence, 
and  a  stimulus  for  future  work.  Such  meetings,  usually  hold  in  the  midst  of 
charming  scenery  under  blue  skies  and  on  the  banks  of  sparkling  streams,  are 
really  holidays  combining  pleasure  with  religion,  and  naturally  take  the  form 
corresponding  to  the  prevalent  ideas. 

Government  and  Administuation. 
The  communal   organisation  varies  greatly  in    the   different   states,  and  in 
New  England  alone   the  town  retains  its  original  character  of  a  rural  district 

Fig.  233 —Division  of  Iowa  into  Counties. 

Scnle  1  ;  S.fiOii.fXK). 


averaging  from  four  to  six  square  miles  in  extent,  in  which  the  settlers,  scattered 
over  the  forest  clearings,  were  still  near  enough  for  mutual  help  in  case  of  danger. 
Round  this  municipal  centre  gravitated  the  whole  existence,  civil  and  religious,  of 
the  community.  The  nation  itself  has  grown  out  of  the  union  of  all  these  self- 
governing  towns,  so  that  the  American  republic  may  be  said  to  have  already 
taken  its  rise  in  colonial  times  in  the  primitive  communes  of  New  England.  The 
village  electors  are  all  by  right  members  of  the  assembly,  and  generally  meet  three 
or  four  times  during  the  year,  either  in  the  church  or  the  school,  or  even  in  the 
open  air,  to  discuss  questions  of  general  interest. 

In  New  England  the  counties  are  simply  groups  of  towns  organised  for  the 
administration  of  justice  and  the  construction  of  the  main  highways  ;  but  in  the 
Central  and  Southern  States  the  counties  are  the  primary  administrative  divisions. 


Mil 


l*e«RlnMMjMM 


mSiSmmim^w^ism-A-mmw^m''.  - 


'&'SM\^^-t 


478 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Tn  the  latter  region  the  land  was  not  distributed  amongst  numerous  small  farmers, 
but  formed  vast  domains  worked  by  slave  labour  on  the  plantation  system.  In 
the  Central  and  Western  States  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  country  had  analogous 
consequences.  But  the  social  transformations  brought  about  in  the  South  and 
West  have  had  the  result  of  gradually  forming  townships  modelled  on  the  towns 
of  New  England.  Thus  in  the  West  the  counties  have  been  divided  into  town- 
ships, each  forming  a  geometrical  square  six  miles  on  all  sides,  and  all  disposed  in 
regular  series,  so  that  on  the  plains  and  level  plateaux  the  country  presents 
the  aspect  of  a  chessboard,  as  shown  in  the  county  map  of  Iowa  (p.  477). 
When  the  village  is  sufficiently  developed  it  may  claim  the  official  title  of  "  city," 
and  it  then  receives  a  charter  embodying  the  rights  and  conditions  of  its  new 
organisation.  Each  city  is  administered  by  an  elected  mayor  and  legislature, 
mostly  of  two  chambers,  the  municipal  officers  being  also  elected  in  some  states, 
and  directly  appointed  by  the  mayor  in  others. 

Each  of  the  states  constitutes  a  sovereign  community,  with  political  rights  ante- 
cedent to  those  of  the  Union  itself.  But  since  the  lust  century  the  central  govern- 
ment has  been  gradually  strengthened  at  the  expense  of  the  local  sovereignties. 
In  case  of  conflict  between  the  two,  one  result  of  the  Civil  War  was  to  solve  the 
problem  in  favour  of  the  supreme  authority.  Hence  the  autonomy  of  the  several 
states  is  now  limited  by  the  absolute  obligation  of  remaining  an  integral  part  of 
the  Union,  and  henceforth  the  abstract  right  of  secession,  if  it  ever  existed,  is  com- 
pletely abrogated.  Certain  public  services,  such  as  the  post,  the  army  and  navy, 
the  administration  of  the  territories  und  of  Indian  affairs,  are  also  centralised,  and 
all  questions  as  between  the  Union  and  the  individual  states  must  be  referred  to  the 
Federal  courts.  The  constitutions  of  the  original  states  derive  from  royal  charters, 
some  of  which  were  even  textually  preserved  with  a  few  addenda  after  the  sepa- 
ration from  Great  Britain.  Since  then  frequent  revisions  have  been  made,  the 
people  in  such,  cases  reserving  the  right  of  deliberation  by  special  convention, 
whose  decisions  are  finally  submitted  to  a  plebiscite.  Since  1888  most  of  the 
states  have  modified  the  electoral  laws  on  the  Australian  model,  with  a  vit  w  to 
ensuring  the  secrecy  of  the  voting  and  the  representation  of  minorities. 
Universal  suffrage  exists  in  principle,  although  here  and  there  limited  by  a  few 
slight  conditions,  such  as  the  power  of  reading  the  constitution  in  English,  as  in 
Massachusetts,  which  on  the  other  hand  extends  the  right  of  voting  to  women  on 
educational  questions.  In  Wyoming  women  are  completely  enfranchised,  and  even 
take  their  seats  on  the  jury.  All  the  states  have  an  elected  governor,  and  an 
upper  and  lower  house  elected  for  varying  periods,  the  deputies  receiving  a  small 
subsidy  for  their  services.  In  the  territories  the  people  take  no  part  in  the  legislative 
and  presidential  elections,  and  the  executive  is  represented  by  a  governor  and 
other  functionaries  nominated  by  the  president.  Even  the  delegates  to  Congress, 
one  for  each  territory,  are  barred  from  voting. 

In  its  origin  and  legislative  functions  the  Union  presents  the  twofold  character 
of  a  centralised  state  and  of  a  league  between  sovereign  communities.  After  the 
War  of  Independence  each  of  the  thirteen  states  resumed  the  independent  adminis- 
tration of  its  affairs ;  the  deliberations  of  Congress  hud  little  influence,  and  the 


ADMINISTRATION. 


4.79 


lall  farmers, 
Bystem.  In 
d  antilogous 
3  South  and 
)n  the  towns 
1  into  town- 
1  disposed  in 
try  presents 
m  (p.  477). 
;leof  "city," 
s  of  its  new 
legislature, 
some  states, 

I  rights  ante- 
ntral  govern- 
jovereignties. 
9  to  solve  the 
)f  the  several 
Bgral  part  of 
isted,  is  com- 
ny  and  navy, 
ntralised,  and 
eferred  to  the 
oval  charters, 
'ter  the  sepa- 
en  made,  the 
il  convention, 
most  of  the 
ith  a  vit  w  to 
if    minorities, 
lited  by  a  few 
English,  as  in 
f  to  women  on 
ised,  and  even 
ernor,  and  an 
nving  a  small 
the  legislative 
governor  and 
13  to  Congress, 

)fold  character 
js.  After  the 
ident  adminis- 
euce,  and  the 


federal  tie  scarcely  existed  except  in  theory.  Rut  the  necessity  of  a  closer  union 
soon  became  manifest,  and  the  new  constitution,  carefully  framed  to  secure  absolute 
unity,  while  safeguarding  the  sovereign  right  of  the  several  federated  provinces, 
became  law  for  the  whole  republic  in  1789.  But  the  question  of  slavery  was 
waived,  and  was  thus  left  to  the  decision  of  the  sword  seventy  years  later. 

Fiff.  234. — Shamiiubs  in  Tkxah. 


The  lower  House  of  Congress  is  elected  by  the  American  citizens,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  number  in  the  several  states,  and  as  constituted  in  1789  it  com- 
prised 65  members,  or  one  for  every  30,000  inhabitants.  Since  that  time  they 
have  increased  to  356,  and  would  be  even  far  more  numerous  had  not  the  propor- 
tion of  electors  for  each  representative  been  raised  from  30,000  to  about  176,000 


iAiMiBiilMiltlliilim 


480 


THE  UNIIED  STATES. 


(189:2),  Tbo  moinbors  are  chosen  iimonpst  the  residents  of  the  electornl  districts, 
for  a  period  of  two  years,  and  for  these  elections  the  eulfrago  is  practically  extended 
to  all  men  over  twenty-ono  years  old  ;  but  soldiers,  sailors,  and  oflicialsaro  excluded 
from  llio  representation,  about  three-fourths  of  which  consist  of  lawyers.  Both 
representatives  and  senators  receive  a  yearly  subsidy  of  ^;),00(),  besides  ^125  for 
expenses  and  mileage,  ciilculated  at  twenty  cents  the  mile.  Candidates  for  the 
Senate,  who  must  be  thirty  yours  of  age  and  residents  in  their  respective  states, 
are  returned  for  six  years,  and  are  re-eligible  any  number  of  times.  They  are 
nominated,  two  for  each  state,  by  the  local  legislatures,  and  every  two  years 
a  third  of  the  members  retire  in  rotation,  having  completed  their  term  of  oflBce. 
The  Senate  is  thus  periodically  renewed  by  election  or  re-election ;  but  no  one 

Fig.  23.5. — DnriBioN  of  thk  United  States  into  States  and  Tkrbitories. 

Scale  I  ;  4.'i,()00,(K)0. 


1.  Ml  lie. 

Vi.  New  Hnmpsbire. 

.S.  Vermoiif. 

4    MiiBKiioluiKetts. 

B.  Rhoilc  Irilim']. 

<>.  Connectipiit. 

7.  New  York. 

8.  New  Jersey. 

9.  PenimylviDia 
10.  MaryLmd. 


II.  Deliiwnre. 

I'i.  DiBtric  of  Culumbia. 

!•<.  Virginia. 

14.  Nurth  Carolina. 

15.  South  Carolina 
18.  Oeorgia. 

17.  Florida. 
18   Wfst  Virginia. 
1».  Kentucky. 
20.  Tennessee. 


21.  Alubama. 

22.  MiBMissippi. 
•2S.  Ohio. 

St.  Indiana. 
2!>.  Illinnis. 
20   Mioliignn. 

27.  Wiiieonsin. 

28.  Mintieso'ii. 
2W.  North  naknta. 
ao.  SoutbDakola. 


31.  Towa 
33.  Nebraska. 
3B.  Mifwouri. 
M.  Kansiia. 
S!).  Arkansas. 
30.  1  oiiisiana. 

37.  Texas. 

38.  Indian  Territory. 

39.  Oklahoma. 

40.  Montana. 


41.  Tdabo. 

43.  Wyoming. 
4.>«.  Colorado. 

44.  Utah. 

4fi.  New  Mexioo. 
4K.  Arizoni. 

47.  Nevada. 

48.  Waahington. 
40.  Oreson. 

50.  California. 


— ^■^— ^^— ^^.^— ^  1,240  Miles. 

state  can  ever  elect  its  two  senators  simultaneously.  It  follows  that  if  the 
balance  of  the  two  leading  parties  (Republicans  and  Democrats)  has  been  shifted 
in  the  interval  between  two  elections,  the  two  senators  find  themselves  in 
opposition,  so  that  thftir  votes  are  neutralised.  As  a  legislative  body,  the  Senate, 
of  which  the  vice-president  is  cx-officio  president,  votes  the  laws  by  a  simple 
majority  if  the  President  assents,  and  by  a  majority  of  two-thirds  his  veto  may  be 
overruled.  As  an  executive  body,  the  Senate  confirms  the  presidential  treaties 
and  nominations;  it  also  exercises  judicial  functions  in  the  case  of  high  officials 
incriminated  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  When  the  two  chambers  come 
into  collision  the  Senate  nearly  always  triumphs,  being  a  smaller  and  consequently 
a  better-disciplined  body,  and  can  also  better  afford  to  wait. 


i.«|»g".«HWi>aj,.l>W.jlHllHiW<-i'll{!R'" 





ADMINISTRATION. 


481 


ral  districts, 
lly  extended 
uro  excluded 
yora.     Both 
des  $125  for 
latea  for  the 
lectivo  states, 
8.     They  are 
y  two    years 
3rm  of  office. 
;  but  no  one 


cntOrt 
polia 


^» 


41.  Tilahn. 

43.  WyoiiiiD)?. 
4».  Colorado. 

44.  Utah. 

45.  New  Mexico. 
4«.  Aviioni. 

47.  Nevada. 

48.  Waxhington. 
40.  OreBon. 

BO.  California. 


'8  that  if  the 
as  been  shifted 
themselves  in 
idy,  the  Senate, 
jva  by  a  simple 
lis  veto  may  be 
dential  treaties 
jf  high  officials 
chambers  come 
id  consequently 


The  legislators  of  1787-89  fancied  they  had  taken  every  precaution  to  pro- 
tect the  election  of  the  President  from  party  iuflueiices.  lUit  the  electors  thcra- 
■e)v/.«i  are  nominated  on  the  express  condition  of  voting  for  such  and  such  a 
candiduto  ;  hence  practically  the  popular  vote  settles  tho  question,  the  election  is 
made  on  strictly  party  lines,  and  tho  suffrage  of  the  electors  is  a  mere  matter  of 
form.  (Jonsequeutly,  all  tho  elJorts  of  the  rival  parties  are  aimed  at  securing  tho 
popular  vote.  Each  state  returns  a  ticket  or  list  of  as  many  electors  as  it  has 
representatives  in  both  houses,  and  these  electors  invariably  vote  for  the  candi- 
date of  their  party.  Thus  in  a  state  like  New  York  a  bare  majority  of  a  single 
vote  might  suffice  to  give  a  presidential  candidate  the  electoral  vote  of  that 
state,  and  thus  outweigh  the  nearly  unanimous  suffrages  of  several  loss  important 
states.  In  such  cases,  the  majority  of  the  popular  suffrages  being  represented 
only  by  a  minority  of  the  electors  in  the  second  degree,  the  candidate  really  elected 
by  the  people  is  precisely  the  person  excluded  from  the  White  House.  An  in- 
stance occurred  in  1876,  when  the  Democratic  candidate,  Tilden,  had  to  yield  to 
his  Republican  competitor,  Hayes,  who  had  nevertheless  been  outvoted  by  250,000 
in  an  electorate  of  8,^00,000  voters.  But  at  certain  critical  moments  party 
spirit  grows  to  a  fever  heat  akin  to  that  of  the  passion  of  gambling. 

Hitherto  the  two  great  historical  Republican  and  Democratic  parties  alone  have 
been  recognised,  the  former  since  the  abolition  of  slavery  advocating  protection, 
reciprocity,  bimetallism,  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine ;  the  latter  demanding  free  or 
fair  trade,  and  generally  upholding  tbe  principles  formulated  by  Jefferson.  To 
these  must  now  be  added  two  others,  whose  growing  influence  is  beginning  to  be 
felt  in  controlling  the  presidential  elections — the  Prohibition  Party,  opposed  to 
the  liquor  traffic,  and  favouring  the  extension  of  the  franchise  to  women  (National 
Convention,  Cincinnati,  June  30,  1892),  and  the  People's  Party,  aiming  at  a  better 
distribution  of  accumulated  wealth  by  a  graduated  income  tax.  and  generally  by 
a  legislation  hostile  to  commercial  rings  and  combinations,  and  to  the  privileges 
now  enjoyed  by  railway  companies  and  other  great  trading  corporations  (National 
Convention,  Omaha,  July  4,  1892). 

Without  possessing  the  narue,  the  President  enjoys  far  more  power  than  the 
head  of  any  constitutional  monarchy  in  Europe.  He  commands  the  land  and 
sea  forces,  signs  treaties  with-  the  advice  and  consent  of  two-thirds  of  the  Senate, 
appoints  all  ambassadors  and  consuls,  as  well  as  the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court 
and  the  other  high  state  functionaries  ;  also,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  dis- 
poses of  a  veritable  army  of  p§tty  officials,  summons  Congress  in  emergencies, 
and  at  the  same  time  possesses  the  right  of  vetoing  its  resolutions,  which  in  that 
case  cannot  take  effect  unless  sanctioned  by  two-thirds  of  the  suffrages  in  both 
houses.  The  heads  of  departments  are  named  by  the  President  with  the  almost 
enforced  assent  of  the  Senate,  and  are  in  no  way  responsible  to  Congress.  In  fact, 
they  are  entirely  independent  of  that  body,  and  look  to  the  President  alone, 
like  the  ministers  of  a  Sultan  or  a  Tsar.  Hence  the  whole  weight  of  responsi- 
bility rests  on  the  Head  of  the  State,  who  is  answerable  for  the  conduct  of  his 
subordinates,  and  may  be  impeached  by  Congress. 

The  Secretary  of  State  is  the  first  in  rank  and  power  of  the  eight  secretaries, 
97 


f4ifci'i^i'-.'»^HSfei'tgi5g»J '  ^£ 


462 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


or  heads  of  (lopttrtmentB,  coiiHtit tiling  the  Cabinet  vVt  times  his  influence  is  felt 
oven  more  pofontly  than  thiit  of  the  President  himself.  Hut  the  Oiibinet  lueks 
tlie  unity  of  anulogous  bodies  elnowhere ;  euch  of  the  secretaries  treats  directly 
with  tho  I'resident,  who  summons  them  collectively  or  individually  at  his 
pleasure.  Cabinet  meetings  may  also  take  place  at  the  White  House,  or  in  any 
public  bureau,  or  oven  outside  Washington,  as,  for  instance,  iu  any  of  the 
BO-cuUed  "summer  capitals"  of  the  republic.  Hence,  during  the  warm  season, 
stiitesracu  gravitate  round  tho  places  resorted  to  by  the  President  or  his  more 

Fig.  230.— Mount  Df.rebt  Imijliio. 

Kciilo  1  :  27,\<)OC). 


West  oF  Greenwich 


68*iO- 


•  Lightbouae. 


6MilM. 


influential  ministers.  Owing  to  this  custom,  Long  Branch  and  Bar  Harbor, 
in  Mount  Desert  Island,  have  in  recent  years  acquired  immense  importance  as 
temporary  centres  of  American  politics. 

The  justice  of  the  peace,  elected  in  most  of  the  states  by  popular  suffrage, 
occupies  the  lowest  place  in  the  judicial  hierarchy.  His  functions,  stipend, 
and  term  of  office  vary  in  the  different  states,  and  in  many  places  he  takes 
cognisance  only  of  civil  matters.  Above  him  are  the  local  circuit  and  county 
courts,  the   courts  of    appeal,   and  the  supreme  courts  of   the    several    states. 


ADMINISTRATION. 


488 


cnco  is  felt 
ibinet  lucks 
satH  directly 
tiUy  ut  liis 
0,  or  in  any 
ur.y  of  the 
(irm  season, 
or  his  more 


S"^^ 


t7s/Tc/ 


63'io' 


d  Bar  Harbor, 
5  importance  us 

opulur  suffrage, 
ctions,  stipend, 
places  he  takes 
cuit  and  county 
several    states. 


Fig.  '237.  — LlKKDOAT  StATIONH   0!»   TIIK   MAflHACirUSKTTS  CoAHT. 
Hmle  1  :  lft,(K)0,(i<Hi. 


These  tribunals  (uko  different  numcs,  but  all,  except  those  of  liouinianu,  which 
retains  thu  French  code,  are  organixod  much  in  the  NUtno  way  on  the  methods  of 
procedure  introduced  by  the  Kii^iflish  jurisconsults.  In  most  of  the  ohl  stutes 
the  judges  uro  still  appointed  by  the  governor  and  legislature,  but  elsewhere  they 
lire  eldctcd  by  universal  suffrage.  Appeal  is  allowed  from  the  lower  Federal 
Courts  to  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the 
United  States,  con- 
sisting of  nine 
Federal  justices 
appointed  for  life. 
In  some  of  the 
Northern  Stutes, 
capital  punishment 
has  been  abolished ; 
hut,  on  the  other 
hand,  "Lynch 
law"  still  prevails 
throughout  the 
West  and  South. 

The  United  States 
can  scarcely  be  said 
to  have  a  standing 
army,  this  expres* 
sion  being  scarcely 
applicable  to  a  force 
of  less  than  30,000 
men  scattered  over 
a  territory  nearly  as 
large  as  all  Europe. 
Nevertheless,  cer- 
tain strategic  posi- 
tions on  the  sea- 
board, such  as  the 
approaches  to  New 
York,  are  protected 
by  strong  defensive 
works.  Important- 
services  have  also 
been    rendered    by 

the  military  department,  not  only  in  connection  with  the  Indian  wars,  and  in 
suppressing  brigandage  and  smuggling  along  the  Mexican  frontier,  but  also  in 
carrying  out  such  peaceful  operations  as  the  preliminary  surveys  for  the  trans- 
continental railways,  and  the  construction  of  the  levees  on  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi.     The  army  is  recruited  by  volunteers,  wbi'e  or  black,  between  the 


Depths. 


Oto25 
Fnt  horns. 


MtoBO 
Fathoms. 


Lighthouse. 


Wl  Knthoms 
and  upwards. 

Lifebout  Station. 
— .  30  MUes. 


484 


THE  UNlTEtl  STATES. 


ugoa  of  10  and  ^^),  who  cnj^ago  for  five  yoiini.  llocontly  companies  liave  l)ootj 
fiirmod  of  tlio  Kt'dnkinH,  who  iniiko  uxcelluiit  aiddiurn.  Thon>  is  ii  mIow  pronmUon 
from  tho  runkN,  Imt  most  of  tlio  oflicorn  iiro  supplied  fmin  \Vvni  r()int. 

Tho  navy  ia  rohitively  Htronj^cr  thun  tho  urmy,  bciiif;  rtHiuirwl  for  Huch 
Horvicoa  as  Odcunio  oxphmition,  diplomiitiu  domonHtrutiona,  und  aimilur  work. 
Abundunt  mouna  uro  Hupplie<l  by  tho  cuatoma,  u  fuw  inttMiml  tuxoa,  and  tho  aulo  of 
tho  public  lutida  for  worka  of  u  national  churiictor.  Tho  Govornmont  conduota 
tho  poatul  aorvico  iit  a  alight  U)8a  to  theTrcaaury.  Tho  tvlugraph  syatcm  ia  untircly 
in  private  handa. 

Tho  country  ia  atill  burdened  with  tho  debt  contracted  during  the  Civil  War, 
the    total   coat  of   which  has  boen   oflicially  eatimatod  at  ^(i,  ll)(),(l(M),()l)().     liut 

Fig.  338.— Comparative  Tablk  nv  tiir  MATKnui,  (/'undition  or  tiik  I'.vitkd  Statu 

AND   OTIIKH    I'OWIUH. 


R. 

U,  8 


I 


7 

Hi 
! 

(5 


I 


1 


'A 


B.  jU.S.  U.8,{U.8J   0,     U.S.  U.S.  U.S.  U.S.' B.I. 

1^  g 


B.I.    B.I, 

u.sju.s. 


AU,    U.S.   B.I.    B.I. 


B. 
F, 
M. 

U.I. 


U.S.   US 


R.  B.I. 
OR.      F. 

F.       I, 

«.H.  OR. 

I.    I   R. 

(.1.  A.N. 

8.      S. 

U.S.  U.S. 


F. 

R. 
B.I. 
OR. 
A,H, 

I. 


U.S.   OR. 


lu.s. 


A.-ll.  Auatria-Hungary.  Bll.  Dnizil. 

All.  Auntrnlia.  V.  Cuba. 

H.  Beliriiiin.  K.  France. 

B.I.  BritUh  lilts.  CI.  Ouiana. 


dr.  Oprmiiny. 

J.    JtlVlt. 

Ii.  Kuuia. 

II.  Holland. 

M.  Mfxino. 

S.  Hpiiin. 

I.  Italjr. 

I'.-B.  I'ueito-Rico. 

V.  s.  United  Blatei 

to  this  must  bo  odded  about  ^2,000,000,000  sj^ent  by  the  South.  The  national 
debt  rose  from  |90,000,000  before  to  $2,773,000,000  after  the  war,  involving  an 
annual  charge  of  $150,000,000.  The  debt  has  been  reduced  by  two-thirda  (1891), 
while  the  converaiona  at  lower  rates  of  interest  have  got  rid  of  a  fifth  of  tho 
original  charges.  Thus  the  administration  is  troubled  not  by  a  deficit  but  by  an 
excess  of  revenue,  A  numerous  class  of  parasites  live  on  the  public  funds,  and 
the  army  with  its  pensions  costs  more  than  the  vast  military  forces  of  France  or 
Germany.  Over  600,000  survivors  of  the  Civil  War  are  on  the  pension  list,  draw- 
ing on  an  average  $120  a  year,  and  this  list  has  been  recently  increased.  Including 
the  states  and  territories,  the  counties,  cities,  and  schools,  the  total  indebtedness  of 
the  republic  exceeds  $2,000,000,000,  corresponding  to  a  charge  of  $32  a-head. 


^ 'V'a>'...;.'»'!l'-" 'I'iOJ?'- 


uH  have  l)ooii 
)W  proiiiolioii 

t. 

red  for  hucU 
liinilur  work, 
lul  tho  milo  of 
lont  conductH 
cm  is  untirily 

ho  Civil  War, 
lOO.OOO.     Hut 

D  h'TATBS 


F.  F. 

R.  B.I. 

I,     R.I.  8. 
R.I  OR.      I. 

I.     «,H.  «.H. 
,H.     I.    I   R- 

I.     U.S.  OR. 

1.8.         lu.S. 


IluMila. 

Hpain. 

)«.  United  Statei. 


.     The  national 
ar,  involving  an 
ro-thirds  (1891), 
3f  a  fifth  of  tho 
Icficit  but  by  an 
ublic  funds,  and 
•CCS  of  France  or 
msion  list,  draw- 
eased.  Including 
1  indebtedness  of 
f  4,32  a-head. 


AITENDIX. 


STATIHI'K'S  OF  TFIK  UNION. 


NoiiTH  An.ANTi(!  Statks. 


Am  in  iq.  mUcf 

Miiiiin 

.n  040 

Ni'w  l(iiiii|mhiru 

\t,m'> 

Vi'miirtit 

9,«ea 

MaHNiii^hiiMottM 

8,314 

KhiMlo  Inliiriil 

1,230 

('<)iin(<<ti(mt     . 

4,mio 

N..W  York       . 

4i».I70 

Nijw  .IdrHcy     . 

7.S15 

I'uiin»ylviiiiia  . 

i\2lli 

Total 

168,666 

BOUTII   ATLAHTIC  StATM. 

Doliiwiirc) 

2,0«0 

Miirylaml 

12,210 

I)i«trict  of  Columbia 

70 

VirKinia 

42,4/50 

Wt'Ht  Virj^iiia 

24,780 

North  Carolina 

.1'^2.'50 

Houth  Carolina 

.10,570 

(Ipor^ia 

69,475 

noridtt 

68,680 

Total 

282,636 

NoETn  Ckntbal  Statm. 

Ohio 

41,000 

Indiana 

36,3.')0 

IlIinoiM   . 

66,660 

Michifi;»n 

68,916 

Wisconniu 

60,040 

MinneHota 

83,365 

Iowa 

60,025 

MiiMouri 

69,416 

North  Dakota 

70,795 

Sonth  Dakota 

77,660 

Nebraska 

77,510 

Kansas 

82,080 

Total 

765,866 

South  Centhat,  States. 

Kentucky 

40,400 

Tennessee 

42,050 

Alabama 

62,250 

Mississippi 

40,810 

Louisiana 

48,720 

Texas      . 

265,780 

Oklahoma  (Territory) 

39,0.30 

Arkansas 

63,850 

Total 


ARFAS  ANII   n)PrLATIONH. 


Tiixiil)!* 

riipuUiioii,  ifwo. 

648.936 

346,991 

332,288 
1,783,085 

270,631 

622,700 
6,082,871 
1,131,110 
4,282,801 

14,607,407 


140,608 
934,943 
177,624 

1,612,666 
618,4V/ 

1,39'),  7  50 
996,677 

1,642,180 
269,493 


588,890 


7,597,197 


3,198,062 

1,978,301 

3,077,871 

1,630,937 

1,315,497 

780,773 

1,624,615 

2,168,380 

36,909 

98,268 

452,402 

996,096 

17,364,111 


1,648,690 
1,542,359 
1,262,.50J 
1,131,597 
939,946 
1,591,749 

802,525 
8,919,371 


rnpulntioii,  IHIIO. 

0(11, OHO 

376,530 

332,422 

2,2;i8,943 

346,600 

740.258 

6,997,8.53 

1,444,933 

6,258,014 

17,401,646 


108,493 
1,042,390 

230,392 
1,6,55,980 

762,794 
1,617,947 
1,151,149 
1,837,353 

391,422 

8,867,920 


3,672,316 
2,192,404 
3,820,351 
2,093,889 
1,686,880 
1,301,826 
1,911,896 
2,679,184 
182,719 
328,808 
1,068,910 
1,427,096 


22,362,279 


1,858,635 
1,767,518 
1,513,017 
1,289,600 
1,118,587 
2,235,523 
61,834 
1,128,179 

10,972,893 


■mi 


»i!»Mg':a»3ij^«;*ffl^^»- 


8C 

APPENDIX. 

Westebn  Statks. 

Taxable 

Taxable 

Arei  in  sq.  miles 

Population.  1880. 

ropulittiiin,  18U0 

Montana 

140,080 

39,169 

132,159 

Wyoming 

97,890 

20,789 

60,705 

Colorado 

103,925 

194,327 

412,198 

New  Mexico  (Territory) . 

122,580 

119,565 

163,593 

Arizona  (Territory) 

113,020 

40,440 

69,620 

Utah  (Territory)     . 

84,970 

143,963 

207,905 

Nevada  . 

110,700 

62,260 

45,761 

Idaho      .... 

84,800 

32,010 

84,385 

Washington    . 

69,180 

75,116 

349.390 

Oregon  .... 

96,030 

174,768 

313,767 

California 

168,360 

864,694 

1,208,130 

Total 

1,187,535 

.      1,767,697 

3,027,613 

Alaska  (Territory)  . 

677,390 

33,426 

31,795 

Indian  Territory     . 

31,400 

79,024 

186,490 

Other  Indians  not  taxed 

— 

— 

141,709 

U.S.  Portion  of  Gt.  Lakes 

65,177 

— 

— 

Del  and  New  York  Bays 

720 

— 

— 

Total,  United  States    . 

3,668,167 

.    5t',  208, 233 

62,982,244 

GROWTH  OF  THE  POPULATION  SINCE  THE  FIRST 

CENSUS    (1790). 

Year. 

White. 

Free  Coloured.         Slave. 

Total. 

1790       .       . 

3,172,006 

69,627            697,681 

3,929,214 

1810       .       . 

6,802,073 

186,446         1,191,362 

7,239,881 

1830       .       . 

.       10,637,378 

319,699         2,009,043 

12,866,020 

1840       .       . 

.       14,195,805 

386,293         2,487,355 

17,069,453 

1800       .       . 

.       26,922,637 

488,070         3,963,760 

31,433,321 

1880       .       . 

.       43,402,970 

6,580,793               — 

60,155,783 

1890       .       . 

.       64,983,890 

7,638,360               — 

62,622,250 

Note.— The  results  of  the  11th  Census  (1890)  show  an  aggregate  taxable  population  of  32,067,880 
males,  30,554,370  females;  63,372,703  native  bom,  9,249,547  foreign  bom;  54,983,890  white,  7,638,360 
coloured.  The  increase  in  native  bom  during  the  decade  was  22-76  per  cent,  as  against  31 '78  per  cent, 
for  the  decade  ending  1880.  The  increase  in  foreign  bom  for  the  same  periods  wos  38-47  and  1999  per 
cent,  respectively.  The  rate  of  increase  for  the  whole  white  poptilation  was  26'68  and  for  the  coloured 
13*11  per  cent.  Hence  the  whites  are  increasing  about  twice  as  rapidly  as  the  coloured,  a  result  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  surprise  of  the  1800  Census,  as  the  contrary  was  supposed  to  be  the  case.  It 
appears  on  the  other  hand  that  14-77  per  cent,  of  the  population  in  1890  were  foreig^n  bom,  as  against 
13'32  per  cent,  in  1880  and  9"68  per  cent,  in  1850. 


IMMIGRATION  RETURNS  FOR  THE  DECADE  ENDING   1891. 


Year. 

Sritisb  Isles.           Germany.            Scandinavia. 

Austria-Hungary. 

1882 

.       .       179,423               250,630 

105,326 

29,150 

1884 

.       .       129,294               179,676 

52,728 

35,671 

1886        . 

.       .       112,548 

84,403 

46,735 

28,680 

1888 

.       .       182,203    .          1 

09,717 

81,924 

45,811 

1891 

.       .       122,311    *          113,654 

60,107 

71,042 

Year. 

Italy. 

Bussia. 

France. 

Total. 

1882 

.       .         32,159 

21,690 

6,004 

788,992 

1884 

.       .         16,515 

17,225 

3,608 

618,692 

188G 

.       .        21,315 

fl,739 

3,318 

334,203 

1888 

.       .        61,668 

39,313 

6,454 

546,889 

1891 

.       .         76,065 

74,923 

6,770 

660,319 

Total  Immigration,  1820-1891 :— 15 

,946,410. 

CHIEF  RELIGIOUS  DENOMINATIONS  (1890). 

Roman  Catholics     . 

.       6,250,046 

Congregational 

491,985 

Methodists  of  various  Sects 

.       4,980,240 

Episcopal 

. 

480,176 

Baptists  of  various  Sects 

.       4,292,291 

Friends   . 

. 

. 

106,930 

Presbyterians  . 

.       1,229,012 

Mormons 

. 

144,352 

Lutherana 

1,086,048 

Jews  (1889)      . 

•                  o                  • 

13,683 

ll 


1)^ 


Taxable 

ropulalioii,  1990. 

132,159 

60,705 
412,198 
163,593 

69,620 
207,906 

45,761 

84,385 

349,390 

313,767 

.      1,208,130 

.      3,027,613 

31,795 
180,490 
141,709 


62,982,244 


JS    (1790). 

tal. 

9,214 

9,881 

6,020 

9,453 

!3,321 

i6,783 

!2,250 

ulation  of  32,067,880 
,890  white,  7,638,360 
gainst  31-78  per  cent. 
1  38-47  and  19-99  per 
and  for  the  coloured 
Dured,  a  result  -which 
d  to  be  the  case.  It 
eign  bom,  as  against 


}  1891. 
stria-Hungary. 
29,150 
35,571 
28,680 
45,811 
71,042 

Total. 
788,992 
518,592 
334,203 
546,889 
560,319 


491,985 
480,176 
106,930 
144,352 
13,683 


APPENDIX. 

487 

EDUCATIONAL  RETURNS  (1890). 

Enrolled  in 

Average  Daily         Expended  for 

No.  of 

Ko.  of 

No.  of 

Publio  Schools. 

Attendance.           I'ublio  Schools. 

Co  leges. 

Teachers. 

Students 

North  Atlantic  States  . 

3,105,991 

2,040,445           $48,000,369 

72 

1,071 

21,542 

South  Atlantic  States  . 

1,746,085 

1,116,276               8,400,291 

56 

080 

9,258 

South  Central  States     . 

2,307,289 

1,470,745             10,684,340 

73 

782 

17,430 

North  Oontral  States    . 

5,015,217 

3,188,732            63,047,172 

184 

2,000 

48,287 

Western  States     . 

613,285 

333,0'.2             10,130,815 

30 
415 

364 

6,453 

Total       . 

.     12,088,467 

8,151,810         $140,268,087 

5,503 

102,970 

PERIODICAL    LITERATURE    (1889). 
Circulation. 


Daily  Newspapers .         1,494 
WeekUes  .       .       .       12,234 


5,713,750 
19,688,000 


Monthlies 
Sundries 


,898 
693 


Circulation. 
7,472,750 


CRIME    AND    PAUPERISM. 
Convicts  in  penitentiaries  (1880),  35,538 ;  (1890)  45,233;  of  whom  30,646  whites,  14,687  coloured, 
21,173  native  bom,  7,267  foreign  bom. 

Indoor  paupers  (1880),  66,203;  (1890)  73,045;  of  whom  66,578  whites,  6,467  coloured,  27,646  foreign. 


RETURNS  OF  INDIAN  RESERVATIONS. 

Btates  and 

Area  of  Reserves 

Indian  Popu- 

States and 

Area  of  Reserves    Indian  Popu- 

1  oiTitories. 

in  square  miles. 

lation,  1890. 

Territories. 

in  square  miles 

.      lation,  1890. 

Arizona  . 

10,317 

30,749 

North  Carolina 

102 

3,000 

California 

772 

12,108 

North  Dakota 

9,158 

7,759 

Colorado 

1,710 

1,793 

Oklahoma 

20,770 

13,176 

Idaho 

3,552 

4,251 

Oregon    . 

3,242 

4,507 

Indian  Territory 

40,411 

68,2-26 

South  Dakota 

18,221 

19,696 

Iowa 

2 

399 

Texas     . 

— 

290 

Kansas    . 

159 

1,010 

Utah       . 

6,207 

2,211 

Michigan 

42 

7,4-28 

Washington    . 

6,321 

9,830 

Minnesota 

3,523 

6,403 

Wisconsin 

800 

9,152 

Montana 

16,649 

10,842 

Wyoming 

3,660 

1,668 

Nebraska 

214 

3,-254 

Miscellaneous  . 

— 

1,302 

Nevada   . 

1,490 

8,375 

New  Mexico    . 

15,629 

10,998 

Total,  1890 

162,991 

243,624 

Now  York 

137 

6,112 

Total,  1880 

.        241,800 

256,127 

FEDERAL 

FINANCE. 

Year. 

Revenue. 

Expenditure. 

Year. 

Revenue. 

Expenditure. 

1882 

$403,526,250 

$-257,981,440 

1887 

$371,403,'277 

$267,932,180 

1884 

348,519,869 

244,126,244 

1891 

392,612,447 

355,372,685 

Inco 

UE,  1892  (kst.). 

OCTLAT,    1892  {F.ST  ). 

Customs 

. 

$185,000,000 

Civil  Service  and  Sundries  . 

$100,000,000 

Internal  Revenue 

•                                           • 

152,000,000 

Pensions    . 

. 

126,000,000 

Postal  Service     . 

. 

71,000,000 

Indians 

. 

12,000,000 

Miscellaneous     . 

•                      •                     • 

26,000,000 

Military  and  Naval  Depai-tmen.s 

78,000,000 

Interest  on  Debt 

■ 

23,000,000 

tal 

Postal  Service 

Total 

71,000,000 

To 

$433,000,000 

$409,000,000 

PcBUC  Debt  i 

lt  Vabious  Periods  :— 

year. 

Year. 

1860  (before  the  Civ 

'il  War)  . 

$68,000,000 

1884     . 

. 

$1,830,000,000 

1866     . 

.        •        " 

2,773,000,000 

1887     . 

•        •        .        • 

1,700.000,000 

1877     . 

. 

2,205,000,000 

1892     . 

, 

903,000,000 

Assessed  v 

aluo  of  real  and  personal  properl 

y  (1890) 

$24,250,000,000 

Estimated 

true  value  (188 

0)    .         .         . 

. 

43,642,000,000 

State  and  County  Debts  (1890) 


$366,000,000  =  $5-83  per  head  of  population. 


FEDERAL  ARMY. 
Officers,  2,169  ;  Men  26,000. 


imm^Mff 


488 


APPENDIX. 


FEDERAL  NAVY  (1891). 
Vessels  in  commission,  17  ;    b\iildi«g,  20. 


Ceeeal  Chops  :— 
Year. 
1886 
1890 

Indian  Com  (1891)  . 
Wheat  (i8Dl)   . 
Oats  (1891)       . 
Cotton  (1888)   . 
Tobacco  (1889) 


AGRICULTURAL  RETURN3. 


Acres. 
142,000,000 
134,000,000 

Acres. 
7(5,204,000 
40,000,000 
2.5,582,1,00 
19.000,000 
692,000 


Bushels. 
2,842,000,000 
2,402,000,000 

Bushels. 

2,060,000,000 

611,780,000 

736,394,000 

6,940,000 

(lbs.)  488,000,000 


Value. 
^1,162,000,000 
1,311,000,000 

Value. 

$836,440,000 

513,472,000 

232,000,000 

292,000,000 

34,844,000 


Cotton  crnp  (1890),  3,628, ,520,000  lbs.,  the  largest  ever  raised. 

Sugar  (1890),   136,494  tons,  produced  mostly  in  Louisiana. 

Vineyards  (1889),  402,000  acres;  24,307,000  gaUons  of  wine;  1,372,000  boxes  of  raisins  (Culifornia) 


LIVE-STOCK. 


Cattle 
Sheep 
Swine 
Horses 


1870. 

25,484,000 

40,853,000 

26,751,000 

8,249,000 


1880. 
33,2.58,000 
40,765,000 
34,034,(;00 
11,202,000 


1890. 
52,802,000 
44,336,000 
61,603,000 
14,976,000 


1891. 
62,895,000 
43,431,000 
60,625,000 
14,056,000 


Lumber  (1888),  30,000,000,000  cubic  feet ;  value,  $600,000,000. 


Pig  iron 
Silver 
Gold 
Copper 
Lead 
Zinc  . 
Quicksilver 
Bituminous  Coal 
Anthracite 
Petroleum 
Natural  Gas 
.  Salt 

YIELD  OF  PRECIOUS 
Tear. 
1889 
1890 
1891 


MINING  RETURNS  (1890). 
Quantity. 
9,202,703  tons 
54,500,000  troy  oz. 

1,-588,880       „ 
265,115,133  lbs. 
161,7.54  tons 
63,683     ,, 
22,926  flasks 
99,392,871  tons 
41,490,000   „ 
46,000,000  barrels 


Value. 

$151,200,410 

70,464,645 

32,84.5,000 

30,848,797 

14,266,703 

6,266,407 

1,203,615 

110,420,800 

66,384,000 

35,400,000 

18,700,000 

8,777,000       „       .        .  4,752,000 

METALS  FOR  THE  THREE  YEARS  ENDING  1891. 
Gold.  Silver.  Total. 

.       $32,886,744        $66,396,988         $99,283,732 
32,845,000  70,464,645         103,309,645 

33,260,000  74,820,000         108,450,000 


Year. 
1870 
1880 


MANUFACTURES. 

No  of  Factories.         Hands  Employed.        Value  of  Product*. 
262,148  2,053,996  $3,385,760,000 

■        ;        ;  253,852  2,732,695  6,370,000,000 

Cott«n  goods  (1880),  2,771,798,000  lbs.  ;  (1890)  3,628,520,000  lbs. 
Pig  iron  (1882),  5,178,000  tons  ;  (1890)  10,307,000  tons. 
RoUed  iron  (1889),  2,686,000  tons;  (1890)  2,820,000  tons. 
Bessemer  steel  ingots  (1887),  3,288,000  tons;  (1890)  4,131,000  tons. 
Bessemer  steel  rails  (1890),  2,013,000  tons. 


FISHERIES. 

Whale  and  seal  fisheries  (1889),  101  vessels  of  22,660  tons  ;  products,  $1,835,000. 
Fur,  seal,  and  other  industry  (1889),  $125,000.  ,       ^    ,„.„,.,         , 

Capital  invested  in  all  the  fisheries  (1880,,  $37,500,000;  hands  employed,  131,426;  value  of 
products,  $43,000,000. 


t 


mmiv»-i'iMKi»mmi/ii« 


-- 


APPENDIX. 


489 


TRADE  RETURNS. 


line. 

D00,000 

900,000 

lue. 

440,000 

472,000 

000,000 

000,000 

844,000 


ains  (Culifornia) 


1881. 

895,000 
431,000 
,625,000 
,056,000 


klne. 

90,410 

64,645 

45,000 

48,797 

66,703 

66,407 

03,615 

20,800 

184,000 

00,000 

00,000 

'52,000 

m  1891. 

1. 

■32 
i45 
100 


Product*. 
760,000 
000,000 


000. 
131,426 ;  value  of 


Year. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Totiil. 

18li7 

.     $294,504,141 

$396,761,096 

$090,267, 

237 

1877 

602,475,220 

451,323,126 

1,063,798, 

546 

1891 

.       884,480,810 

844,916,19,! 

1,729,397,006 

General  Exports  (18911. 

Valae. 

Genernllmportg  (1W)1). 

Viilne. 

Unmanufuoture J :    ■ 

Agricultural 

$G4'2,751,314 

Food  and  Aiiinmlt 

• 

$284,715,737 

Mines 

22,054.970 

liaw  Materials 

. 

196,393,069 

Forests 

28,715,713 

Wholly  or  partly  mar 

infactured 

107,024,423 

Fisheries   . 

6,208,677 

Manufactured    and 

ready    for 

All  others 

•                •                 • 

3,612,364 

con.sumptiou 

138,469,966 

Manufactured  . 

1 

168,927,315 
#827,270,283 

Luxuries 

Total 

118,312,401 

Tota 

$844,916,196 

Exports  to. 

Imports  from. 

Exports  to. 

Imports  from. 

United  Kingdom 

1*41,000,000 

$194,723,000 

Cuba  . 

$11,930,000 

$61,714,000 

Germany     . 

91,685,000 

97,316,000 

Mexico 

14,199,000 

27,296,000 

France 

69,826,000 

76,089,000 

British  West  Indies 

9,546,000 

16,293,000 

British  N.  America 

37,345,(00 

39,434,000 

Brazil 

14,049,000 

83,230,000 

Belgium      . 

26,694,000 

10,945,000 

China 

8,700,000 

19,321,850 

Netherlands 

23,817,000 

12,422,000 

Japan 

6,277,000 

3,243,000 

Spain 

14,608,000 

.     6,033,000 

Haiti 

4,101,000 

19,309,000 

lUly  . 

15,927,000 

21,678,000 

C.  American  States 

6,104,000 

9,799,000 

Russia 

7,925,000 

4,833,000 

British  East  Indies 

4,656,000 

23,367,000 

British  Australasia 

12,892,000 

6,239,000 

MERCANTILE  MARINE  (1891). 


BailiDK 
No. 
Atlantic  and)    ,0  na/; 
Gulf  Coasts/   ^^'""'^ 
Pacific  Coast         871 
Nrthm  Lakes    1,243 
W»tm.  Rivers    -- 

Vesaels. 
Tons. 

1,599,287 

247,319 
325,131 

Steamers. 
No.          'Jons. 

2,935       886,375 

6781      187,429 
1,592       736,7.52 
1,111       205,708 

Total,  1891 .    16,199 

2,171,737 

6,216J  2,016,264 

Canal  Boats, 
No 


443 
703 

1,146 


Tons. 
48,484 

72,615 


No. 

1,101 

9 

62 

166 


Barges. 

Tons. 

246,537 

6,109 

20.472 

102,640 


120,999,  1,338 


375.768 


No. 

17,564 

1,468 
3,600 
1,277 


Total 


23,889 


Tons. 

2,780,683 

440,8.58 

1,154.870 

308,348 


4,684,769 


NAVIGATION. 

Vessels  Entebed. 
1»>'^. 


isni. 


American  . 
Foreign 

Total 


American  . 
Foreign     . 

Total 


No. 
10,4.59 
21,387 

31,846 

No. 
10,878 
21,498 

32,37(< 


Tonnage. 

3,724,325 

12,237,794 

16,962,119 

Tonnage. 

3,988,454 

12,364,693 

16,34.3,147 


Cl.EAR£D. 


No. 

11,046 
21,632 

32,578 

No. 
11,182 
21,521 

32,703 


Tonnage. 
4,380,804 
13,823,491 

18,204,295 

Tonnage. 

4,455,402 

13,806,430 

18,260,832 


Proportion  of  foreign  trade  carried  by  American  vessels  (1856),  76-2  per  cent. ;  (1891  ,  11-94  per  cent. 


RAILWAYS. 

1S50.  1870. 

9,000     .         .     63,400 


1830.  ISSO.  1870.  1880.  1SB2. 

Lines  open    .         .    23  miles    .         .     9,000     .         .     63.400    .         .     84,393    .         .     171,000 

Total  capital  invested  in  railways  (1890),  $9,681,000,000;  gross  yearly  earnings,  $1,003,735,000; 
net  earnings,  $322,286,000. 


TELEGRAPHS  AND  TELEPHONES. 

Miles  open  (1890),  210,000,  mostly  owned  by  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  which  in 
1890  had  679,000  miles  of  wire  and  19,;}82  offices.  Messages  sent,  55,887,000;  receipt!,  $22,389,000  ; 
expenses,  $16,000,000. 

Telephone  wires  in  use  (1890),  260,000  miles. 


■««*l 


mi^ 


^^S^'' 


490 


Year. 

1886 
1890 


ArrENDix. 

POST  OFFICE  RETURNS. 

Pieces  of  Mail          B("(n»terea  Sncks 

handled.                PaekaRes.  handled 

6,329,521,475         16,525,844  798,725 

7,847,723,600        16,570,293  1,138,208 


Total. 
6,345,846,044 
7,865,438,101 


STATISTICS    OF  THE  STATES  AND  TEREITORIES. 

MAINE  (Capital,  Augusta). 
Position  in  the  Union: —  °" 

Superficial  area,  33,040  square  miles 

Population  (189U),  661,086 ^^ 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  20 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890)  :-Portland.  36,426  ;   Lewiston,  21,701  ;   Bangor,  19,103; 
Biddeford,  14,443;  Auburn,  11,250;  Augusta,  10,527;  Bath,  8,723. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  (Capital,  Concord). 

No 
Position  in  the  Union:—  .' 

Superficial  area,  9,305  square  miles "' 

Population  (1890),  376,530 ^^ 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  40-46 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890)  :-Manchester,  44,126;  Nashua,  19,311  ,•  Concord,  17,004  ; 
Dover,  12,790;  Portsmouth,  9,827. 

VERMONT  (Capital,  Montpelior). 

Position  in  the  Union  :—  ^°' 

Superficial  area,  9,565  square  miles ** 

Population  (1890),  332,422 '    *         "         '         20 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  34  75 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890)  :-Burlii:gton,  14,690;  Rutland,  11,760;  Saint  Albans,  7,771; 

Brattleboro,  6,862. 

MASSACHUSETTS  (Capital,  Boston). 
Position  in  the  Union: —  ^"' 

Superficial  area,  8,315  square  miles *° 

Population  (1890),  2,238,943 ° 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  26926 ^ 

Public  Instruction  (7,859  schools,  443,644  scholars)       ....  1 

Industrial  products,  §549,346,652 

Boston  :— Shipping  (1890)  :-Entered,  6,387  vessels  of  1,923,545  tons. 
Total  imports,  $66,000,000  ;  exports,  $72,500,000. 
Commercial  fleet  (1890),  634  of  261,626  tons. 
Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890)  :-Bo8ton,  448,477  ;  Environs  of  Boston:  Cambrid^.  70,028; 
Somerville,  40,152;  Chelsea,  27,909  ;  Newton,  24.379  ;  Maiden,  23.031  ;  Waltham   18,707;  Brookline, 
12  103-   Medford,    11,079.      Worcester,  84,655;   Lowell,  77,696;   Fall  River,   (4,398;   Lynn,  6o,727  ; 
Lawrence,   44,054;    Springfield,   44,179;   New   Bedford.   40,733;    Holyoke,   35,637;   Salem,  30,801  ; 
Haverhill,  27.412  ;  Brockton,  27,294;  Taithton,  25,448  ;  Gloucester,  24,651 ;  Fitchburg,  22,037. 

RHODE  ISLAND  (Capital,  Providence). 

PosrriON  in  the  Union:—  ^^• 

Superficial  area,  1,250  square  miles "^ 

Population  (1890),  345,506 ^5 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  27640        .        .        .        •        •        ;,    „"     „„     _.  ,    ^. 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) : -Providence,  132,146;  Pawtucket,  27,633;  Woonsockett. 

20,830;  Lincoln,  20,355;  Newiwrt,  19,457. 

CONNECTICUT  (Capital,  Hartford). 

Position  is  the  Union:—  °- 

Supei-ficial  area,  4,990  square  miles *» 

Population  (!890),  746,258 ^9 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  149-55 

CHIF.F  TOWNS,  WITH  POPULATION  (1890)  :-New  Haven,   81,298;   Hartford    63  230  ;   Bridgeport, 

48  866-  Waterbury,   28,646;    Meriden,  21,652;   New  Britain,  19,007;    Norwalk,  17,747;   Dacbury, 
16,652 ';  Norwich,  16,156;  Stamford,  15,700:  New  London,  15,700. 


■''^^f:gmsimvmii->'^^i>^^<amm-  •- 


V 


APPENDIX. 


401 


Total. 
15,846,044 

55,438,101 


RIES. 


No. 
39 
30 
30 


Bangor,  19,103; 


No. 
4.5 
33 
15 

Concord,  17,004  ; 


No. 
41 
36 
20 

lint  Albans,  7,771; 


No. 

46 
6 
3 
1 
3 


Dambridge,  70,028; 
18,707;  Brookline, 
18 ;  Lynn,  65,727  ; 
7 ;  Salem,  30,801  ; 
irg,  22,037. 

No. 

60 

35 

2 

,633 ;  Woonsockett, 


3,230  ;   Bridgeport, 
17,747 ;   Dacbory, 


NEW  YORK  (Capital,  Albany). 

Position  in  the  Union  ; —  '^•'• 

Superficial  area,  49,170  square  miles 29 

Population  (1890),  6,00;i,157  (inc.  5,304  Indians  not  taxed)  .  1 

Density  to  tho  square  mile,  122 " 

.,  Trade,  $1,000,000,000 I 

Industries,  |1, 800,000,000 ^ 

Erie  Canal,  navigation  (1889),  6,370,370  tons. 

New  York  City  :— Imports  (1891),  $402,764,000;  exports,  $368,000,000. 

Shipping  (1890) :  entered,  6  407  of  6,258,222  tons  ;  cleared,  4,947  of  6,025,618  tons. 

Hudson  River,  navigation  between  Now  York  and  Albany  (1890),  18,582,596  tons 

Buffalo,  shipping  (ltj90),  1,936  vessels  of  285,120  tons  entered  and  cleared. 
Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890)  :— New  York  (official),  1,516,301  ;  Now  York  (amended), 
1  710  716-  Brooklyn  and  Long  Island  City.  836,849;  Buffalo,  2.)5,664  ;  Rochester,  133,890;  Albany, 
with  environs,  109,103;  Syracuse,  88,143;  Troy,  with  environs,  85.665;  Utioa,  44,007;  Binghampton, 
35.005;  Yonkers,  32,033;  Elmira,  30,893;  Auburn,  25,858;  Newburgh,  23,087;  Poughkoepsie, 
22,206;  Cohoes,  22,609;  Oswego,  21.842;  Kingston,  21,261. 

NEW  JERSEY  (Capital,  Trenton). 
Position  in  the  Union  :—  S^»- 

Superficial  area,  7,815  square  miles 47 

Population  (1890),  1,414,933 18 

Density  to  tho  square  mile,  184-89 4 

Chief  Towns  with  Population  (1890): -Newark,  181,830;  Jersey  City,  163,003;  Patorson,  78,347, 
Camden  and  Uloucester,  64,877  ;  Trenton,  57,458  ;  Hoboken,  43,648  ;  EUzaboth,  37,764. 

PENNSYLVANIA  (Capital,  Hurrisburg). 

Posit roN  in  the  Union  :—                     ,  ^''• 

Superficial  area,  45,215  square  miles •»* 

Population  (1890),  6,258.014 - 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  116-28 

Output  :-Coal,  77,000,000  tons  (58  per  cent,  of  the  Union)  .        .        .  1 

Petroleum  (with  Now  York),  900,000,000  gallons  .         ...  I 

Pig  iron,  4,712,000  tons ^ 

Philadelphia  -.-Industries  (1890),  $200,000,000  ;  foreign  trade,  $78,000,000. 
Shipping:   1,416  vessels  of  1,410,640  tons  entered. 
Commercial  fleet,  1,025  vessels  of  255,695  tons. 
Chief  Towns,  WITH  Population  (I890):-Philadelphia,  1,046,964;  Pittsburg,  238  617  ;  Allegheny, 
105,287  ;-Scranton,  75,216  ;  Reading,  68,661;  Erie.  40,634;  Harrisburg,  39  385;  Wdkesbarre  37,718  ; 
Lancaster,  32,011 ;  Altoona,  30,337  ;  WiUiamsport,  27,132;  Allentown,  26,2-28  ;  Johnsto^-n,  21,805. 

DELAWARE  (Capital,  Dover). 

Position  in  the  Union  :—  No. 

Superficial  area,  2,050  square  miles 

Population  (1890),  168,493 '*^ 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  82  19 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890)  :-Wilmington,  61,437;  New  Castle,  4,010;  Dover,  3,061. 

MARYLAND  (Capital,  Annapolis). 

POBITION  IN  THE  UnION  :—  ^°- 

Superficial  area,  12,210  square  miles      .......        43 

Population  (1890),  l,042,;i90 27 

Density  to  tiie  square  mile,  86-37 

Baltimore  :-Export8  (18901,  $73,984,000  ;  imports,  $13,140,000. 
Foreign  shipping  (1890),  703  vessels  of  846,239  tons  entered. 
Chief  Towns,  WITH  Population  (1890)  :-Baltimore,  434,439;  Cumberland,  12,729;  Hagerstowu, 
10,118;  Frederick,  8,193;  Annapolis,  7,604. 

FEDERAL  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA  (Capital,  Washington). 

Position  in  the  Union:—  ^°- 

Superficial  atea,  70  square  miles ^^ 

Population,  230,392 39 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  3,291-31 * 


J 


— usfe<»>S»3^TW,.»ar>-  "•-v^-^  • 


492  APPENDIX. 

VIRaiNIA  (Capital,  Richmond). 

PosiTio."*  IN  THE  Union  :  —  No. 

Siiportiuiiil  area,  42,450  nquaro  miles 33 

Population  (1890),  I,66.').980 15 

Donhity  to  tho  square  mile,  39 16 

Newport  News,  shipping  (1890),  188  vessels  of  268,138  tons  entered  and  cleared. 

Norfolk,  Portsmouth,  und  Berkley,  shipping  (1890),  179  vessels  of  183,533  tons  entered  and  cleared. 

Chief  Towns,  with  PoruxATiof  (1890)  : — Richmond,  with  Manchester,  90,634  ;  Norfolk,  with  Ports- 
mouth, &c.,  52,038;  Petersburg,  22,680;  Lynchburg,  19,709;  lioauoke,  16,159;  Alexandria,  14,339. 

WEST  VIRGINIA  (Capital,  Charleston). 

Position  in  the  Union: —  No. 

Superficial  area,  24,780  square  miles .  42 

Population  (1890),  762,794 28 

Density  to  the  S(]uaro  mile,  30'78 24 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890): — Wheeling,  34,522;  Huntington,  10,108;  Farkersburg, 
8,408;  Martinsburg,  7,226;  Charleston,  6,742;  Grafton,  3,169. 

NORTH  CAROLINA  (Capital,  Raleigh). 

Poa.TioN  IN  THE  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  52,250  square  miles 28 

Population  (1890),  1,620,832  (inc.  2,885  Indians  not  taxed)  ,         .  16 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  31 22 

CiiiKj  Towns,  with  PoptnjiTioN  (1890)  :— Wilmington,  20,056;  Raleigh,  12,678;  Charlotte,  11,557. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA  (Capital,  Columbia). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  30,570  square  miles                      41 

Population  (1890),  1,151,149 23 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  37'65 18 

Charleston  :— Shipping  (1890),  347  vessels  of  207,679  tons. 
Foreign  trade  (1889),  $16,744,000. 
Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :— Charleston,  54,955  ,  Columbia,  15,353. 

GEORGIA  (Capital,  Atlanta). 

Position  in  the  Union: —  No. 

Superficial  area,  59,476  square  miles     .                 20 

Population  (1890),  1,837,353 12 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  30'89 23 

Savannah,  shipping  (1890),  502,000  tons;  exports,  $30,884,000. 
Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :— Atlanta,  05,533 ;  Savannah,  43,189  ;  Augusta,  33,300. 

FLORIDA  (Capital,  Tallahassee). 
Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  58,680  square  miles  .        .        .        .        22 

Population  (1890),  391,422 32 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  6*67 36 

Key  West,  shipping  (1890),  584  vessels  of  261,578  tons. 
Penaacola,  shipping  (1890),  1,132  vessels  of  815,778  tons. 
Chief  Towns,   with  Population  (1890) :— Key  West,  18,080;   Jacksonville,  17,201;   Pensacola, 
11,750  ;  Tampa,  5,532  ;  Saint  Augustine,  4,742  ;  Palatka,  3,039  ;  Tallahassee,  2,934. 

OHIO  (Capital,  Columbns). 

Position  in  the  Union: —  no. 

Superficial  area,  41,060  square  miles 35 

Population  (1890),  3,072,316 4 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  89'43 8 

Output :— Coal,  9,977,000  tons 3 

Petroleum,  418.000,000  gallons 2 

Cleveland,  shipping,  1,665  vessels  of  226.184  toes,  trading  with  Canada. 
Cincinnati :  factories,  6,774  ;  products,  $204,000,000. 

Chief  Towns,  with  Populatiox  (1890) :— Cincinnati,  with  suburbs,  359,147:  Cleveland,  261,353- 
Columbus,  88,150  ;  Toleilo,  81,434  ;  Dayton,  61,220  ;  Young'4town,  ■'53.220  ;  Springfield,  31,895  ;  Akron, 
27,601  ;  Canton,  26,189;  Zanesvillo,  21,009;  Findlay,  18,553;    Sandusky,  18,471  ;  Hamilton,  17,666. 


''^^W^mim:^-'^- 


9. 

3 
5 
0 

d  and  cleared. 

Ik,  with  Torts- 
dria,  14,339. 


o. 
VI 
!8 
>4 
1   Parkersburg, 


To. 
28 
16 
22 
larlotto,  11,5S7. 


<o. 
41 
23 
18 


No. 
20 
12 
23 

:u8ta,  33,300. 


No. 
22 
32 
36 


,201 ;   Feneacola, 


No. 
35 
4 
8 
3 
2 

a. 

oveland,  261,353- 
I,  31,896  ;  Akron, 
tmilton,  17,665. 


APPENDIX.  493 

INDIANA  (Ciipital,  ludiiinnpolis). 

Position  in  the  Union: —  ^°' 

Swporflcial  area,  35,910  square  miles !*•* 

Population  (1890),  2,192,404.         .         .         •                           '         '         '  ? 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  60-31 •* 

Cift«F  Towns,  with  Population  (1890)  :  -  Indianapolis,  105,430  ;  Evansvillo,  50,756  ;  Fort  Wayne, 
33.393;  Terre  Haute,  30,217  ;  South  Bend,  21,819;  New  Albany,  21,059. 

ILLINOIS  (Capital,  Springfield). 

Position  in  the  Union  :—  No. 

Superfieial  area,  56,650  square  miles '^'^ 

Population  (1890),  3,826,351 ^ 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  67-54 •  *  ^ 

Output  of  coal,  12,104,000  tons '^ 

Chicago:— Shipping  (1890),  25,000  vessels  of  9,000,000  tons. 
Export  of  cereals  and  flour  (1890),  104,000,000  bushels. 
Total  value  of  exchanges  (1887),  $1,103,000,000. 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) : -Chicago,  1,099,850;  Peoria.  41,024  ;  Quincy,  31,494; 
Springfield,  24,963  ;  Joliet,  23,264  ;  Bloomington,  with  Normal,  24,748  ;  Roekford,  23,584 ;  Aurora, 
19,688;  Elgin,  17,823;  Decatur,  16,-841  ;  BeUeville,  15,361. 

MICHIGAN  ^Calital,  Lansing). 
'     Position  in  the  Union:—  No. 

Superficial  area,  58,915  square  miles '^^ 

Population  (1890),  2,093,889 » 

Density  to  the  square  mile   35-54 19 

Yield  of  copper,  38,480  tons ^ 

Detroit  :—Interlacu8trine  navigation  (1890),  18,640,000  tons. 
Shipping,  6,455  vessels  of  540,483  tons,  trading  with  Canada. 
Sainte  Marie  Canal,  na^-igation  (1890),  8,288,580  tons. 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :— Detroit,  205,876;  Grand  Rapids,  60,278;  Saginaw, 
40,322;  Muskegon,  22,702;  Bay  City,  27,839;  Jackson,  20,798;  Kalamazoo,  17,853;  Port  Huron, 
13,543  ;  Battle  Creek,  13,197  ;  Lansing,  13,102;  West  Bay  City,  12,981  ;  Manistee,  12,812. 

WISCONSIN  (Capital,  Madison). 
PosmoN  in  the  Union:—  No- 
Superficial  area,  66,040  square  miles 2* 

Population  (1890),  1,694,795  (inc.  7,915  Indians  not  taxed)  .         .  14 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  30-24 25 

Milwaukee,  shipping  (1889),  10,912  vessels  of  5,763,200  tons. 
Chief  Towns,   with   Population   (1890) :— Milwaukee,   240,468;   La  Crosse,  26,090;    Oshkosh, 
22,836 ;  Racine,  21,014  ;  Eau  Claire,  17,415  ;  Sheboygan,  16,359  ;  Madison,  13,426. 

MINNESOTA  (Capital,  Saint  Paul). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  83,365  square  miles 13 

Population  (1890),  1,308,089  (inc.  6,263  Indians  not  taxed)  ...  20 

Density  to  tiie  square  mile,  15-C9  . 32 

Duluth,  shipping  (1890),  346  vessels  of  189,714  tons. 
Chief  To-wns,  wrrn   Population  (1890) :— Minnesota  and  Saint  Anthony,  203,406 ;  Saint  Paul, 
133,156;  Duluth,  33,115;  Winona,  18,208. 

IOWA  (Capital,  Des  Moines). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  66,025  square  miles 26 

Population  (1890),  1,912,293  (inc.  397  Indians  not  taxed)       ...  10 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  3413 21 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :— Des  Moines,  50,093;  Sioux  City,  37,806;  Dubuque, 
30,311;  Davenport,  26,872;  Burlington,  22,666;  CouncU  Bluffs,  21,474;  Cedar  Rapids,  18,020. 


m^ 


■;g;»8^i^<8»a»a'i8miaiit^B^^  •  ■ 


494  APPENDIX. 

MISSOURI  (Ciipitnl,  Joffcrnon  City). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Supcrflrittl  area,  09,41. '■>  squiiro  iniloH 18 

Poindtttion(tH90),  2,070,184 6 

Di'tiHity  to  the  Kiimre  mile,  Ui^.'iO H 

Production  of  zinc  (1890),  03, Tftl  tons 1 

Chikk  Towns,  with  Pofolation  (1890)  :— Haint  Louig,   451,770;    Kansas  City,  132,710;    Saint 
JoBeph,  fi2,324  ;  Springfleld,  21,860  ;  Sedalia,  11,008  ;  Hannibal,  12,857  ;  JopUn,  9,94H. 

NORTH  DAKOTA  (Capital,  Bismarck) . 

Position  in  tiir  Union: —  No. 

Superficial  area,  70,79.5  square  milos 17 

Population  (1890),  190,S31  (inc.  7,812  Indians  not  taxed)      ...  42 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  2' 09 ^'^ 

SOUTH  DAKOTA  (Capital,  Pierre). 

Position  in  the  Union:—  No. 

Supirftcial  area,  77,050  square  milos 15 

Population  (1890),  347,870  (inc.  19,008  Indians  not  taxed)    ...  37 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  4 '48 "i" 

CniEP  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :— Sioux  Falls,  10,177;  Yankton,  3,070;  Deadwood,  3,238. 

NEBRASKA  (Capital,  Lincoln). 

Position  in  tiik  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  77,510  square  miles 16 

Population  (1890),  1,002,001  (inc.  3,751  Indians  not  taxed)  .         .        .  26 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  1370 33 

Chief  Tow.nb,  with  Population  (1890) :— Omaha  and  South  Omaha,  148,514;  Lincoln,  65,154. 

KANSAS  (Capital,  Topcka). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  82,080  square  miles 14 

Population  (1890),  1,428,112  (inc.  1,016  Indians  not  taxed)   .         .        .  19 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  17 '39 31 

Chief  Towns,  with  Populatio.n  (1890)  :— Kansas  City,  38,316;  Topoka,  31,007;  Wichita,  23,853. 

KENTUCKY  (Capital,  Frankfort). 

Position  in  the  Union  :  —  No. 

Siiperftoial  area,  49,400  square  miles 30 

Population  (1890),   1,8,58,035 U 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  4G 13 

Yield  of  tobacco  (1890),  180,000,000  lbs 1 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :— Louisville,  with  Jeffersonville  and  New  Albany,  193,279  ; 
Covington  and  Newport,  G2,'i89  ;  Lexington,  21,567  ;  Paducah,  12,797;  Owenaboro,  9,837. 

TENNESSEE  (Capital,  Nashville). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Superlicial  area,  42,060  square  miles 34 

Population  (1890),  1,767,518 13 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  42 1* 

Chief  Towns  :—Na8hviUe,  76,108;  Memphis,  64,495;  Chattanooga,  29,100;  Knoxville,  22,636. 

ALABAMA  (Capital,  Montgomery). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  52,2.50  square  miles 27 

Population  (1890),  1,513,017 17 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  28'95 26 

Yield  of  iron  (1890),  1,780,000  tons. 
Chief   Towns  :— Mobile,  31,070  ;  Birmingham,  26,178;  Montgomery,  21,883. 

MISSISSIPPI  (Capital,  Jackaou). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  46,810  square  miles 31 

Population  (1890),  1,289,600 21 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  27 '54 27 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890):— Vicksburg,  13,373;  Meridian,  10,624;  Natchez,  10,101. 


'-'■r.^sm^mm^ 


APPENDIX. 


495 


132,716;    Saint 


A. 


Doadwood,  3,235. 


incoln,  55,154. 


;  "Wichita,  23,853. 


v  Albany,  193,279  ; 
!),837. 


loxville,  22,635. 


No. 

31 

21 

27 

t;  Natchez,  10,101. 


LOUISIANA   (Ciipitol,  Baton  Kongo). 
TosmoN  IN  TnK  fjnoN  :— 

SiiiHirficiiil  arcii,  48,720  Hqnarp  miloH 

Poimlation  (1800),  l,U8,,)87 

DonHity  to  tho  Hquaro  niilo,  22'0.') 

*  PrmluctionofBUgar  (1890),  220,000  tons 

Now  Orlounn  :— Sliippinjr  (1890),    I.OO.'i  vchnoIh  of  2,lt.'i.781  tons.      Cotton  cxixirtcd 
(lH9n),  1,0.)0,000  baloH.     Total  value  of  ttio  cxchanjroH,  $183,300,000. 
Chief  Towns  .—Now  Orleans,  242,039  ;  Shroveport,  11,079  ;  Baton  Kongo,        <7lt. 


Xo. 

30 

26 

28 

1 


No. 
2 
7 

34 
1 


TEXAS  (Capital,  Austin). 
Position  in  mr.  Union  :— 

Suporficial  area.  202,290  square  milos  ..... 

Population  (1890),  2,235,523 

DonHity  to  tho  square  milo,  8-41 

Cotton  crop  (1890),  1,700,000  balos 

Galveston,  shipping  (1890),  454  vessels  of  313,675  tons. 
Chief  Towns,  with  Poput,ation  (1890)  ;— Dallas,  38,007  ;  Han  Antonio  do  Bexar,  37,073  ;  Galves- 
ton, 29,084;  Houston,  27,557;  Fort  Worth,  23,070;  Austin  (1891),  14,075  ;  Waco,  11,445. 

INDIAN  TEKRITORY  (Capitals,  Tahlequah,  Ockinulgee). 

Position  in  niE  Union: —  Wo. 

Superficial  area,  31,400  sqtiaro  miles 40 

Population  (1890),  180,490  (Indians  and  whites  not  taxed)  .         .  41 

Deiuiity  to  tho  square  mile,  5-93 37 


OKLAHOMA  (Capital,  Guthrio). 
Position  in  the  Union  : — 

Supcrti(dal  area,  39,030  square  miles  .... 
Population  {\W)),  07,517  (inc.  5,083  Indians  not  taxed) 
Density  to  the  square  mile,  1  "72 


No. 
37 
47 
44 


AKKANSAS  (Capital,  Little  Kock). 
Position  in  thk  Union: — 

Superficial  area,  53,850  square  miles 

Population  (1890),  1,128,179 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  20-95 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :— Little  Rock,  25,874  ;  Fort  Smith,  11,311 

MONTANA   (Capital,  Helena). 
Position  in  the  Union  : — 

Superficial  area,  140,080  square  miles  . 

Population  (1890),  142,495  (inc.  10,330  Indians  not  taxed)    . 

Density  to  tho  square  mile,  0-97 

Yieldof  gold  and  silver  (1890),  $31,727,000 

Chief  Towns,  wxth  Population  (1890) :— Helena,  13,834 ;  Butte  Ciiy,  10,723 


No. 
20 
24 
29 


No, 

4 
45 
47 

1 


WYOMING   (Capitul,  Cheyenne). 

Position  in  the  Union  :— 

Superficial  area,  97,890  square  miles 

Population  (1890),  03,074  (inc.  2,309  Indians  not  taxed) 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  0'e4 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :- Cheyenne,  11,090;  Laramie  City,  0,388 


No. 

9 

48 

49 


COLORADO   (Capital,  Denver). 

PosmoN  IN  THE  Union  : —  No. 

Superficial  area,  103,925  square  miles 8 

Population  (189i»),  413,183  (inc.  985  Indians  not  taxed)        ...  31 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  3*97 40 

Yield  of  gold  and  sUver  (1888),  $22,758,000 2 

„      lead  (1890),  70,788  tons 1 

Chief  Towns -—Denver,  100,713;  Pueblo,  21,658;  Colorado  Springs,  11,140;  Leadville,  10,381. 


Ui'iijaiiiaatJifeijisjjitii.Bwa.fc'i'^wuiitw^i^^^^^^^^ 


490  AIM'KNDIX. 

NKW  MKXiro   (Capital,  Snnta  F*). 

Position  ij*  thk  Uniox  : —  Ko. 

Supi'rtlciiil  aroii,  I'i'J./iHO  Nquarc  niilcx A 

Poimlatiim  (ISmi),  182,302  (ina. '28,701)  IndiaiiR  not  taxed)    ...  44 

Diimity  til  tho  wiu'iro  niilc,  I'io 48 

CuiKF  ToWNB,  WITH  I'di'I'lation  (1800)  :— Sutita  Fe,  (l,18o  ;  AlbiKiuoniue,  6,/;i8  ;  Imh  Vojfnn,  4,fi97, 

AUIZONA   (Capital,  Pha-uix). 

Position  tn  thr  Union  : —  Ko. 

Bu]M'rli(!ial  ar<'a,  11.1,020  8quaro  milen 6 

Piiimlation  (18U0),  76,034  (inc.  15,414  IiulianH  not  taxwl)      ...  49 

Dcimity  to  tho  wjuaro  luilp,  0-00 48 

Chief  Tow.ns,  with  Popui^ation  (1890) :— Tuohou,  5,160;  Phwnix,  3,162. 

UTAH   (CapiUil,  Salt  Lake  City). 

Pos.TioN  IN  TiTE  Union: —  Ho. 

Hupt'rflcial  area,  84,070  square  milos 11 

Population  (1800),  209,760  (inc.  1,864  ludiauH  not  taxed)      ...  40 

Donnity  to  tho  Nc^uaro  inilo,  2*40 43 

Chief  Towns,  with  PoruuiTioN  (1890) :— Groat  Salt  Lake  City,  44,843  ;  Ogden  City,  14,889. 

NEVADA   (Capital,  Carson  City). 

PosniON  IN  THK  Union  :—  Ho. 

HuporBcial  area,  110,700  square  miles 7 

Population  (1800),  47,313  (inc.  1,662  Indians  not  taxed)        ...  60 

DciiHity  to  the  square  inile,  042 60 

Yicldof  gold  and  8ilve(  1888),  $10,. 525,000 4 

Chief  Towns,  witu  Population  (1890) :— Virginia  City,  8,511 ,  Carson  City,  3,950. 

IDAHO   (Capital,  B  ise  City). 

Position  in  the  Union  :  —  No. 

Superfleial  area,  84,800  square  miles 1'2 

Population  (1890),  88,025  (inc.  3,640  Indians  not  taxed)        ...  40 

Dunsity  to  tho  scjuare  mile,  I 40 

WASHINGTON  (Capital,  Olympia). 

Position  in  the  Union: —  Ko. 

Superficial  area,  69,180  square  miles 19 

Population  (1890),  357,328  (inc.  7,938  Indians  not  taxed)      ...  34 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  6' 16 38 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1890) :-  Seattle,  42,837  ;  Tacoraa,  36,0';s  ;  Spokane,  19,922. 

OREGON  (Capital,  Salem). 

Position  in  the  Union  :—  No. 

Superficial  area,  96,030  square  miles              ......  10 

Population  (1890),  317,475  (inc.  3,708  Indians  not  taxed)      ...  38 

Density  to  the  fquaro  mile,  3 '30 41 

Chief  Towns,  with  Population  (1800) :— Portland,  with  East  Portland  and  Albina,  62,046. 

CALIFORNIA  (Capital,  Sacramento). 

Position  in  the  Union: —  No.                     ' 

Superficial  area,  158,360  square  miles 3 

Population  (1890),  1,213,150  (inc.  6,020  Indians  not  taxed)  .         .         .  22 

Density  to  the  square  mile,  7'66 36 

Yield  of  gold  (1890),  $9,986,680 1 

Fnmoisoo:— Shipping  (1890),  1,636  vessels  of  2,111,512  tons;  import*  $48,751,000,  exports  J36,876. 
Chief  Towns,   with  Popplation  (1890) :— San  Francisco,    298,997;   Los  Angeles,  50,396;    Oak- 
land, 48,682  ;  Sacramento,  26,386;  San  Jose,  18,060  ;  San  Diego,  16,159;  Stockton,  14,424. 

ALASKA  (CapiUl,  Sitka). 

Position  in  the  Union  : —  no. 

Superficial  area,  577,390  square  miles 1 

Population  (1890),  31,796  (Indians  and  whites  not  taxed)      ...  61 

Density  to  the  square  miles,  005 61 


•'^•'^i'^'i't.gH*"!"?' 


^rwKskw 


iHi 


'ssm^i.imm'i^'^ 


Ko. 


41 

45 


Lu^^  Vpf(t\n,  4,697. 


No. 


4'J 
48 


No. 

11 

40 

43 

a  City,  14,889. 


N.I. 

7 

fiO 

50 

4 

},950. 


No. 
12 
4G 
4G 


No. 

19 

34 

38 

lokane,  19,922. 


No. 

10 

38 

41 

bina,  62,046. 


No. 
3 
22 
35 
1 
000,  exports  ^30,876. 
igeles,  50,396;    Oak- 
Dn,  14,424. 


Ko. 
1 

61 
61 


Abanaki  Tribe,  37 
Abert  Lake,  401 
Aboriginos,  67,  452 
Aiioomac  Tribe.  37 
AohterKill,  143 
AdUHhnat,  12^ 
Ailuni's  Fort,  130 

Knob  (Blue    Mountainn),  79 

Mountain  (CaHnadev),  3<8 
AdirondaokB,  15,  73 
At'ricnng,  04,  455 
Aga^MK  Lake,  207 

Mountjiin,  360 
Alabama  River,  210,  237 

State,  303 
Alarhua  River,  196 
AWka,  2,  4,  14,  418 
Albany  (Sew  York),  64,  139 

iSiiint.  114 
Albemarle  Hound,  95 
Albina,  439 
AIbiiquer({ue,  434 
Aider  Guloh,  217,  424 
Aleutian  lalen,  14 
Alexandria,  Louisiana,  239,  341 
Algiers,  342 
Aluonquianfl,  26,  36 
AlibamouH,  39 
Alkali  Lakes,  401 
Alleghanieg  Mountains,  70,  75 
Allegheny  City,  167 

River,  166,  225 
Allentown,  158 
Altaraaha  River,  89 
Alton,  287 
Amana,  321 
Amargoza  River,  412 
American  River,  394 
Amethyst  Mountains,  365 
Amherst,  128 
Amsterdam,  138 
Auacoetia  Kiver,  174 
Auahuao,  24 
Androscoggin  River,  102 
Anglo-Americans,  68,  01,  62,  68, 

451 
Annapolis,  170,  474 
Ann  Arbor,  290 
Antelope  Island,  406 
Anthony,  Saint,  '.'13,  314 
Apauhes,  44,  48,  436 
Apostle  IbIos,  292,  296 
Appalachian  Indians,  26 

98 


INDEX. 


Appalachian  Mountains,  14,  69 
Appiilachicola  City,  197 

River,  197 
Appomatux  River,  89.  179 

Court- ho\iHo,  179 
Arizona,  4;i."i 

<'ity,  4-M 
Arkaunah  Indians,  42 

Kiver,  231 

State,  332 
Arrapahoes.  42 
Ash  Creek  Butte,  380 
A-heville,  184 
Ashland,  296 
Ashley  River,  187 
Aunai  Indians,  344 
Assiniboines,  42,  423 
Astoria,  440 

Atchafalaya  Bayou,  239 
Atchison,  331 
AthaiNtscans,  42,  48 
Atlanta,  189 
Atlantic  City,  155 

Creek,  220 

Ocean,  89 
Attal^pas  Indians,  44,  344 
Augusta  (Georgia),  191 

(Maine),  109 
Augustine,  Saint,  51,  193 
Aurora,  286 
Au  Sable  Kiver,  73 
Austin,  349 
Aztecs,  43 

Bad  Lands,  222,  322,  369 
Bahama  Islands,  96 

Strait,  99 
Baker  Mountain,  377 
Bald  Eagle  Mountain,  87 
Baldy  Peak,  366 
Ballston  Spa,  1 38 
Baltiuiore,  169 
Bangor,  109 
Baraturia  Bay,  244 
Barbidoes,  65,  64 
Bamegat  Bay,  156 
Bsmstaple,  126 
Bath,  110,  139 
Baton  Rouge,  34 1 
Bay  City,  291 
Bayonne,  143 
Bear  Lake,  406 

River,  219,  370 


Beatrice,  324 

Beaiif.irt,  IHS 

IMloe's  Island,  146 

Belknap  Mountain,  370 

Bellaire,  273 

Helle-Islo  Strait,  69 

Belleville,  287 

Bellevue,  2  74 

Bellow's  F.Us,  114 

Bell's  Teak,  354 

Bouicia,  441 

Benton  Fort,  219 

Bergen  Peninsula,  143 

Berkeley,  441 

Berkley,  183 

B.rkshire  Hills,  72 

Ungsemer,  291 

Bethlehem,  158 

Biddeford,  111 

Big  Belt  Mountains,  363 
lilue  River,  324 
Cheyenne  River,  222 
Hole  River,  216 
Horn  Mountains,  353 

Riv^r,  220 
Muddy  River,  220 
Saudy  Kiver,  298 
Sioux  River,  222 
Springs,  180 
Stone  Lake,  214 

Biloxi,  56 

Biiigbauiptnn,  152 

Birmingham,  305 

lUscayne  Key,  98 

Bismarck,  316 

Black  Butte,  378 

Dome  Mou'btain,  76 

Blackfeet  Indians,  42  j 

Black  Hills,  333,  359 
Mountains,  71 
River,  232,  239 
Stone  River,  129 

Blune,  438 

Block  Inland,  ?2 

Blood  Indians,  423 
Mountains,  79 

Bloomiugton,  286 

Blue  Mountains,  376 
Ridge.  70,  76,  77 

Bodega,  441 

Boise  City,  426 

Bois6e  River,  426 

Bonnet  Carre,  242 


S!^|S^KB«!**«W»S«»«1r»(lKSMB!rS^!BB^^ 


•mMT' 


408 

Itoiinxvilln  I^ikfi,  402 
II  .ii|iliiii<l  i'ntk,  ;i7)) 
It  irHiie  l4lki>,  Mim 

lity.  il7 
II  iinditry  Pan*,  :i''i:i 
]lraiiiliM!U'i  Fluid.  ItlH 
Itritdy'N  C'nHik,  'IM 
Brainerd,  :ii:< 
Ilrii/oH  liivt-r.  'JAO 
Bri  I  kciiridKo,  313 
IlriKhton,  lil 
BrotiiloT,  '274 
Bronx  Hiver,  M2 
Hrnokline.  Ul).  I'i'2 
Bn)<>klyii  r\i<w  Yurk),  143,  14S 
BrowtiMvillo,  .'l/il 
BriiiiHWK^k,  110,  lUl 
Biitrii!'),  \\\) 

rciikK,  ;i(ifi 

Biirliiitftoii,  114,  319 
Hill  t«  City,  4'23 
Bii//»rd'i»  Hay,  12S 

Ciiclio  Orwk,  3/59,  402 
Ciiddo  IiidiiiiiH,  44,  '144 

Uko,  23H 
Ciidi/,   102 
Cuhokia,  2«7 

IndiuiiH,  37 
Cairo.  12,  287 
CalaiH,  lOH 

Culii;)ooya  Mountain,  383 
CaliivuraH,  420 
Ciiit^aMHieii  River,  24fi 
Cahromiu,  6H,  07,  440 

Gulf  of.  385 

Lownr,  440 
Calutnot,  Luke,  285 

City,  291 
Ciimag  River,  391 
Cambridge,  119 
Camden.  100 
Canada,  G3 

Creek,  84 
CanadianH.  M,  63 
(Canadian  Rivor,  232 
Canaiidaigua  Lake,  209 
(^afiaverai  Cape,  99 
Caonon-liall  Uiver,  222 
Canton  (Ohio),  273 
Capfl  Cod,  01 

Fear.  95 

River,  89 

Flatiery,  42 

Florida,  99 

Girardeau,  226,  328 

HatteraH,  95 

Henry,  96 

May,  1.56 

Sable,  97 
Carolina,  North.  55,  184 

iSuuth,  55,   186 
CarolinaH.  The.  55 
Caroline  Fort,  61 
Carquinez  Strait,  441 
Carriso,  Sierra  do,  376 
CMTBon  City,  436 

Desert,  409 

Lake,  408 

River.  437 

Sink,  409 
Cdsa  Omiide,  46 
Cascade  Range,  376 
CJitfoo  Kay  and  Mes,  110,  112 
Castle  Peak,  308 


INDKX. 

Cafarai't  Cafion,  397 
CiitatvbttM,  II  ' 

Caihkill  M  iinlaini),  70,  71 
Cayuga  lndianM,  '19 

I.iike,  151.  '.'09 
Cedar  ( Viik.  H9 

FallN,  :ii9 

Keyii.  97,  190 

Rapid*,  319 

Rivor.  214 
(Antral  (lity.  428 
Chaniplain  I.aki>.  0,  70,  83 
(Jhanrellonville,  176 
('handler.  182 
('harlenfiirt  IwlaDd.  51 
Charle*  Uiver.  119 
ChHrliiHtun   (^kluth    Carolina),    60, 

1H7 
Charlent^own,  1 19 
Charlotte,  150 
Charlotteville,  180 
Chatt'thorHiheu  Kiver,  108,  210 

Village,  198 
Chattanooga.  80,  301 
Chautnui|ua  Lake,  150,  225 
Chohalix  Kiver,  383,  387 
Chelly  Caflon,  434 
Cheliea,  122 
Chemung  Kiver,  87 
ChonanKo  Kiver,  87 
Cheroketn,  3f<,  39.  330 
Chesapeake  Bav,  2,  18,  87,  04 
Chedtor,  l(i2,  '.;87 
Chestnut  Hill.  12'< 
Cheyenne  City,  12,  426 

ludianH   12 

River,  12,  317 
Chicago,  279 

River,  215,  283 
(/hiokamuuga  River,  303 
ChickaHawH,  39 
Clii<!opee_  128 
Chihuahua,  206 
ChilianH,  58 
Chillicothe,  274 
Chinone,  58,  67 
ChiiiookH,  27,  43 
Chippewa  IndiauH,  ««  Ojibwaya 

Uiver,  214,  290 
Chitiniaeha  Tribe,  44 
Chocolate  Mountains,  386 
Chootaws,  39,  338 
Chowan  Tribe,  38 
Cimarron  River,  232 
Cincinnati,  274 

Axis,  '200 
Clallsm  Indians,  42 
Clarke's  Fork,  387,  424 

Peak,  362 
Clearwater  River,  301 
(Cleveland,  270 
Cliff-dwellers.  46,  434 
CliH  Lake,  390 
Ciiueh  Kiver,  226 
Cloud  Peak,  354 
Coahuila,  385 
Coast  Kange,  383 
Coeheco  River,  113 
Cochetopa  Pass,  309 
Coohiti  Indians.  47 
CcBur  d'Alene  L^ke,  388 

Tribe.  42,  424 
Cohops,  138 

Falls.  84 
Colorado  Desert,  440 

liiver,  396 


Colorado  Kiver  (Tdxa*),  3M 

Hpriiig*.  >i9 

HlKte,  120 
Culumbia  Federal  District,  171 

Kiver,  :iH7 

(South  Carolina),  180 
Columbus,  5 

Citr,  190,  274 
Comanehes,  44 
(!om«t'H'k  IxHle.  130 
ConnniiMit  IsUiid,  131 
Con<lnMi  River,  251 
Concord,  113,  122 
Coney  Island,   148 
Counecticut  Kiver,  72,  82 

Bute,  57,  131 
Continental  Divide,  309 
('(intra  CostJi  Kange,  384 
C<M»|)er  Kstuary,  187 
Coosa  Kiv.T,  79,  210 
Copper  llarbuur,  291 
Cuming,  321 
Cornwall,  103 
Comwallis,  430 
Corry,  164 
Cuteau  di^s  Prairies,  201 

du  Missouri,  '201,  2'22 
Cfttos  BrQIees,  202 
Council  ll.uHs,  .'121 
Covington.  274,  298 
Creek  Indians,  24,  30 
Creoles,  00,  339 
Crescent  City,  441 
CrisHeld,  170 
Cross  'limbers,  202 
('roioii  River.  144 
C'row  Indians,  42,  423 
Crystal  City.  328 
Cuniliorluud  City,  171 

Gap,  298 

Mountains,  78 

River,  226,  301 

Valley,  70 

Dakota  Indians,  33,  41,  47 

North,  315 

River,  201.  222 

South,  317 
Dallas,  347 
Dalles,  The,  392 
Dana  Peak,  410 
Danes,  64 
Iiavenport,  319 
Davidson  Mount.  437 
Dayton,  274.  275 
Dead  wood.  318 
Dearborn  Fort,  279 
Death  Valley,  376 
Delaware  Bay.  171 

Indians,  38 

River,  80 

State,  171 
Denver,  427 
Deschutes  River,  374 
Desmoines  River,  214 
Dos  Moines  City,  319 
De  Soto,  6,  236 
Des  Plaines  River,  214 
Detroit  City,  289 

River,  289 
Devil's  Lake,  i07,  297,  298 
Dieguei^os,  44 
Digger  Indians,  43 
Dismal  Swamp,  94 
Dixville  Notch.  113 
Dolores,  Bio,  369 


*'y:.4  ?''*.''- '*SB'^^'''*9"'' 


—  .  » 


•er  (Tela").  iM 

■  WU 

■irt 

..Inral  nixtrlot,  171 

1H7 

I'uroUn*),  180 

I 

10,  '274 

H 
O.U-.  «:iii 

ver.  J.^l 

:<,  Vi'i 

id.  MS 

t  Uiver.  72,  M 

fi7,  i;u 
I  Divide.  ;t«n 

U  UiiiiKo,  ^H4 

imry,  1K7 

r,  71).  '^10 

irlKjur,  '21)1 

21 

ItW 

I,  t:iO 

I  TrairioH.  201 
\mmn,  'iOl,  222 
looH.  '202 
,ufl».  ;i21 
1.  •27-1.  2i)8 
llai.n,  2 1,  :>9 

[),  ;i:w 
n>y,  Ul 
170 

llxTH,  202 
ivcr,  111 
irtiis,  42,  42;i 
ity,  ;128 
iiid  City,  171 

21)H 
ntiiiiiH,  78 
r,  220,  301 
ey,  70 

ndians,  .33,  41,  47 
th,  315 
ir,  201.  222 
th.  317 
147 

Cho,  392 
ink,  410 
14 

)rt.  319 
n  Mount.  437 
274,  275 
od.  318 
•n  Fort,  279 
Galley.  370 
re  Bay,  171 
liatiH,  38 
rer,  80 
ite,  171 
,427 

tes  Rirer,  374 
lies  River,  214 
)ine8  City,  319 
o,  0,  230 
dines  Eiver,  214 
(  City,  280 
ver,  289 

,  Lake,  i07,  297,  298 
!i^o9,  44 
r  Indiann,  43 
I  Swamp,  94 
le  Not<)h.  113 
iH,  Rio,  309 


I)iiriih»<i<ti>r,  110 
l)..v.T,  U.J,  171 
Drum  I.iniiirioii,  433 
Dry  Uiv.r.  232 
DiiImi<|ii(>.  3IU 
Diiliith,  312 
Dii<|ii<'Hiii<1''i)rt,  160 
Diixtmry,  124 

Ku^Ik  Viiim,  Ml 

Uivir.  291 
Eantpni  Sliore,  108,  170 
KttMton,  158 
£a«t  Uivir.  80,  145 

Hiiitit  IrfMiid,  287 
Eaii  i'Auhv.  200 
KdKoliold.  .101 
El^ln,  2H5 
Klixalieth,  153 
Klkhorn  llivor,  299 
Klk  Lnki',  212 

MDiiiitaiiiN.  .'i08 
RIlJH  InIh.  140 
Klniim,  152 
Kl  I'liwj.  253.  351 
l''.l  I'ri'Hidiii.  .I.')! 
KngnioiiN  Mountain,  309,  370 
Knjf  i8h.  49 
Kiiotu  MounUlnM,  70 
Uiiu  (.'aniil.  1 17,  lAO 

City,  104 

IndiiiuN,  150 

Lakn,  148,  -205 
K«oanal>n,  291 
K'tdiiuM  Mountains,  7A 
KtcheminH.  452 
ICu^nne  City,  439 
Kuri'ka.  411 
EuHtlH  Lako,  220 
I'iVauH  raxf,  :<01 
Eviiiiston,  285,  420 
EvanHviUe,  270 
Evtrgludos,  97,  99,  193 

Fuirhaven,  126,  135 
I'Hirvit'w,  425 
Fall  River,  127 
Falmouth,  111 
FiIIh  City,  300 
False  Wanhita  Rivtr,  238 
Fargo,  310 
Fayetteville,  184 
Feathur  River,  394 
Fergus  Falls,  313 
Feniandina,  97,  196 
Firuholo  River.  350 
First  Belt  Mountains,  75 
FishkiU,  HI 
Flathuads,  42.  422 
F'int  River.  210 
Florence  (Alabama),  305 

Lake,  192 
Florida  Keys,  99 

Peninsula,  96 

State,  192 

Strait,  100 
Fond  du  Lac,  296 
Kordham,  142 
Fort  Ancient,  23,  274 

Belknap,  349 

Brown,  351 

Carillon,  83 

Chartres,  287 

Douglas,  430 


INDEX. 

Foit  OilNKm,  337 

.liii'kitoii.  .144 

Laramie.  420 

Mi'llimry.  170 

Monroe.  IHO 

Itlloy.  330 

Kipliiy.  188 

H«jott,  3:t2 

Shepherd,  387 

Hmith,  331 

HuDlling.  214,  261,  315 

Numtor,  18H 

Way  no,  277 

Worth,  318 
Fox  IndiaiiN,  37 

Uivnr,  207,  293 
l''ran<:o-('anaiiians,  03 
Kninkforl,  290 
Eninkiin,  104 
l''rod<>ri('ksburg,  170 
Fremont  I'aHS,  309 

I'tak,  355,  390 
French,  49,  03 

Broad  River,  226 
Fresno,  441 
I'rout  Mountain,  78 

Range.  301 

Oadsdun,  4 
(litlena,  285 
Uallatin  River,  216 
Uallit/in,  104 
Uaivoston  Bay,  34(1 

City,  348 

Island,  348 
Gardiner  River,  3,j6 
Oaspc  Bay,  09 

PeniuKula,  09 
flenossee  Rivtr,  160,  207 
Ucnova,  151 
Genevieve,  Saint,  320 
George  Lake,  83,  137 
Georgetown,  172 
Georgia,  50,  188 
Germans.  49,  00,  01 
Germantown,  103 
Gervais,  439 
Gettysburg,  104 
Gila,'  Rio,  10,  44,  400 
Gilbert's  I'eak,  370 
Girardeau  Ca])e,  325 
Glen  Cafion,  397 
Glen's  Falls,  84 
Gloucester,  116 
Godin  (Lost  River),  391 
Golden  City,  428 

Gate  (California),  393 
(Colorado),  428 
Gold  Hill,  430 
Goose  Lake,  394 
Governor's  Island,  MO 
Granby,  329 
Grand  Cuflon,  220,  353 

Forks,  310 

Geysir,  357 

GiUf  Bluff,  240 

Haven,  291 

Island,  149,  292,  324 

Mee>a,  371 

Rapids,  291 

River,  207 
Gran  Quivira,  434 
Grassy  Ridge,  79 
Great  Basin,  372,  375.  402 
(Tennessee),  200 

Bolt  Mountains,  3i)9 


4i)J) 

Gioat  FnlU(Y.'n«WRt'mr<[tiv«r),  218 

Kanawha  Klvur,  220 

Liiktw,  11)1) 

Mound.  275 

Salt  Like.  402 

Tower,  221 
(ln«en  Ray,  37,  288 

City.  427 
Green  MountsitiN,  00,  71,  72 

liiver,  200,  220,  300 
Greenville,  308 
Grmtr  DiMtriut,  345 
Gretna,  312 
Greyl(M>k  MiunUtiu,  71 
Gros- Ventres,  II 
liroHvi'utre  ('ri'ok,  355 
<luadaliip<i  River,  350 
Gull  of  Ciilifomia,  31)9 

Mexico,  0(1,  217 
Gulf  .Stream,  91),  100 
<iiinniH4>ii  Rivur,  371 
Guthrie,  338 
Gypsies,  58 

TIaeken»ack  River,  143 

lliiller'H  Gl'<:-)r,  300 

Hall's  Lwlg  ,  106 

Hamburg,  191 

liamiltoii,  275 

Mountain,  384 

Hampton  R>ad8,  181 

llaniiilial,  320 

Harlem  River,  142 

Harpers  Ferry,  88,  268 

Harrisburg,  180 

Hiirrisonburg,  103 

Hiirtford,  132 

Harvard  Mountain,  368 
University,  120 

Hastings,  315,  324 

Havana,  99 

H.-verhill,  1  I'- 
ll a  vre  de  Gi      •,  108 

Hawaii  Islai   Ih,  328 

Hawk's- bill  Mountain,  78 

Hayden  Peak,  355 

Healing  Springs,  180 

Height  of  Land.  82.  212 

Helderberg  Hills,  74 

Helena  (Arkansas).  334 

(Montana),  423 
Hell  Gate,  86,  147 
HoUgato  River,  387 
Hennepin  Island,  314 
Honnf  Cape,  95 
Lake,  390 
Mountains,  376 
Henry's  Fork,  390 
Ilerculanum,  225 
Hidalgo,  361 
Uidatsa  Indians,  41 
High  wood  Peak,  369 
Hingham,  123 
Hoboken,  143,  153 
Hodenosaunie  Indians,  39 
Holmes  Mountain,  354 
Holston  River,  220 
Holy  Cross  Mountain,  308 
Holyoke  City,  128 
Defile,  82 
Mountain,  72 
Hood  Mountain,  378 
Hoopas  Indians,  43 
Hoosuo  Mountain,  09,  73 
Hoosatonio  River.  73,  82 
Horse(*hoe  Cut-oS,  234 


•afe'^ggggg^''*'""*'''™**"*-'^-**"  '*«AHI*»MWI.lM)wa'i  l«'3ai»M!JJ>tWtt;i.aiWlC«y.,au.l.,"ll.tllll!t»l.!t 


^■Jl*^.,ll1  ■ 


ii)  • 


600 

Hot  Springs  f  Arkansas),  334 

(Virginia),  180 
Houston,  34!) 

Ilu-ah-hum  Mountain,  378 
lluilapai  Indians,  44,  43ti 
Hu.'i.  on  City,  140 

Bay,  200 

River,  (i9,  70,  75,  81,  83 
Humboldt  Range,  370 

Sink.  409 
Hunter  Mountain,  lii 
Huron  Indians,  25,  38 

Lake,  206,  289 

Iberville  Bayon,  240 
Iniilanders,  64 
Ida  Mountain,  133 
Idaho  City,  425  , 

State,  424 
Illinois  Indians,  25,  37 

Hiver,  66,  214 

State,  278 
Independence  City,  326 

Rook,  355 
Indiana,  276 
Indianapolis,  277 
Indiauola,  350 
Indians,  25     - 
Indian  Territory,  335 
Iowa  City,  319 

Indians.  42,  318 

River,  214 

State,  318 
Irish,  49,  61 
Iron  City,  329 

Mountain,  202,  325 
Ironwood,  291 
Iioquois,  25,  37 
Isle  Royale,  24 
Islingues,  Isleiios,  344 
Italians,  67,  63,  64,  440 
ItaHca  Lake,  211 
Ithaca,  151 

Jackson  (Missisnippi),  308 

Jacksonville,  192 

Jamaica,  64 

James  River,  89,  178 

Jtmestown,  182 

Japanese,  68 

Jefferson  City,  276,  326 

Mount,  72,  378 

River,  216 
Jeffersonvillo,  £99 
Jemez  Indians,  47,  434 
Jersey  City,  143,  163 
Jews,  64 

J  icai'illas  Indians,  48 
Job's  Peak,  409 
Johnstown,  105 
Joliet,  286 
Joplin,  329 
'  Jordan  River,  402,  405 
Juan  do  Fuca  Strait,  383 
Juniata  liiver,  87 
Jupiter  Inlet,  99 

Kalbab  Mountain,  371 
Kalamazoo,  291 
Kanab  Wash  River,  398 
Kanakas,  68 
Kanawha  River,  71,  226 
Kankakee  City,  286 

River,  285 
Kansas  City  (Kancas),  332 

(Mi«Bouii),  326 


INDEX. 

Kansas  Indians,  42 

River,  222 

State,  06,  329 
Kaskaskia  City,  287 

Iniiians,  37 
Katahdin  Mountain,  71,  72 
Kearsage  Mountain,  72 
Kennebec  Uiver,  82 
Kentucky  River,  226 

State,  66,  69,  298 
Keokuk,  321 
Kettle  Falls,  388 
Keuka  Lake,  208 
Keweenaw  Peninsula,  24,  464 
Key  West.  99,  194 
Kiokapoo  Indians,  37 
Kill  van  KiiU  Channel,  146 
King's  River,  382 
Kittatiny  Mountains,  76 

Valley,  76 
KjalamoBs  Cape,  92 
Klamath  Indians,  43,  393 

Lake,  393 

River,  393 
Kliketat  Indians,  42 
Knoxville,  80,  300 
Kootenay  Indians,  424 

River,  387 
Kwei  Chau,  463 

Labrador,  37,  69 
La  Crosse  City,  296 

River,  296 
Lafayette  Mountain,  72 
Lafourche  Bayou,  239 
Lake  Champlain,  6,  70,  83 

Gteorge,  83,  137 

Erie,  148,  206 

Huron,  205,  289 

Michigan,  205,  278,  283 

Ontario,  70,  137,  150 

Superior,  214,  296 
Lancasiter,  163 
Lansing,  289 
Lansingburg,  138 
Laramie  Ciiv,  426  , 

Peak,  361 

Plains,  356 

River,  361 
Laredo,  351 
La  Salle,  286,  308 
Lassen  Peak,  380,  441 
Las  Vegas,  432 
Laurentian  Mountains,  202 
Lawrence  (Kansas),  332 

(Massachusettu),  116 
Leadville,  369,  428 
League  Island,  162 
Leavenworth  Fort,  331 
Lehigh  River,  86,  168 
Lemon  Islnnd,  61 
Lenni-Len&p6  Indians,  37 
Lewis  Fork  River,  390 
Lewiston,  110 
Lexington  (Kentucky),  299 

(Massauhusetts),'  122 

(V(rginia),  179 
Lick  L'bservatory,  384,  414 
Licking  River,  226 
Lima,  272 
Lincoln,  323 

Mountain,  353,  362 
Lipanes  Indians,  48 
Little  Helt  Mountains,  359 

Colorado  River,  398 

Falls,  84,  213,  313 


Little  Rook,  334 
Llano  Eutaoado,  203 
Ix)okport,  150 
Long  Branch,  165 

Island,  91,  92,  143 
City,  143 

Sound,  82,  86,  147 
Long's  Peak,  362 
Lookout  Cape,  95 

Mountain,  302 
Los  Angeles,  442 
Lost  River,  391 
Louisiana  City,  326 

State,  338 
Louisville,  299 

Falls,  226 
LoweU,  116 
Ludlow,  274 
Luray  City,  180 
L)  ell  Mountain,  381,  410 
Lynchburg,  179 
Lynn,  116 

MaoDonougbville,  342 
MacDiiwell  Mouutaius,  403 
MacHeury  Fort,  170 
Mackenzie  liiver,  265 
Maukinao  City,  291 

Ihle,  288 

Strait,  288 
Maoon,  190 
Madison  City,  204,  276 

Mountam,  72 

River,  216,  356 
Maine,  71,  82,  107,  108 
Malays,  68 
Maiden,  122 
Malpais.  373 
Mammoth  Cave,  227 

Springs,  366 
Manatee  Spring,  197 
Manayunk,  163 

Manchester  (New  Hampshire),  113 
Mandans,  42 
Manhattan  Indians,  37 

Island,  54,  143 
Manitoa  Islands,  33 
Mansfield  Mountain,  72 
Marble  Cation,  397 
Marblehead  Cape,  116 

City,  116 
Marcy  Mountain,  73,  83 
Maricopas,  44 
Marietta,  226,  273 
Mariposa,  420,  441 
Marquesas  Inlands,  99 
Marquette,  291 
MarshaU,  347 

Martha's  Vineyard,  92,  125 
Martinez,  442 
Martinsburg,  268 
Maryland,  168 
Mascoutins,  37 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  9,  64 
MassaohusettH  Indians,  114 

State,  114 
Matagorda,  349 
Matanza,  328 
Mattapony  River,  89 
Maucn  Chunk,  157,  158 
Maughwaume,  425 
Maumee  River,  207 
Maurepas  Lake,  240 
McKees  Fort,  168 
Meadville,  164 
Medicine  Bow  Moimtains,  361 


ijfet'^'.i.j-j^f'^'^'^'^y^j 


INDEX. 


5(a 


k,  334 
icado,  203 
160 

nch, lo5 
1,  91,  92,  U3 
Jity,  143 

k)u.,d,  82,  86,  147 
lak,  362_ 
Dape,  9.) 
itttin,  302 
lies,  442 
ir,  391 
I  City,  326 
i,  338 
B,  299 
5,226 
116 
274 

ity,  180 

juntain,  381,  410  , 

irg,  179 
16 

lougtville,  342 
fell  Muuntaius,  403 
iryFort,  170 
zio  Kiver,  265 
*o  City,  291 
3,288 
ait,  288 

190 

a  City,  204,  276 
mntain,  72 
yer,  21«,  366 

71,  82,  107,  108 

,  68 

1,122 

s.  373 

oth  Cave,  227 

iringB,  366 

ee  Spring,  197 

tester  (New  Hampshire),  113 

ittan  Indians,  37 

,land,  64,  143_ 

ou  Islands,  35 

ield  Mountain,  72 

e  Canon,  397 

eheadCape,  116 

lity,  116 

f  Mountain,  73,  83 

lopas,  44 

itta,  226,  273 

30sa,  420,  441 

uesas  Islands,  99 

luette,  291 

hall,  347 

ha'B  Vineyard,  92,  125 

inez,  442 

insburg, 268 

^land,  168 

joutins,  37 

jn  and  Dixon  s  Line,  9,  64 

jachusetta  Indians,  114 

State,  114 

agorda,  349 

anza,  328_ 

taiwny  Biver,  89 

ich  Chunk,  167,  158 

ighwaume,  425 

itnee  River,  207 

irepas  Lake,  240 

Sees  Fort,  168 

idville,  164 

iioine  Bow  Mountains,  361 


Medicine  Lodge  Biver,  391 
Memphis,  303 
Mendocino  Cape,  384 
Mendota  Lake,  207,  294 
Menominee  Indians,  37 

Kiver,  207 
Merced,  381 
Meridian,  308 
Mcriden,  134 
Merrimaxj  Kiver,  82,  115 
Mersey  River,  148 
Mescaleros,  48,  432 
Mesilla  Valley,  430 
Metzatzal,  48 
Mexicans,  28,  58,  440 
Moxi<!o  Gulf,  10 
Miami  liiver,  Great,  226 

Little,  23,  226 

Indians,  37 

Port,  194 
Michigan  City,  278 

Lake,  205,  206,  278,  283 

State,  288 
Mic-Mac  Indians,  37 
Middle  Park,  363 
Middlesborough,  300 
Milk  River,  220 
Milledgeville,  190 
Milwaukee,  293 
Miiietarees,  41 
Minneapolis,  213,  813        " 
Minnesota,  311 

Kiver,  214 

State,  311 
Mississippi  Delt<«,  240,  248,  249 

River,  06,  210 

Stat«,  307 
Missouri,  66 

Indipis,  42 

River,  211,  215,  221 

State,  324 
Mitchell's  Peak,  71 
Mobile  Bay,  304 

City,  306 

Indians,  39 
ModocB,  43,  423,  441 
Mohave  Desert,  376,  440 

Fort,  440 

Indians,  44 
Mohawk   Indians,  39,  140 

River,  70,  84 
Mohicans,  30,  37 
Moline,  285 

Monadnook  Mountain,  72 
Mono  Lake,  410 
Monona  Lake,  207,  294 
Monongahela  Biver,  166,  225 
Monroe  Mountain,  72 
Montana,  422 
Iktontauk  Point,  u2 
Monte  Diablo,  384 
Monterey,  442 
Montgomery,  305 
Montpelier,  114 
Montreal  River,  292 
Monument  Peak,  363 
Muorehead,  313 
Morgan  City,  344 
Moqui  Indians,  44,  436 
Mormons,  321,  475 
Morrisania,  142 
Moses  Lake,  389 
Mosquito  Inlet,  99 
Motthaven,  142 
Mount  Auburn,  122 

Desert,  71,  482 


Mount  Vernon,  174,  438 
Mountain  City,  428 

Meadow,  476 
Mud  Lake,  409 
Mullan's  Pass,  353 
Mummy  Mountain,  366 
Munjoy's  Hill,  111 
Muscatine,  319 
Mu^cle  Shoal  Rapids,  39,  302 
Muskegon  River,  207 
Muskingum  River,  22,  226 
Muskogee  Indians,  39 

Nacogdoches,  44,  346 
Nahant  PensiDHiila,  112 
Nantucket  Island,  91,  125 
Napa,  384 
Narragansett  Bay,  116 

Indians,  37 
Narrow  Cailon,  397 
Narrows,  I'he  (New  York),  147 
Nashville,  300 
Natchez  City,  308,  310 

Indians,  26,  30,  40 
Natchitoches,  44,  344 
National  Park,  Yellowstone,   217, 

353 
Naumkeag,  116 
Navajoa  Indians,  43,  434 
Nebo  Mountain,  370 
Nebraska  City,  323 

River,  222,  321 

State,  321 
Neches  River,  250 
Negroes,  04,  466 
Nelson  River,  206 
Neosho  Kiver,  337 
Neuse,  65 
Nevada  Mountains,  14 

State,  436 
New  Albany,  276,  299 

Almaden,  442 
Newark  Bay,  143,  145 

City,  153 
New  Bedford,  126 

Berne,  56 

Braunfels,  350 

Britain,  134 

Brunswick,  2,  82 
City,  163 
Newburg,  141 
Newbury  Port,  116 
Newcastle,  159,  171 
New  England,  53,  58 

Hampshire,  112 

Haven,  134,  135 

Jersey,  93,  152 

Lebanon  Springs,  128    ' 

London,  132 

Madrid,  230,  328 

Mexico,  430 

Orleans,  341 
Newport  (Kentucky),  274,  298 

News,  182 

(Oregon),  438 

(Rhode  Island),  130 
New  River,  83,  89,  399 

Rochelle,  148 
Newton,  122 

New  York  Bay,  16,  92,  147 
City,  136,  141 
State,  63,  136 
Nez  Perces.  42,  424 
Niagara,  149 
Nicaragua.  66 
Nicollet  Island,  314 


Nieuwo  Amsterdam,  64,  141 
Niobrara  River,  222,  316 
Nisqually  ludian.s,  42 
Nuotka  Indians,  42 
Norfolk,  136,  183 
Normal,  287 
North  Adams,  128 

Park,  363 

River,  85,  146 
Northampton,  127 
Nurumbega,  122 
Norwegians,  64 
Norwich,  132 

Notre  Dame  Mountains,  69,  71 
Notroway  Indiiins,  38 
Nueces  River,  260 

Oakland,  441 

O,  ate  Volcano,  367 

Ocklawaha  River,  192 

Ogalallas,  29 

Ogden,  430 

Ohio  River,  225,  228 

St.te,  269 
Oil  City,  164 

Creek,  466 
Ojibways,  26,  37 
OjoB  Calientes,  434 
Okeechobee  Lake,  97 
Oklahoma,  338 

Territory,  336,  338 
Olympia,  438 

Olympus  Mountain,  138,  383 
Omaha  City,  322 

Indians,  41 
Oneida  City,  151 

Lake,  161,  209 

Indians,  39 
Onondaga  Creek,  151 

Lake,  161,  209 

Indians,  39 
Ontario  Lake,  70,  137,  160 
Ontonagon,  291 
Oputa  Indians,  45 
Opelousas  Indians,  344 
Oquirrh  Mountains,  376 
Orange  City,  153 

Fort,  139 
Oregon  City,  439 

River,  438 

State,  438 
Oro  Fino,  425 

Indians,  42 
Oshkosh,  295 
Oswego,  162 

River,  137,  152,  209 
Otisco  Lake,  209 
Otoe  Indians,  42 
Ottawa,  285 

Indians,  37,  337 

Peak,  78 
Ottumwa,  321 
Owascft  Lake,  209 
Owen's  Lako,  382,  411 
Owyhee  River,  391 
Ozark  Mountains,  202,  224 

Pacific  Creek,  220 

Piiducah,  300 

Pah-Utes,  orPai-Utes,  44,  411 

Palatka,  192 

Palatzi  Indians,  197 

Palisades,  73,  86,  141 

Palmyra  Bend,  234 

Palo  Alto.  441 

Pttlouze  Kiver,  391 


i,^'^^5ie»ftii9w«A>.!g.w«ar^g-V»j^,^ga^^fli^a^/jB«w^-i^^  '■'<i*i*i»'i'*t'i  *m'jninu-7f.-im: ~-^^iWjw^ frfwij,i/i,j»i^,w 


502 


373 


Pamlico  Indians,  37 

Kound,  95 
Pnniuiikiv  River,  89 
Pupa^oH  ludiana,  436 
Paris,  12 
Park  Kan  go,  365 
Paso  del  Norte,  251 
Pas8aio  City,  153 
Estuary,  143 
Passainaciuoddy  Indians,  107 
Patapsco  River,  169 
I'atorson,  153 
Pawnees,  42 
Pawtuokct,  129 
Pearl  Uivor,  306 
Pecos  Hiver,  57,  203,  251 
Pedee  River,  Great,  89 
Pembina,  256,  312,  316 

River,  316 
Penacook,  113 
Pend  d'Oreilles  Indians,  42 

Lake,  387 
Pennsylvania,  156 
Penolwcot  River,  82 
Pensaeola,  196 
Peoria,  286 

Indians,  37,  337 
Pepin  Lake,  296 
Pequod  Indians,  37 
Pt-ruviaus,  28,  58 
Peru  City,  286 
Perth  Amboy,  147,  la3 
Petersburg,  179 
Philadelphia,  159 
Fhilipsburg,  158 
Phoenix,  436 
Piiitured  Rm-Ma,  292 
Piedmont,  78,  176 
Piegans,  423 
Pierre  Ohouteau,  318 
Pike's  Peak,  362 
Pilot  Knob,  202,  325 
Pima  (Pimos)  Indians,  27,  44 
Pine  Barrens,  262 
Piscataqua  River,  113 
Pit  River,  394 
Pitt  Mount,  379 
Pittsburg,  165,  166 
Pittsfleld,  128 
Plaquemine  Bayou,  239 
Platte  River,  222 
Hlattsmouth,  324 
Plumas  River,  394 
Plymouth,  53,  123 
Pokegama  Falls,  213 
Pole  Creek  Peak,  250 
Polos,  166 
Pomeroy,  273 
Pontchartrain     Lake, 

341 
Poplar  River,  220 
Portage  City,  297 
PortBlakeley,  438 
Ends,  246,  344 
Hudson,  309, 341 
Huron,  290 
Portland  (Maine),  110 

(Oregon),  439, 
Port  Miidison,  438 

Royal  Islands,  95,  188 
Portsmouth     (New     Hampshire), 
113 
(Ohio),  270 
(Virginia),  183 
Port  Townaend,  438 
Portuguese,  67 


INDEX. 

PotawatomePB,  26,  37^^279 
Potomac  River,  88,  174 
Pottsville,  159 
Poughkeepsie,  140 
Powhattans,  37 

Prairie  du  Chien,  224,  293,  296 
Prescott,  436 
Piesidential  Range,  72 
Prickly  Pear  City,  423 
Princetown,  154 
Providence,  129 
Provincetown,  125 
Provo  City,  430 
River,  404 

Pueblo,  231,  429 
Indians,  45 

Pu«et  Sound,  14,  383,  385 

Pullman,  285 

Puyallup  Indians,  452 

Pyramid  Lake,  402,  405 

Pyrenees,  94 


240,     306, 


Quandary  Peak,  365 
Quapaw  Indians,  337 
Quincy,  123,  287,  469 

Racoourci,  234 
Racine,  293 
Racoon  River,  320 
Ragtown  City,  409 

Ponds,  409 
Rahway,  153 
Rainier  Mountain,  378 
Raleigh,  28,  61 

City,  184 
Rappaliannock  River,  89 
Rariran  Bay,  147 

River,  153 
Rauhe  Alp,  61 
Rawlins,  426 
Reading,  159 
Red  River,  228,  238 

of  the  North,  207,  212 
Rock  River,  216,  402 
Redskins,  25,  67,  462 
RoeUoot  Rivor,  231 
Republican  River,  330 
Rhine,  61,  85 
Rhode  Island,  65,  128 
Rhone  River,  224 
Ricarees,  42 
Richmond,  176 
Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  250 
Chiquito,  433 
Conchos,  261 
Grande,  16,  250 
Ritter  Mountain,  410 
Riverside  Park.  148 
Roan  Cliffs,  396 

Mountain,  79.  227 
Roanoke  River,  70,  89 
Rochester,  150 
Rock  Creek,  391 
Rockford,  285 
Rock  Island,  285 

River,  294 
Rocky  Mountains,  14,  352 
Rog:ue  Indians,  43 

River,  383,  393 
Rome  (New  York),  152 
Rocalie,  310 
Roxbury.  119,  122 
Russian  River,  420 
Russians,  57,  440 
Ruthenians,  165 
Rutland,  lU 


Sabine  River,  250 
Sac  Indians,  37 
Saco  River,  82 
City,  111 
Sacramento,  441. 

Rivor,  384,  393 
Saginaw  Bay,  290 
City,  290 
River,  290 
Saguache  Mountains,  368 
Satiaptin  River,  390 
Saint  Albans,  114 

Anthony,  213,  314 

Falls,  213 
Augustine,  61,  193 
Cloud,  313 
Croix  River,  82,  107 
Francis  River,  225,  231 
Genevieve,  326,  328 
Helen's  Mountain,  378 
John  River,  82,  97,  192 
Joseph  City,  291,  326 
River,  207 
Lawrence  Gulf,  69 

River,  6 
Louis  City.  327 
Fort,  286 
River,  207 
Mark's  City,  196 
Mary's  River,  188 
Paul,  314 
Philip  Fort,  344 
Pierre  Miguelon,  124 
Simeon's  Island,  191 
Sal  Sierra.  376 
Salem  (Massachusetts),  116 

(Oregon),  439 
Salmon  River,  391 
Salt  Lake,  403,  401 
City,  430 
Desert,  404 
Sam  Houston  Fort,  351 
San  Antoni'>,  350  „d-  .lo 

Bernardino  Mountain,  38o,4U 
Carlos  Mountain,  384 
Clemente  Island,  386 
Diego,  443 
Sanduskv,  271 
Sandwich  Islnmls,  68 
Sandy  Hook,  93,  147 
San  Francisco,  67,  441 

Bay,  16,  393,  4t0 
Volcano,  372 
Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains,  366 
San  Jacinto  River,  345 
Javier  del  Bac,  436 
Joaquin  River,  393,  394 
Jos6,  442 
Juan  Islands,  386 

de  Fuca  Strait,  14 
LuisValley,  251,  365 

Obispo,  442 
Mateo  Mountain,  373 
Nicolas  Island,  385 
Pablo  Bay,  441 
Rafael  Mountain,  414 
Roque  River,  3 
Simeon,  442 
Santa  Ana  Mountains,  420 
Barbara,  442 
Bay,  384 
Isles,  385,  414 
Catalina  Islands,  386 
Clara,  442 

River,  399 
Fe,  433 


INDEX. 


5ua 


)r,  260 
9,37 

82 
11 

1,  441. 
384,  393 
ay,  290 
190 

•290 

ilountains,  368 
Aver,  390 
08,  114 
ny,  213,  314 
iUs,  213 
itine,  61,  193 

313 

River,  82,  107 
is  River,  225.  231 
ieve,  326,  328 
's  Mountain,  378 
River,  82,  97,  192 
;y,  291,  326 
,  207 

ence  Gulf,  69 
liver,  6 

City.  327 
'urt,  28li 
liver,  2U7 
'8  City,  196 
'a  River,  188 

314 

3  Fort,  344 
j  Miguelon,  124 
ma  Island,  191 
.  376 

iissachusetts),  116 
fou),  439 
,iver,  391 
1,  403,  401 
City,  430 
Desert,  404 
ston  Fort,  351 
nil,  360 

ardino  Mountain,  385,412 
j8  Mountain,  384 
lente  Island,  385 
;o,  443 
f,  271 

1  l8l«nilB,  68 
;ook,  93,  147 
icisco,  67,  441 
Bay,  15,  393,  410 
Volcano,  372 
le  Cristo  Mountains,  366 
nto  River,  345 
ier  del  Bac,  436 
luin  River,  393,  394 
i,  442 
a  Islands,  386 

de  Fuoa  Strait,  14 
sValley,  251,  365 

Obicpo,  442 
teo  Mountain,  373 
olas  Island,  385 
)lo  Bay,  441 
Fael  Mountain,  414 
jue  River,  3 
leon,  442 

Lua  Mountains,  420 
rbara,  442 

Bay,  384 

Isles,  385,  414 
balina  Islands,  386 
ira,  442 
River,  399 
Fe,  433 


Santa  Monica,  443 
8anti«  Indians,  322 

River,  89 
Sara^hoga  Lake,  138 
Saratoga,  138 

Springs,  138 
Saultou\, Indians,  37.  292 
Sault  Ste.  Mario,  264,  291 
Savannah, 191 

Indians,  39 

River,  89,  188 
Sa watch  Mountains,  368,  369 
Say brook,  134 

Scandinavians,  49,  63,  64,  440 
Schenectady,  138 
Schoharie  Mountain,  75 
S(!hiiylkill  River.  86 
Scioto  River,  226 
Scotch,  49 
Scott  Mountain,  379 
Scranton,  103 
Sea  Islands.  185 
Seattle.  4;s8 
Sedalia.  329 
Seine  River,  224 
Sflish  Indians,  423 
Selkirk  Mountains,  387 
Soniinolcs,  28,  41 
Seneca  Indians,  39,  337 

Lake,  209 
Sevier  Lake,  403.  408 
Shackamaxon,  159 
Shandaken  Mountain,  75 
Shasta  Indians,  43 

Mountain,  376,  379 
Sha-wmut,  118 
Shawnees,  37.  337 
Sheboygan,  290 
Shenandoah  River,  83,  88,  179 
Sherman,  426 
Shoal  water  Bay,  438 
Shoshone  Fall,  391 

Indians,  42,  43,  426 

Mountains,  353 
Shreveport,  239 
Sierra  Blanca,  366 

del  Sacramento,  432 

de  Sandia,  434 

Nevada,  380 
Silver  City,  425,  436 

Spring,  192,  197 
Simpson  Mountains.  403 
Sindbad's  Valley,  368,  369 
Sing- Sing,  141 
Sioux  City,  321 

Fall,  318 

Indians,  41,  267 
Siskiyou  Mountains,  379,  383 
Skagit  River,  377,  385 
Skaneateles  Lake,  209 
Skunk  River.  214 
Skves,  64,  65 
Slide  Mountain,  75 
Smoky  Hill  River.  3.S0 

Mountains,  71,  79,  300 
Snake  Indians,  34,  43 
Suttke  River,  210,  390 

Mountains,  353 
Snohomish,  438 

River,  438 
Snow  Mountains,  218,  359 
Soda  Lakes,  409,  412 
Soto  Camps,  236 
South  Amboy,  93,  152 

Bend,  2/8,  438 

Mountain,  76 


South  Norfolk,  1.35 

Park,  231,  363 

Pitss,  360,  301 

River,  85 
Sji    liards,  49,  50,  57 

Rang«,  366 
Spokane,  438 

River,  388 
Spottsylvania  Court-house,  176 
Sprague  River,  393 
Springfield  (Illinois),  286 

(Mas8Kchii8-tt«],  128 

(Missouri),  329 

(Ohio),  275 
Staked  Plains,  203,  316 
Stamford,  135 
Stampede  Pans,  438 
Starved  Rocks,  2s6 
Staten  Island,  143 
Stivunton,  180 
Stoilaooom,  438 
Steubenville,  273 
Stockbridge,  128 
Stone  Mountain,  190 
Stony  Man  Mountain,  78 
'Stratford,  136 
Suckeag,  i;i3 
Suisun  Bay,  441 
Sullivan  Island,  187 
Sulphur  Springs,  180 
Summit  City,  277 
Sunapee  Mountain,  72 
Sunk  Country,  230 
Superior  City,  296.  312 

Lake,  214,  296 
Susanville,  380 
Su><(iuehanna  River,  87 
Sutro,  437 
Siiwanee  River,  196 
Swedes,  64 

Sweetwater  River,  360 
Syracuse,  151 

Tacoma,  438 

Taconii;  Mountains,  69,  73 
Taeiisa  Indians,  44 
Tagahi,  68,  344 
Taghee  Pass,  390 
Tahachapi  Pass,  383 
Tahawus  Mountain,  73 
Tahlequah,  337 
Tahoe  Lake,  376,  409 
Tallahassee,  196 
Tallulah  Cascade,  89 
Tammany  Mountain,  384 
Tampa,  195 
Tangier  Sound,  170 
TaoB,  434 

TuppanSea,  85,  141 
Taylor  Mountain,  373 
Tear  of  the  Clouds  l^ake,  83 
T6che  B«you,  44,  239 
Tennessee  River,  226 

State,  59,  300 
Terre  Haute,  277 
Terrapin  Bend,  234 
Terrill  Mountain,  370 
Teton  Range,  303 

River,  219 
Texarcana,  347 
Texas,  66,  344 
Thames  River,  132 
Thompson's  Peak,  380 
Three  Forks,  218 

Sisters,  378 

Tetons  (National  Park),  364 


I    iTireo  Tetons  (Rio  Virgen),  376 
Tik'r  River,  172 
Ticonderoga  River,  83 
Tinueh  Indians,  42 
Tixhomingo,  338 
Titusville,  164,  465 
Toledo,  272 
Tombigbeo  River,  200 
Tom  Mountain.  72 
Touawanda,  loU 
Topeka,  332 
Tortugas  Islands,  99 
Travelling  Mountain,  393 
Traverse  Lake.  214 
Tray  Mountains,  79 
Treraont,  118,  142 
IVenton,  154 

Falls,  84,  152 
Trinidad  River,  250 
Trinity  River,  347 
Troy.  138 
Truokee  Pass.  381 

River,  409 
Tsallaki  Indians,  336 
Tu.  son.  400,  436 
Tulare  Lake,  394 
Turkey  Mountain,  367 
Tuscaloosa  Kiver,  210 
Tuscaroras,  38 
Two  Ocean  Pass,  220 
Tyudall  fountain,  382 

lichees,  41,  198 

Uintah  Mountains,  369.  396 

Umpqua  Mountain.  383 

River,  383,  393 
Unaka  Mountains.  79 
Uncompahgre  Mountains,  308 
Union  Peak,  220,  300 
Utah  Indians,  43 

Lake,  402 

State,  429 
Utes,  4o2 
Uiica,  162 

Vallatoa,  434 
Van  Buren,  334 
Vancouver,  438 

Island,  42,  377,  383 
Velasco,  349 
Vermilion  Bay,  245 
Vermont,  72,  113 
Vernon  Mountain,  174,  438 
Vevay,  276 
Vicksburg,  308 
Vincennes,  277 
Vineland,  5 
Vineyard  Haven,  126 
Vinland,  6,  92 
Virgcn,  Rio,  376,  398 
Virginia  City,  423 

(Nevada),  436 
Virginia  State,  69,  176 
Virginians,  31,  52,  64 

Wabash  River,  56,  200,  226 
Wachusetts  Alouutain,  72 
Waco,  349 
Wahpeton,  316 
Wakulla  Springs,  196 
Walla-walla,  438 
Waltham,  122 
Wapsipinioon  River,  214 
Warm  Springs  River,  180 
Warren,  425 
Warrington,  196 


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504 

Warsaw,  150,  105 
Wasatch  Mountains,  309 
WiiBliburne  Mountain,  351 
Washington  City,  171 
District,  171 
(Idaho),  425 
Mountain,  71,  72 
(Pennsylvania),  1(J8 
State.  437 
Washita  HilU,  333 

River,  239 
Washoe,  463 
Watorbury,  135 
Waterford,  138 
Watertown,  122 
Watervllet,  140 
Watkins  Glen,  152 
Wober  River,  370,  405 
WeUh,  49 
West  Point.  141 

Virginia,  69,  208 
What  Cheer  Rook,  133 
Whrttcom,  438 
Wheeling,  273 
Wliidbey  Island,  386 
Whipple  Fort,  436 
White  Mountains,  69,  71 
Mud  River,  220,  232 
River,  222 


INDEX. 


Whitney  Mount,  353,  382 
Wichita,  332 

Mountains,  202 
Wiehawkcn,  143 
Wihinasht  Indians,  43 
Wilderness,  176 
Wilkeabarre,  87,  163 
Willamette  River,  393,  439 
Williamsiwrt,  163 
Wilmington  (California),  443 
(Delaware),  171 
(Nortli  Carolina),  184 
Wind  River  Mountains,  220,  353 
Windsor,  289 
Winnebago  Indians,  41,  295 

Lake,  293,  296 
Winnemuca  Lake,  409 
Winnibigoshish  Lake,  213 
Winnipeg  Lake,  22,  207 
Winona,  315 
Winooski  River,  114 
Wisconsin  River,  214,  224 

State,  292 
Wolf  River,  304 
Woonsockett  Falls,  129 
Worcester,  127 
Wyandott  Cave,  277 
Indians,  37,  337 
Wyllapa  River,  438 


292 


Wyoming  Mountain,  370 
(Pennsylvania),  87,  163 
State,  425 

Yakima  River,  391 
Yale  Mountain,  308 

University,  130,  135 
Yankees,  58,  132 
Yankton,  317,  318 
Yaqui  Indians,  44 
Yazoo  River,  22,  233 
Yellowstone  Lake,  220,  3o5 
Park,  10,  217,  353 
River,  220,  353,  355 
Yonkers,  141 
York,  164 
Yorkmouth,  182 
Yorktown.  179 
Yosemite  Valley.  380,  381 
Youghiogheny  River,  168,  226 
Youngstown,  273 
Yuba  River,  394 
Yucatan,  24,  97 
Yuma  City.  436 
Fort,  440 
Indians,  436 

Zaneiville,  273 

Zuni  Indians,  45,  373,  434 


ml 


END  OF  VOL.  ni. 


>C 


'^m  r 


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ing  Mountain,  370 
'ennsylvania),  87,  163 
ate,  4'iJ 

a  River,  301 
lountain,  3(58 
nivcrsity,  130,  135 
los,  58,  132 
on,  317,  318 
Indians,  44 
I  Kiver,  22,  233 
VKtone  Lake,  220,  356 
■ark,  10,  217,  353 
liver,  220,  353,  355 

BTS,  141 

.  164 

nouth,  182 

town.  179 

nite  Valley.  380,  381 

:hiogheny  River,  168,  226 

igstown,  273 

River,  394 

tan,  24.  97 

I  City.  436 

i'ort,  440 

iidiuna,  436 


iBville,  273 
Indians,  46,  373,  434 


'I 


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